Duan, L. and Chen, W.F.

Effective Length Factors of Compression Members

Structural Engineering Handbook
Ed. Chen Wai-Fah
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
Effecti ve Length Factors of
Compressi on Members
Li an Duan
Division of Structures,
California Department of
Transportation,
Sacramento, CA
W.F. Chen
School of Civil Engineering,
PurdueUniversity,
West Lafayette, I N
17.1 Introduction
17.2 BasicConcept
17.3 Isolated Columns
17.4 Framed ColumnsAlignment Chart Method
Alignment Chart Method

Requirementsfor Braced Frames

Simplied Equationsto Alignment Charts

17.5 Modicationsto Alignment Charts
Different Restraining Girder End Conditions

Different Re-
straining Column End Conditions

Column Restrained by
Tapered Rectangular Girders

Unsymmetrical Frames

Ef-
fectsof Axial ForcesinRestrainingMembersinBracedFrames

Consideration of Partial Column Base Fixity

Inelastic K-
factor
17.6 Framed ColumnsAlternativeMethods
LeMessurier Method

Lui Method

Remarks
17.7 Unbraced FramesWith LeaningColumns
Rigid Columns

LeaningColumns

Remarks
17.8 CrossBracingSystems
17.9 Latticed and Built-Up Members
Laced Columns

Columns with Battens

Laced-Battened
Columns

Columnswith Perforated Cover Plates

Built-Up
Memberswith Bolted and Welded Connectors
17.10Tapered Columns
17.11CraneColumns
17.12Columnsin GableFrames
17.13Summary
17.14DeningTerms
References
Further Reading.
17.1 Introduction
Theconcept of theeffectivelength factorsof columnshasbeen well established and widely used by
practicingengineersandplaysanimportant roleincompressionmember design. Themost structural
designcodesandspecicationshaveprovisionsconcerningtheeffectivelengthfactor. Theaimof this
chapter istopresent astate-of-the-art engineeringpracticeof theeffectivelengthfactor for thedesign
of columns in structures. In therst part of thischapter, thebasic concept of theeffectivelength
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factor is discussed. And then, the design implementation for isolated columns, framed columns,
crossing bracing systems, latticed members, tapered columns, cranecolumns, as well as columns
in gableframes is presented. Thedetermination of whether a frameis braced or unbraced is also
addressed. Several detailed examples are given to illustrate the determination of effective length
factorsfor different casesof engineeringapplications.
17.2 Basic Concept
Mathematically, theeffectivelength factor or theelasticK-factor isdened as:
K =
_
P
e
P
cr
=
_

2
EI
L
2
P
cr
(17.1)
whereP
e
istheEuler load, theelasticbucklingloadof apin-endedcolumn; P
cr
istheelasticbuckling
load of an end-restrained framed column; E isthemodulusof elasticity; I isthemoment of inertia
in theexural bucklingplane; and L istheunsupported length of column.
Physically, the K-factor is a factor that when multiplied by actual length of the end-restrained
column (Figure 17.1a) gives the length of an equivalent pin-ended column (Figure 17.1b) whose
bucklingload isthesameasthat of theend-restrained column. It followsthat effectivelength, KL,
FIGURE17.1: Isolated columns.
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of an end-restrained column is the length between adjacent inection points of its pure exural
bucklingshape.
Specications provide the resistance equations for pin-ended columns, while the resistance of
framedcolumnscanbeestimatedthroughtheK-factor tothepin-endedcolumnsstrengthequation.
Theoretical K-factor isdeterminedfroman elasticeigenvalueanalysisof theentirestructural system,
while practical methods for the K-factor are based on an elastic eigenvalue analysis of selected
subassemblages. The effective length concept is the only tool currently available for the design of
compression membersin engineeringstructures, and it isan essential part of analysisprocedures.
17.3 IsolatedColumns
From an eigenvalueanalysis, thegeneral K-factor equation of an end-restrained column asshown
in Figure17.1isobtained as:
det

C +
R
kA
L
EI
S (C +S)
S C +
R
kB
L
EI
(C +S)
(C +S) (C +S) 2(C +S)
_

K
_
2
+
T
k
L
3
EI

= 0 (17.2)
wherethestability functionsC and S aredened as:
C =
(/K) sin (/K) (/K)
2
cos (/K)
2 2 cos (/K) (/K) sin (/K)
(17.3)
S =
(/K)
2
(/K) sin (/K)
2 2 cos (/K) (/K) sin (/K)
(17.4)
Thelargest valueof K that satisesEquation 17.2givestheelasticbucklingload of an end-restrained
column.
Figure17.2 [ 1, 3, 4] summarizesthetheoretical K-factorsfor columnswith someidealized end
conditions. The recommended K-factors are also shown in Figure 17.2 for practical design ap-
plications. Sinceactual column conditionsseldom comply fully with idealized conditionsused in
buckling analysis, therecommended K-factorsarealwaysequal to or greater than their theoretical
counterparts.
17.4 FramedColumnsAlignment Chart Method
Intheory, theeffectivelength factor K for anycolumninaframedstructurecanbedeterminedfroma
stabilityanalysisof theentirestructural analysiseigenvalueanalysis. Methodsavailablefor stability
analysisincludetheslope-deection method [17, 35, 71] , three-moment equation method [ 13] , and
energy methods [ 42] . In practice, however, such analysis is not practical, and simple models are
often used to determinetheeffectivelength factorsfor framed columns[ 38, 47, 55, 72] . Onesuch
practical procedurethat providesan approximatevalueof theelasticK-factor isthealignment chart
method[ 46] . Thisprocedurehasbeen adoptedbytheAISC[ 3, 4] , ACI 318-95[ 2] , andAASHTO[ 1]
specications, amongothers. At present, most engineersusethealignment chart method in lieu of
an actual stability analysis.
17.4.1 Alignment Chart Method
Thestructural modelsemployedfor determination of K-factor for framedcolumnsin thealignment
chart method areshown in Figure17.3. Theassumptionsused in thesemodelsare[ 4, 17] :
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FIGURE 17.2: Theoretical and recommended K-factors for isolated columns with idealized end
conditions.
1. All membershaveconstant cross-section and behaveelastically.
2. Axial forcesin thegirdersarenegligible.
3. All jointsarerigid.
4. For braced frames, the rotations at the near and far ends of the girders are equal in
magnitudeand oppositein direction (i.e., girdersarebent in singlecurvature).
5. For unbraced frames, the rotations at the near and far ends of the girders are equal in
magnitudeand direction (i.e., girdersarebent in doublecurvature).
6. Thestiffnessparameters, L

P/EI, of all columnsareequal.

7. All columnsbucklesimultaneously.
Using the slope-deection equation method and stability functions, the effective length factor
equationsof framed columnsareobtained asfollows.
For columnsin braced frames:
G
A
G
B
4
(/K)
2
+
_
G
A
+G
B
2
__
1
/K
tan(/K)
_
+
2 tan(/2K)
/K
1 = 0 (17.5)
For columnsin unbraced frames:
G
A
G
B
(/K)
2
36
2
6 (G
A
+G
B
)

/K
tan (/K)
= 0 (17.6)
where G
A
and G
B
are stiffness ratios of columns and girders at two end joints, A and B, of the
column section beingconsidered, respectively. They aredened by:
G
A
=

A
(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

A
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ (17.7)
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FIGURE17.3: Subassemblagemodelsfor K-factorsof framed columns.
G
B
=

B
(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

B
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ (17.8)
where

indicatesasummation of all membersrigidly connected to thejoint and lyingin theplane

in which bucklingof column isbeingconsidered; subscriptsc and g represent columnsand girders,
respectively.
Equations17.5and17.6can beexpressedin theformof alignment charts, asshown in Figure17.4.
It is noted that for columns in braced frames, the range of K is 0.5 K 1.0; for columns
in unbraced frames, the range is 1.0 K . For column ends supported by but not rigidly
connected to afootingor foundations, G istheoretically innity, but, unlessactually designed asa
truefriction freepin, may betaken as10for practical design. If thecolumn end isrigidly attached to
aproperly designed footing, G may betaken as1.0[ 4] .
EXAMPLE17.1:
Given: A two-story steel frameisshown in Figure17.5. Usingthealignment chart, determinethe
K-factor for theelasticcolumn DE. E =29,000ksi (200GPa) and Fy =36ksi (248MPa).
Solution
1. For thegiven frame, section propertiesare
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FIGURE17.4: Alignment chartsfor effectivelength factorsof framed columns.
I
x
in.
4
L in. I
x
/L in.
3
Members Section (mm
4
10
8
) (mm) (mm
3
)
ABand GH W 10x22 118(0.49) 180(4,572) 0.656(10,750)
BCand HI W10x22 118(0.49) 144(3,658) 0.819(13,412)
DE W10x45 248(1.03) 180(4,572) 1.378(22,581)
EF W10x45 248(1.03) 144(3,658) 1.722(28,219)
BE W18x50 800(3.33) 300(7,620) 2.667(43,704)
EH W18x86 1530(6.37) 360(9,144) 4.250(69,645)
CF W16x40 518(2.16) 300(7,620) 1.727(28,300)
FI W16x67 954(3.97) 360(9,144) 2.650(43,426)
2. CalculateG-factor for column DE:
G
E
=

E
(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

E
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ =
1.378 +1.722
2.667 +4.250
= 0.448
G
D
= 10 (AISC-LRFD, 1993)
3. Fromthealignment chart in Figure17.4b, K =1.8isobtained.
17.4.2 Requirementsfor BracedFrames
In stabilitydesign, oneof themajor decisionsengineershavetomakeisthedetermination of whether
a frame is braced or unbraced. The AISC-LRFD [ 4] states that a frame is braced when lateral
stability is provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls or equivalent means. However, there is no
specic provision for theamount of stiffnessrequired to prevent sidesway buckling in theAISC,
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FIGURE17.5: An unbraced two-story frame.
AASHTO, andother specications. Inactual structures, acompletelybracedframeseldomexists. But
in practice, somestructurescan beanalyzed asbraced framesaslongasthelateral stiffnessprovided
by thebracing system islargeenough. Thefollowing brief discussion may provideengineerswith
thetoolsto makeengineeringdecisionsregardingthebasicrequirementsfor abraced frame.
1. Lateral StiffnessRequirement
Galambos[ 34] presented asimpleconservativeprocedureto evaluateminimum lateral
stiffnessprovided by abracingsystemso that theframeisconsidered braced.
Required lateral stiffness, T
k
=

P
n
L
c
(17.9)
where

representsthesummation of all columnsin onestory, P

n
isthenominal axial
compression strength of acolumn usingtheeffectivelength factor K = 1, and L
c
isthe
unsupported length of acolumn.
2. BracingSizeRequirement
Galambos[ 34] applied Equation 17.9 to adiagonal bracing (Figure17.6) and obtained
minimumrequirementsof diagonal bracingfor abraced frameas
A
b
=
_
1 +(L
b
/L
c
)
2
_
3/2

P
n
(L
b
/L
c
)
2
E
(17.10)
whereA
b
isthecross-sectional areaof diagonal bracingand L
b
isthespan length of the
beam.
A recent study by Aristizabal-Ochoa [ 8] indicates that the size of the diagonal bracing
required for atotally braced frameisabout 4.9and 5.1%of thecolumn cross-section for
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FIGURE17.6: Diagonal crossbracingsystem.
arigidframe andsimpleframing, respectively, andincreaseswiththemoment inertia
of thecolumn, thebeamspan, and thebeam-to-column span ratio, L
b
/L
c
.
17.4.3 SimpliedEquationstoAlignment Charts
1. ACI 318-95Equations
TheACI BuildingCode[ 2] recommendstheuseof alignment chartsastheprimarydesign
aid for estimating K-factors, following two setsof simplied K-factor equationsasan
alternative:
For braced frames[ 19] :
K = 0.7 +0.05 (G
A
+G
B
) 1.0 (17.11)
K = 0.85 +0.05G
min
1.0 (17.12)
Thesmaller of theabovetwoexpressionsprovidesan upper bound totheeffectivelength
factor for braced compression members.
For unbraced frames[ 32] :
For G
m
< 2
K =
20 G
m
20
_
1 +G
m
(17.13)
For G
m
2
K = 0.9
_
1 +G
m
(17.14)
For columnshinged at oneend
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K = 2.0 +0.3G (17.15)
whereG
m
istheaverageof G valuesat thetwo endsof thecolumns.
2. Duan-King-Chen Equations
A graphical alignment chart determination of the K-factor is easy to perform, while
solvingthechart Equations17.5and17.6alwaysinvolvesiteration. AlthoughtheACI code
provides simplied K-factor equations, generally, they may not lead to an economical
design [ 40] . To achieveboth accuracy and simplicity for design purposes, thefollowing
alternativeK-factor equationswereproposed by Duan, Kingand Chen [48] .
For braced frames:
K = 1
1
5 +9G
A

1
5 +9G
B

1
10 +G
A
G
B
(17.16)
For unbraced frames:
For K < 2
K = 4
1
1 +0.2G
A

1
1 +0.2G
B

1
1 +0.01G
A
G
B
(17.17)
For K 2
K =
2a
0.9 +

0.81 +4ab
(17.18)
where
a =
G
A
G
B
G
A
+G
B
+3 (17.19)
b =
36
G
A
+G
B
+6 (17.20)
3. French Equations
For braced frames:
K =
3G
A
G
B
+1.4 (G
A
+G
B
) +0.64
3G
A
G
B
+2.0 (G
A
+G
B
) +1.28
(17.21)
For unbraced frames:
K =
_
1.6G
A
G
B
+4.0 (G
A
+G
B
) +7.5
G
A
+G
B
+7.5
(17.22)
Equations17.21 and 17.22 rst appeared in theFrenchDesignRulesfor Steel Structure[ 31] since
1966, and were later incorporated into the European Recommendation for Steel Construction [ 28] .
They provideagood approximation to thealignment charts[ 26] .
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17.5 ModicationstoAlignment Charts
In usingthealignment chartsin Figure17.4and Equations17.5and 17.6, engineersmust alwaysbe
awareof theassumptionsusedinthedevelopment of thesecharts. Whenactual structural conditions
differ fromtheseassumptions, unrealisticdesignmayresult [4, 43, 53] . TheSSRC(Structural Stability
Research Council) guide[ 43] providesmethodsthat enableengineersto makesimplemodications
of thechartsfor somespecial conditions, such asunsymmetrical frames, column baseconditions,
girder far end conditions, and exible conditions. A procedure that can be used to account for
far ends of restraining columns being hinged or xed was proposed by Duan and Chen [21, 22] .
Considerationof effectsof material inelasticityontheK-factor wasdevelopedoriginallybyYura[ 73]
and expanded by Disque[ 20] . LeMessurier [ 52] presented an overviewof unbraced frameswith or
without leaningcolumns. An approximateprocedureisalso suggested by AISC-LRFD [4] . Special
attention should also bepaid to calculation of theproper Gvalues[ 10, 49] when partially restrained
(PR) connectionsareused in frames. Several commonly used modicationsaresummarized in this
section.
17.5.1 Different RestrainingGirder EndConditions
When theendconditionsof restraininggirdersarenot rigidlyjointedtocolumns, thegirder stiffness
(I
g
/L
g
) used in thecalculation of G
A
and G
B
in Equations17.7and 17.8should bemultiplied by a
modication factor,
k
, as:
G =

(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

k
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ (17.23)
wherethemodicationfactor,
k
, for bracedframesdevelopedbyDuanandLu[ 25] andfor unbraced
framesproposed byKishi, Chen, and Goto[ 49] aregiven in Table17.1and 17.2. In thesetables, R
kN
andR
kF
areelasticspringconstantsat thenear andfar endsof arestraininggirder, respectively. R
kN
and R
kF
arethetangent stiffnessof asemi-rigid connection at buckling.
TABLE17.1 Modication Factor
k
for Braced Frameswith
Semi-Rigid Connections
End conditionsof restraininggirder
Near end Far end
k
Rigid Rigid 1.0
Rigid Hinged 1.5
Rigid Semi-rigid
_
1 +
6EgIg
LgR
kF
_
/
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kF
_
Rigid Fixed 2.0
Semi-rigid Rigid 1/
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Semi-rigid Hinged 1.5/
_
1 +
3EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Semi-rigid Semi-rigid
_
1 +
6EgIg
LgR
kF
_
/R

Semi-rigid Fixed 2/
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Note: R

=
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_ _
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kF
_

_
EgIg
Lg
_
2
4
R
kN
R
kF
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TABLE17.2 Modication Factor,
k
, for Unbraced Frames
with Semi-Rigid Connections
End conditionsof restraininggirder
Near end Far end
k
Rigid Rigid 1
Rigid Hinged 0.5
Rigid Semi-rigid
_
1 +
2EgIg
LgR
kF
_
/
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kF
_
Rigid Fixed 2/3
Semi-rigid Rigid 1/
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Semi-rigid Hinged 0.5/
_
1 +
3EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Semi-rigid Semi-rigid
_
1 +
2EgIg
LgR
kF
_
/R

Semi-rigid Fixed (2/3)/

_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_
Note:R

=
_
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kN
_ _
1 +
4EgIg
LgR
kF
_

_
EgIg
Lg
_
2
4
R
kN
R
kF
EXAMPLE17.2:
Given: A steel frame is shown in Figure 17.5. Using the alignment chart with the necessary
modications, determinetheK-factor for elasticcolumn EF. E =29,000ksi (200GPa) and F
y
=
36ksi (248MPa).
Solution
1. CalculateG-factor with modication for column EF.
Sincethefar end of restraininggirdersarehinged, girder stiffnessshould bemulti-
plied by 0.5(seeTable17.2). Usingsection propertiesin Example17.1, weobtain:
G
F
=

(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

k
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ =
1.722
0.5(1.727) +0.5(2.650)
= 0.787
GE = 0.448
2. Fromthealignment chart in Figure17.4b, K =1.22isobtained.
17.5.2 Different RestrainingColumnEndConditions
To consider different far end conditionsof restraining columns, thegeneral effectivelength factor
equationsfor column C2 (Figure17.3) werederived by Duan and Chen [ 21, 22, 23] . By assuming
that thefar endsof columnsC1 andC3 arehingedandusingtheslope-deection equation approach
for thesubassembliesshown in Figure17.3, weobtain thefollowing.
1. For aBraced Frame[ 21] :
C
2
S
2
_
G
AC1
+G
BC3
+G
AC2
G
BC2
+
2G
BC3
G
A
+
2G
AC1
G
B
C
G
AC1
G
BC3
_
S
C
_
2
_
+2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.24)
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where C and S are stability functions as dened by Equations 17.3 and 17.4; G
A
and
G
B
aredened in Equations17.7and 17.8; G
AC1
, G
AC2
, G
BC2
, and G
BC3
arestiffness
ratiosof columnsat A-th and B-th endsof thecolumnsbeingconsidered, respectively.
They aredened as:
G
Ci
=
E
ci
I
ci
/L
ci

(E
ci
I
ci
/L
ci
)
(17.25)
where

indicatesasummation of all columnsrigidly connected to thejoint and lying

in theplanein which bucklingof thecolumn isbeingconsidered.
Although Equation 17.24 wasderived for thespecial casein which thefar endsof both
columnsC1 and C3 arehinged, thisequation isalso applicableif adjustment to G
Ci
is
madeasfollows: (1) if thefar end of column Ci(C1 or C3) isxed, then takeG
Ci
= 0
(except for G
C2
); (2) if the far end of the column Ci(C1 or C3) is rigidly connected,
then takeG
Ci
= 0 and G
C2
= 1.0. Therefore, Equation 17.24can bespecialized for the
followingconditions:
(a) If thefar endsof both columnsC1 and C3 arexed, wehaveG
AC1
= G
BC3
= 0
and Equation 17.24reducesto
C
2
S
2
(G
AC2
G
BC2
) +2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.26)
(b) If thefar end of column C1 isrigidly connected and thefar end of column C3 is
xed, wehaveG
AC2
= 1.0 and G
AC1
= G
BC3
= 0, and Equation 17.24 reduces
to
C
2
S
2
+G
BC2
+2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.27)
(c) If thefar end of column C1 isrigidly connected and thefar end of column C3 is
hinged, wehaveG
AC1
= 0 and G
AC2
= 1.0, and Equation 17.24reducesto
C
2
S
2
_
G
BC3
+G
BC2
+
2G
BC3
G
A
C
_
+2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.28)
(d) If thefar endof column C1 ishingedandthefar endof column C3 isxed, wehave
G
BC3
= 0 and Equation 17.24reducesto
C
2
S
2
_
G
AC1
+G
AC2
G
BC2
+
2G
AC1
G
B
C
_
+2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.29)
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(e) If thefar endsof both columnsC1 and C3 arerigidly connected (i.e., assumptions
used in developing thealignment chart), wehaveG
C2
= 1.0 and G
Ci
= 0, and
Equation 17.24reducesto
C
2
S
2
+2C
_
1
G
A
+
1
G
B
_
+
4
G
A
G
B
= 0 (17.30)
which can berewritten in theformof Equation 17.5.
2. For an Unbraced Frame[ 22, 23] :
det

a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33

= 0 (17.31)
or
a
11
a
22
a
33
+a
21
a
32
a
13
+a
31
a
23
a
12
a
31
a
22
a
13
a
21
a
12
a
33
+a
11
a
23
a
32
= 0 (17.32)
where
a
11
= C +
6
G
A
G
AC1
S
2
C
(17.33)
a
22
= C +
6
G
B
G
BC3
S
2
C
(17.34)
a
33
= 2
_
C +S
1
2
_

K
_
2
_
(17.35)
a
12
= G
AC2
S (17.36)
a
21
= G
BC2
S (17.37)
a
31
= a
32
= C +S (17.38)
a
13
= (C +S) +G
AC1
_
S +
S
2
C
_
(17.39)
a
23
= (C +S) +G
BC3
_
S +
S
2
C
_
(17.40)
Although Equation 17.31 wasderived for thespecial casein which thefar endsof both
columns C1 and C3 are hinged, it can be adjusted to account for the following cases:
(1) if thefar end of column Ci(C1 or C3) isxed, then takeG
Ci
= 0 (except for G
C2
);
(2) if thefar end of column Ci(C1 or C3) isrigidly connected, then takeG
Ci
= 0 and
G
C2
= 1.0. Therefore, Equation 17.31can beused for thefollowingconditions:
(a) If thefar endsof both columnsC1 and C3 arexed, wetakeG
C1
= G
C3
= 0, and
obtain fromEquations17.33, 17.34, 17.39, and 17.40,
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
a
11
= C +
6
G
A
(17.41)
a
22
= C +
6
G
B
(17.42)
a
13
= a
23
= (C +S) (17.43)
(b) If thefar endof columnC1isrigidlyconnectedandthefar endof columnC3isxed,
wetakeG
AC2
= 1.0 and G
AC1
= G
BC3
= 0, and obtain from Equations17.33,
17.34, 17.36, 17.39, and 17.40,
a
11
= C +
6
G
A
(17.44)
a
22
= C +
6
G
B
(17.45)
a
12
= S (17.46)
a
13
= a
23
= (C +S) (17.47)
(c) If thefar end of column C1 isrigidly connected and thefar end of column C3 is
hinged, we take G
AC1
= 0 and G
AC2
= 1.0, and obtain from Equations 17.33,
17.36, and 17.39,
a
11
= C +
6
G
A
(17.48)
a
12
= S (17.49)
a
13
= (C +S) (17.50)
(d) If thefar endof column C1 ishingedandthefar endof column C3 isxed, wehave
G
BC3
= 0.0, and obtain fromEquations17.34and 17.40,
a
22
= C +
6
G
B
(17.51)
a
23
= (C +S) (17.52)
(e) If thefar endsof both columnsC1 and C3 arerigidly connected (i.e., assumptions
used in developing thealignment chart, that is
C
=
B
and
D
=
A
), wetake
G
C2
= 1.0 and G
Ci
= 0, and obtain fromEquations17.33to 17.40,
a
11
= C +
6
G
A
(17.53)
a
22
= C +
6
G
B
(17.54)
a
12
= a
21
= S (17.55)
a
13
= a
23
= (C +S) (17.56)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
Equation 17.31isreduced to theformof Equation 17.6.
The procedures to obtain the K-factor directly from the alignment charts without resorting to
solveEquations17.24and 17.31werealso proposed by Duan and Chen [ 21, 22] .
17.5.3 ColumnRestrainedbyTaperedRectangular Girders
A modication factor,
T
, was developed by King et al. [ 48] for thoseframed columnsrestrained
by tapered rectangular girderswith different far end conditions. Thefollowingmodied G-factor is
introduced in connection with theuseof alignment charts:
G =

(E
c
I
c
/L
c
)

T
_
E
g
I
g
/L
g
_ (17.57)
where I
g
is the moment of inertia of the girder at near end. Both closed-form and approximate
solutions for modication factor
T
were derived. It is found that the following two-parameter
power function can describetheclosed-formsolutionsvery well:

T
= D(1 r)

(17.58)
in which theparameter D isaconstant dependingon thefar end conditions, and isafunction of
thefar end conditionsand taperingfactor, and r, asdened in Figure17.7.
FIGURE17.7: Taperedrectangular girders. (FromKing, W.S., Duan, L., et al., Eng. Struct.,15(5), 369,
1993. With kind permission from Elsevier Science, Ltd, TheBoulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington
OX5IGB, UK.)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
For abraced frame:
D =
_
_
_
1.0 rigid far end
2.0 xed far end
1.5 hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.59)
For an unbraced frame:
D =
_
_
_
1.0 rigid far end
2/3 xed far end
0.5 hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.60)
1. For alinearly tapered rectangular girder (Figure17.7a)
For abraced frame:
=
_
_
_
0.02 +0.4r rigid far end
0.75 0.1r xed far end
0.75 0.1r hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.61)
For an unbraced frame:
=
_
_
_
0.95 rigid far end
0.70 xed far end
0.70 hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.62)
2. For asymmetrically tapered rectangular girder (Figure17.7b)
For abraced frame:
=
_
_
_
3 1.7a
2
2a rigid far end
3 +2.5a
2
5.55a xed far end
3 a
2
2.7a hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.63)
For an unbraced frame:
=
_
_
_
3 +3.8a
2
6.5a rigid far end
3 +2.3a
2
5.45a xed far end
3 0.3a hinged far end
_
_
_
(17.64)
EXAMPLE17.3:
Given: Aone-storyframewith asymmetricallytapered rectangular girder isshown in Figure17.8.
Assumingr = 0.5, a = 0.2, and I
g
= 2I
c
= 2I, determineK-factor for column AB.
Solution
1. Usingthealignment chart with modication
For joint A, sincethefar end of thegirder isrigid, useEquations17.64and 17.58,
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.8: A simpleframewith rectangular sections. (From King, W.S., Duan, L., et al., Eng.
Struct., 15(5), 369, 1993. With kind permission fromElsevier Science, Ltd, TheBoulevard, Langford
Lane, Kidlington OX5IGB, UK.)
= 3 +3.8 (0.2)
2
6.5 (0.2) = 1.852

T
= (1 0.5)
1.852
= 0.277
G
A
=

E
c
I
c
/L
c

T
E
g
I
g
/L
g
=
EI/L
0.277E(2I)/2L
= 3.61
G
B
= 1.0
(AISC LRFD 1993)
Fromthealignment chart in Figure17.4b, K = 1.59 isobtained.
2. Usingthealignment chart without modication
A direct useof Equations17.7and 17.8with an averagesection (0.75h) resultsin:
I
g
= 0.75
3
(2I) = 0.844I
G
A
=
EI/L
0.844EI/2L
= 2.37 G
B
= 1.0
Fromthealignment chart inFigure17.4bK = 1.49, or (1.491.59)/1.59 = 6 %
in error on thelessconservativeside.
17.5.4 Unsymmetrical Frames
When the column sizes or column loads are not identical, adjustments to the alignment charts
are necessary to obtain a correct K-factor. SSRC Guide [ 43] presents a set of curves as shown in
Figure17.9for amodication factor, , originally developed by Chu and Chow[ 18] .
K
adjusted
= K
alignment chart
(17.65)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.9: Chart for themodication factor in an unsymmetrical frame.
If theK-factor of thecolumn under theloadP isdesired, further modicationstoK arenecessary.
DenotingK

astheeffectivelength factor of thecolumn with I

c
= I
c
subjected to theaxial load,
P

= P, asshown in Figure17.9, then wehave:

K

= K
adjusted
L
L

(17.66)
Equation 17.66 can be used to determineK-factorsfor columns in adjacent stories with different
heights, L

.
17.5.5 Effectsof Axial ForcesinRestrainingMembersinBracedFrames
Bridgeand Fraser [ 14] observed that K-factorsof acolumn in abraced framemay begreater than
unityduetonegative restrainingeffects. Figure17.10showsthesolutionsobtained byconsidering
both thepositive andnegative valuesof G-factors. Theshadedportion of thegraph corresponds
to thealignment chart shown in Figure17.4awhen both G
A
and G
B
arepositive.
Toaccount for theeffect of axial forcesintherestrainingmembers, BridgeandFraser [14] proposed
amoregeneral expression for G-factor:
G =
(I/L)

n
(I/L)
n

n
m
n
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.10: Effectivelength chart consideringboth positiveand negativeeffectsin braced frame.
(FromBridge, R.Q. and Fraser, D.J., ASCE, J. Struct. Eng., 113(6), 1341, 1987. With permission.)
=
stiffnessof member i under investigation
stiffnessof all rigidly connected members
(17.67)
where is a function of the stability functions S and C (Equations 17.3 and 17.4); m is a factor
to account for the end conditions of the restraining member (see Figure 17.11); and subscript n
representstheother membersrigidly connected to member i. Thesummation in thedenominator
isfor all membersmeetingat thejoint.
Using Figures 17.10 and 17.11 and Equation 17.67, the effective length factor K
i
for the i-th
member can bedetermined by thefollowingsteps:
1. Sketch thebuckled shapeof thestructureunder consideration.
2. Assumeavalueof K
i
for themember beinginvestigated.
3. Calculatevaluesof K
n
for each of theother membersthat arerigidly connected to the
i-th member usingtheequation
K
n
= K
i
L
i
L
n
_
_
P
i
P
n
__
I
n
I
i
_
(17.68)
4. Calculate and obtain m fromFigure17.11for each member.
5. CalculateG
i
for thei-th member usingEquation 17.67.
6. Obtain K
i
fromFigure17.10and comparewith theassumed K
i
at Step 2.
7. Repeat theprocedureby usingthecalculated K
i
astheassumed K
i
until K
i
calculated at
theendthecycleisapproximately(say10%) equal totheK
i
at thebeginningof thecycle.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.11: Valuesof andmtoaccount for theeffect of axial forcesin therestrainingmembers.
8. Repeat steps2to 7for other membersof theframe.
9. Thelargest set of K valuesobtained isthen used for design.
Theaboveprocedurehasbeen illustrated [ 14] and veried [ 50] to provideagood elasticK-factor
of columnsin braced frames.
EXAMPLE17.4:
Given: A braced column is shown in Figure 17.12. Consider axial force effects to determine
K-factorsfor columnsAB and BC.
Solutions
1. Sketch thebuckled shapeasshown in Figure17.12b
2. AssumeK
AB
= 0.94.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.12: Braced columns.
3. CalculateK
BC
by Equation 17.68.
K
BC
= K
AB
L
AB
L
BC
+
_
_
P
AB
P
BC
__
I
BC
I
AB
_
= 0.94
L
L
_
2PI
P(1.2I)
= 1.22
4. Calculate and obtain m fromFigure17.11for member BC.
SinceK
BC
> 1.0

BC
= 1
1
K
2
BC
= 1
1
1.22
2
= 0.33
Far end ispinned, m
BC
= 1.5
5. CalculateG-factor for themember AB usingEquation 17.67.
G
B
=
(I/L)

n
(I/L)
n

n
m
n
=
(1.2I/L)
(I/L)(0.33)(1.5)
= 2.42
G
A
=
6. FromFigure17.10, K
AB
= 0.93.
Comparingwith theassumed K
AB
= 0.94 O.K.
7. Repeat theaboveprocedurefor member BC.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
AssumeK
BC
= 1.2
CalculateK
AB
by Equation 17.68
K
AB
= K
BC
L
BC
L
AB
_
_
P
BC
P
AB
__
I
AB
I
BC
_
= 1.2
L
L
_
P(1.2I)
2PI
= 0.93
Calculate and obtain m fromFigure17.11for member AB
SinceK
AB
< 1.0

AB
= 2
2
K
2
AB
= 2
2
0.93
2
= 0.312
Far end ispinned, m
AB
= 1.5
CalculateG-factor for themember BC usingEquation 17.67.
G
B
=
(I/L)

n
(I/L)
n

n
m
n
=
(I/L)
(1.2I/L)(0.312)(1.5)
= 1.78
G
A
=
Read Figure17.10, K
BC
= 1.18
Comparingwith theassumed K
AB
= 1.20 O.K.
8. It isseen that thelargest set of K-factorsis
K
AB
= 1.22 and K
BC
= 0.93
17.5.6 Considerationof Partial ColumnBaseFixity
In computing the effective length factor for monolithic connections, it is important to properly
evaluatethedegreeof xityin foundation. Thefollowingtwoapproachescan beused toaccount for
foundation xity.
1. FictitiousRestrainingBeamApproach
Galambos[ 33] proposedthat theeffect of partial basexitycanbemodelledasactitious
beam. Theapproximateexpression for thestiffnessof thectitiousbeamaccountingfor
rotation of foundation in thesoil hastheform:
I
s
L
B
=
qBH
3
72E
steel
(17.69)
whereq isthemodulusof subgradereaction (variesfrom50to400lb/in.
3
, 0.014to0.109
N/mm
3
); B and H arethewidth and length (in bendingplane) of thefoundation; and
E
steel
isthemodulusof elasticity of steel.
Based on studiesby Salmon, Schenker, and Johnston [ 65] , theapproximateexpression
for thestiffnessof thectitiousbeamaccountingfor therotationsbetween column ends
and footingdueto deformation of baseplate, anchor bolts, and concretecan bewritten
as:
I
s
L
B
=
bd
2
72E
steel
/E
concrete
(17.70)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
whereb and d arethewidth and length of thebaseplate, and subscriptsconcreteand steel
represent concreteand steel, respectively. Galambos[ 33] suggested that thesmaller of
thestiffnesscalculated by Equations17.69and 17.70beused in determiningK-factors.
2. AASHTO-LRFD Approach
Thefollowingvaluesaresuggested by AASHTO-LRFD [ 1] :
G= 1.5 footinganchored on rock
G= 3.0 footingnot anchored on rock
G= 5.0 footingon soil
G= 1.0 footingon multiplerowsof end bearingpiles
17.5.7 Inelastic K-factor
Theeffect of material inelasticity and end restrain on theK-factorshasbeen studied duringthelast
two decades[ 12, 15, 20, 44, 45, 58, 64, 67, 68, 69, 73] TheinelasticK-factor developed originally by
Yura[ 73] andexpandedbyDisque[ 20] makesuseof thealignment chartswithsimplemodications.
To consider inelasticity of material, theG valuesasdened by Equations17.7and 17.8arereplaced
by G

[ 20] asfollows:
G

= SRF(G) =
E
t
E
G (17.71)
in which E
t
is the tangent modulus of the material. For practical application, stiffness reduction
factor (SRF) = (E
t
/E) can be taken as the ratio of the inelastic to elastic buckling stress of the
column
SRF =
E
t
E

(F
cr
)
inelastic
(F
cr
)
elastic

P
u
/A
g
(F
cr
)
elastic
(17.72)
whereP
u
isthefactored axial load and A
g
isthecross-sectional areaof themember. (F
cr
)
inelast ic
and (F
cr
)
elast ic
can becalculated by AISC-LRFD [ 4] column equations:
(F
cr
)
inelastic
= (0.658)

2
c
F
y
(17.73)
(F
cr
)
elastic
=
_
0.877

2
c
_
F
y
(17.74)

c
=
KL
r
_
F
y
E
(17.75)
in which K is the elastic effective length factor and r is the radius of gyration about the plane of
buckling. Table17.3givesSRFvaluesfor different stresslevelsand slendernessparameters.
EXAMPLE17.5:
Given: A two-story steel frame is shown in Figure 17.5. Use the alignment chart to determine
K-factor for inelasticcolumn DE. E =29,000ksi (200GPa) and F
y
=36ksi (248MPa).
Solution
1. Calculatetheaxial stressratio:
P
u
A
g
F
y
=
300
13.3(36)
= 0.63
2. Obtain SRF = 0.793 fromTable17.3
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
TABLE17.3 StiffnessReduction Factor (SRF) for G
values
_
KL
r
_
elastic
36ksi 50ksi SRF
Pu
AgFy
(248MPa) (345MPa)
c
(Eq. 18.72)
1.00 0.0 0.0 0.155 0.000
0.95 31.2 26.5 0.350 0.133
0.90 44.7 38.0 0.502 0.258
0.85 55.6 47.1 0.623 0.376
0.80 65.1 55.2 0.730 0.486
0.75 73.9 62.7 0.829 0.588
0.70 82.3 69.8 0.923 0.680
0.65 90.5 76.8 1.015 0.763
0.60 98.5 83.6 1.105 0.835
0.55 106.6 90.4 1.195 0.896
0.50 114.7 97.4 1.287 0.944
0.45 123.2 104.5 1.381 0.979
0.40 131.9 111.9 1.480 0.998
0.39 133.7 113.5 1.500 1.000
3. Calculatemodied G-factor.
G
E
= 0.448 (Example17.1)
G

E
= SRF(G
E
) = 0.794(0.448) = 0.355
G
D
= 10 (AISC-LRFD 1993)
4. Fromthealignment chart in Figure17.4b , wehave
(K
DE
)
inelastic
= 1.75
17.6 FramedColumnsAlternativeMethods
17.6.1 LeMessurier Method
Consideringthat all columnsin astory bucklesimultaneously and strongcolumnswill braceweak
columns(Figure17.13), amoreaccurateapproach to calculateK-factorsfor columnsin asidesway
framewasdevelopedbyLeMessurier [52] . TheK
i
valuefor thei-thcolumninastorycanbeobtained
by thefollowingexpression:
K
i
=
_

2
EI
i
L
2
i
P
i
_
P +

C
L
P

PL
_
(17.76)
whereP
i
istheaxial compressiveforcefor member i, subscript i representsthei-th column, and

P isthesumof theaxial forceof all columnsin astory.

P
L
=
EI
L
2
(17.77)
=
6 (G
A
+G
B
) +36
2 (G
A
+G
B
) +G
A
G
B
+3
(17.78)
C
L
=
_

K
2
o

2
1
_
(17.79)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.13: Subassemblageof theLeMessurier method.
in which K
o
istheeffectivelength factor obtained by thealignment chart for unbraced frames, and
P
L
isonly for rigid columnswhich providesidesway stiffness.
EXAMPLE17.6:
Given: Aswayframewith columnsof unequal height isshown in Figure17.14a. Determineelastic
K-factorsfor columnsby usingtheLeMessurier method. Member propertiesare:
Member A in.
2
(mm
2
) I in.
4
(mm
4
10
8
) L in. (mm)
AB 21.5 (13,871) 620 (2.58) 240 (6,096)
BD 21.5 (13,871) 620 (2.58) 240 (6,096)
CD 7.65 (4,935) 310 (1.29) 120 (3,048)
Solution
Thedetailed calculationsarelisted in Table17.4.
UsingEquation 17.76, weobtain:
K
AB
=
_

2
EI
AB
L
2
AB
P
AB
_
P +

C
L
P

P
L
_
=
_

2
E(620)
(240)
2
(2P)
_
3P +0.495P
0.271E
_
= 0.83
K
CD
=
_

2
EI
CD
L
2
CD
P
CD
_
P +

C
L
P

P
L
_
=
_

2
E(310)
(120)
2
(P)
_
3P +0.495P
0.271E
_
= 1.66
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.14: A framewith unequal columns.
17.6.2 Lui Method
A simple and straightforward approach for determining the effective length factors for framed
columns without the use of alignment charts and other charts was proposed by Lui [57] . The
formulastakeinto account both themember instability and frameinstability effectsexplicitly. The
K-factor for thei-th column in astory wasobtained in asimpleform:
K
i
=

_
_

2
EI
i
P
i
L
2
i
_
__

P
L
__
1
5

+

1

H
__
(17.80)
where

(P/L) representsthesumof theaxial force-to-lengthratioof all membersinastory,

H is
thestory lateral load producing
1
,
1
istherst-order inter-story deection, and isthemember
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
TABLE17.4 Example17.6Detailed Calculation by the
LeMessurier Method
Members AB CD Sum Notes
I in.
4
620 310
(mm
4
10
8
) (2.58) (1.29)
L in. 240 120
(mm) (6,096) (3,048)
G
top
1.0 1.0 Eq. 18.7
G
bottom
0.0 0.0 Eq. 18.7
8.4 8.4 Eq. 18.78
K
io
1.17 1.17 Alignment Chart
C
L
0.165 0.165 Eq. 18.79
P
L
0.09E 0.181E 0.271E Eq. 18.77
P 2P P 3P
C
L
P 0.33P 0.165P 0.495P
stiffnessindex and can becalculated by
=
_
3 +4.8m+4.2m
2
_
EI
L
3
(17.81)
in which m istheratio of thesmaller to larger end momentsof themember; it istaken aspositiveif
themember bendsin reversecurvatureand negativefor singlecurvature.
It isimportant to notethat theterm

H used in Equation 17.80isnot theactual applied lateral

load. Rather, it isasmall disturbingor ctitiousforce(taken asafraction of thestory gravity loads)
to beapplied to each story of theframe. Thisctitiousforceisapplied in adirection such that the
deformed conguration of theframewill resembleitsbuckled shape.
EXAMPLE17.7:
Given: DetermineK-factorsby usingtheLui method for theframeshown in Figure17.14a.
E = 29,000 ksi (200 GPa).
Solution
Applyctitiouslateral forcesat BandD(Figure17.14b) andperformarst-order analysis.
Detailed calculation isshown in Table17.5.
UsingEquation 17.80, weobtain:
K
AB
=

_
_

2
EI
AB
P
AB
L
2
AB
_
__

P
L
__
1
5

+

1

H
__
=
_
_

2
(29,000)(620)
(2P)(240)
2
___
P
60
__
1
5(56.24)
+0.019
__
= 0.76
K
CD
=

_
_

2
EI
CD
P
CD
L
2
CD
_
__

P
L
__
1
5

+

1

H
__
=
_
_

2
(29,000)(310)
(P)(120)
2
___
P
60
__
1
5(56.24)
+0.019
__
= 1.52
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
TABLE17.5 Example17.7Detailed Calculation by the
Lui Method
Members AB CD Sum Notes
I in.
4
620 310
(mm
4
10
8
) (2.58) (1.29)
L in. 240 120
(mm) (6096) (3048)
H kips 1.0 0.5 1.5
(kN) (4.448) (2.224) (6.672)

1
in. 0.0286 0.0283
(mm) (0.7264) (0.7188)

1
/

H in./kips 0.019 Average

(mm/kN) (0.108)
M
top
k-in. 38.8 56.53
(kN-m) (4.38) (6.39)
M
bottom
k-in. 46.2 81.18
(kN-m) (5.22) (9.17)
m 0.84 0.69
kips/in. 13.00 43.24 56.24 Eq. 18.1
(kN/mm) (2.28) (7.57) (9.85)
P/L kips/in. P/120 P/120 P/60
(kN/mm) P/3048 P/3048 P/1524
17.6.3 Remarks
For comparison, Table17.6 summarizesK-factorsfor theframeshown in Figure17.14a obtained
fromthealignment chart, theLeMessurier andLui methods, aswell asaneigenvalueanalysis. It isseen
that errorsin alignment chart resultsarerather signicant in thiscase. AlthoughK-factorspredicted
by Luisand LeMessuriersformulasareidentical in most cases, thesimplicity and independenceof
any chart in thecaseof Luisformulasmakeit moredesirablefor design ofceuse[ 66] .
TABLE17.6 Comparison of K-Factorsfor theFramein
Figure17.14a
Alignment Lui LeMessurier
Columns Theoretical chart Eq. 18.80 Eq. 18.76
AB 0.70 1.17 0.76 0.83
CD 1.40 1.17 1.52 1.67
17.7 UnbracedFramesWithLeaningColumns
Acolumn framed with simpleconnectionsisoften called aleaningcolumn. It hasnolateral stiffness
or sidesway resistance. A column framed with rigid moment-resistingconnectionsiscalled arigid
column. It providesthelateral stiffnessor sidesway resistanceto theframe. When aframesystem
(Figure 17.15a) includes leaning columns, the effective length factors of rigid columns must be
modied. Several approaches to account for theeffect of leaning columns werereported in the
literature[ 16, 52, 54, 73] . Adetailed discussion about theleaningcolumnsfor practical applications
waspresented by Geschwindner [ 37] .
17.7.1 RigidColumns
1. YuraMethod
Yura [ 73] discussed frames with leaning columns and noted the behavior of stronger
columns assisting weaker ones in resisting sidesway. He concluded that the alignment
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.15: A framewith leaningcolumns.
chart givesvalidsideswaybucklingsolutionsif thecolumnsarein theelasticrangeandall
columnsinastoryreachtheir individual bucklingloadssimultaneously. For columnsthat
do not satisfy thesetwo conditions, thealignment chart isgenerally overly conservative.
Yurastatesthat
(a) Themaximumload-carryingcapacityof anindividual columnislimitedtotheload
permitted on that column for braced caseK = 1.0.
(b) Thetotal gravity loadsthat producesidesway aredistributed amongthecolumns,
which provideslateral stiffnessin astory.
2. Limand McNamaraMethod
Based on thestory buckling concept and using thestability functions, Lim and McNa-
mara[ 54] presented thefollowingformulato account for theleaningcolumn effect.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
K
n
= K
o
_
1 +

P
_
F
o
F
n
_
(17.82)
where K
n
is the effective length factor accounting for the leaning columns; K
o
is the
effectivelength factor determined by thealignment chart (Figure17.3b) not accounting
for theleaningcolumns;

P and

Qaretheloadson therestrainingcolumnsand on
theleaningcolumnsin astory, respectively; and F
o
and F
n
aretheeigenvaluesolutions
for a frame without and with leaning columns, respectively. For normal column end
conditions that fall somewhere between xed and pinned, F
o
/F
n
= 1 provides a K-
factor on theconservativesideby lessthan 2%[ 37] . UsingF
o
/F
n
= 1, Equation 17.82
becomes:
K
n
= K
o
_
1 +

P
(17.83)
Equation 17.83givesthesameK-factor asthemodied Yuraapproach [ 37] .
3. LeMessurier and Lui Methods
Equation 17.76developed by LeMessurier [ 52] and Equation 17.80proposed by Lui [ 57]
canbeusedfor frameswithandwithout leaningcolumns. SincetheK-factor expressions
Equations17.76and17.80werederivedfor anentirestoryof theframe, theyareapplicable
to frameswith and without leaningcolumns.
4. AISC-LRFD Method
Thecurrent AISC-LRFD [ 4] commentary adoptsthefollowingmodied effectivelength
factor, K

i
, for thei-th rigid column:
K

i
=
_

2
EI
i
L
2
i
P
ui
_
P
u

P
e2
_
(17.84)
where

P
e2
is the Euler loads of all columns in a story providing lateral stiffness for
theframebased on theeffectivelength factor obtained from thealignment chart for an
unbraced frame; P
ui
istherequired axial compressivestrength for thei-th rigid column;
and

P
u
istherequired axial compressivestrength of all columnsin astory.
When E and L
2
areconstant for all columnsin astory, AISC[4] suggested that:
K

i
=

P
u
P
ui

_
_
I
i

I
i
K
2
io
_
_
(17.85)
except
K

i

_
5
8
K
io
(17.86)
whereK
io
istheeffectivelength factor of arigid column based on thealignment chart
for unbraced frames.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
EXAMPLE17.8:
Given: A framewith aleaningcolumn isshown in Figure17.16a[ 59] . EvaluatetheK-factor for
FIGURE17.16: A leaningcolumn frame.
column AB usingvariousmethods. Thebottom of column AB isassumed to beideally pin-ended
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
for comparison purposes. E =29,000ksi (200GPa).
Solution
1. Alignment Chart Method
G
A
=
G
B
=

E
c
I
c
/L
c

k
E
g
I
g
/L
g
=
EI/L
0.5EI/L
= 2.0
FromFigure17.3b, wehaveK
AB
= 2.6
2. Limand McNamaraMethod
For thisframe,

P =

Q = P and K
o
= 2.6. FromEquation 17.83, wehave
K
AB
= K
o
_
1 +

P
= 2.6

1 +1 = 3.68
3. LeMessurier Method
For column AB, G
A
= and G
B
= 2.0; fromthealignment chart, K
o
= 2.6.
Accordingto Equations17.76to 17.79wehave,
|
G
A=
=
6(G
A
+G
B
) +36
2(G
A
+G
B
) +G
A
G
B
+3
|
G
A=
=
6
2 +G
B
=
6
2 +2
= 1.5

P
L
= (P
L
)
AB
=
EI
L
2
= 1.5
EI
L
2
C
L
=
_

K
2
o

2
1
_
= (1.5)
2.6
2

2
1 = 0.0274
K
AB
=
_

2
EI
AB
L
2
AB
P
AB
_
P +

C
L
P

P
L
_
=
_

2
EI
L
2
P
_
2P +0.0274P
1.5EI/L
2
_
=

13.34 = 3.65
4. AISC-LRFD Method
UsingEquation 17.85for column AB:
K
AB
=

P
u
P
AB

_
_
I
AB

I
K
2
io
_
_
= K
io

2 = 3.68
5. Lui Method
(a) Apply asmall lateral force, H = 1 kip, asshown in Figure17.16b.
(b) Performarst-order analysisand nd
1
= 0.687 in. (17.45mm).
(c) Calculate factorsfromEquation 17.81.
Sincecolumn CD bucklesin asinglecurvature, m = 1,

CD
=
(3 +4.8m+4.2m
2
)EI
L
3
=
(3 4.8 +4.2)EI
L
3
=
2.4EI
L
3
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
For column AB, m = 0,

AB
=
(3 +4.8m+4.2m
2
)EI
L
3
=
3EI
L
3

=
3EI
L
3
+
2.4EI
L
3
=
5.4(29,000)(100)
(144)
3
= 5.245 kips/in. (0.918 kN/mm)
(d) CalculatetheK-factor fromEquation 17.80.
K
AB
=

_
_

2
EI
AB
P
AB
L
2
AB
_
__

P
L
__
1
5

+

1

H
__
=
_
_

2
(29,000)(100)
P(144)
2
___
2P
144
__
1
5(5.245)
+
0.687
1
__
= 3.73
Froman eigenvalueanalysis, K
AB
= 3.69 isobtained. It isseen that adirect useof thealignment
chart leadsto asignicant error for thisframe, and other approachesgivegood results. However,
theLeMessurier approach requirestheuseof thealignment chart, and theLui approach requiresa
rst-order analysissubjected to actitiouslateral loading.
17.7.2 LeaningColumns
Recognizingthat aleaningcolumn isbeingbraced by rigid columns, Lui [ 57] proposed amodel for
theleaningcolumn, asshown in Figure17.15b. Rigid columnsprovidelateral stability to thewhole
structureand arerepresented by atranslation springwith aspringstiffness, S
K
. TheK-factor for a
leaningcolumn can beobtained as:
K = larger of
_
1
_

2
EI
S
K
L
3
(17.87)
For most commonly framed structures, theterm (
2
EI/S
K
L
3
) normally doesnot exceed unity
and so K = 1 often governs. AISC-LRFD [ 4] suggeststhat leaning columnswith K = 1 may be
used in unbraced framesprovided that thelack of lateral stiffnessfrom simpleconnectionsto the
frame(K = ) isincluded in thedesign of moment framecolumns.
17.7.3 Remarks
Numerical studies by Geschwindner [ 37] found that the Yura approach gives overly conservative
resultsfor someconditions; Limand McNamarasapproach providessufciently accurateresultsfor
design, and theLeMessurier approach isthemost accurateof thethree. TheLim and McNamara
approach could be appropriate for preliminary design while the LeMessurier and Lui approaches
would beappropriatefor nal design.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
17.8 CrossBracingSystems
Diagonal bracing or X-bracing is commonly used in steel structures to resist horizontal loads. In
thecurrent practice, thedesign of thistypeof bracingsystem isbased on theassumptionsthat the
compression diagonal has negligible capacity and the tension diagonal resists the total load. The
assumption that compression diagonal hasanegligiblecapacity usually resultsin an overdesign [62,
63] .
Picard and Beaulieu [ 62, 63] reported theoretical and experimental studies on double diagonal
crossbracings(Figure17.6) and found that
1. A general effectivelength factor equation (Figure17.17) isgiven as
K =
_
0.523
0.428
C/T
0.50 (17.88)
whereCandT represent compressionandtensionforcesobtainedfromanelasticanalysis,
respectively.
FIGURE17.17: Effectivelength factor of compression diagonal. (From Picard, A. and Beaulieu, D.,
AISCEng. J., 24(3), 122, 1987. With permission.)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
2. When thedoublediagonalsarecontinuousand attached at their intersection point, the
effectivelengthof thecompressiondiagonal is0.5timesthediagonal length, i.e., K = 0.5,
becausetheC/T ratio isusually smaller than 1.6.
EL-TayemandGoel [ 27] reportedatheoretical andexperimental studyabout theX-bracingsystem
madefromsingleequal-legangles. They concluded that:
1. Design of an X-bracingsystemshould bebased on an exclusiveconsideration of onehalf
diagonal only.
2. For X-bracingsystemsmadefromsingleequal-legangles, aneffectivelengthof 0.85times
thehalf diagonal length isreasonable, i.e., K = 0.425.
17.9 LatticedandBuilt-UpMembers
The main difference of behavior between solid-webbed members, latticed members, and built-up
members is the effect of shear deformation on their buckling strength. For solid-webbed mem-
bers, shear deformation hasanegligibleeffect on bucklingstrength. Whereasfor latticed structural
membersusinglacingbarsand batten plates, shear deformation hasasignicant effect on buckling
strength. It is a common practice that when a buckling model involves relative deformation pro-
duced by shear forcesin theconnectors, such aslacing barsand batten plates, between individual
components, amodied effectivelength factor, K
m
, isdened asfollows:
K
m
=
v
K (17.89)
in which K istheusual effectivelength factor of alatticed member acting asaunit obtained from
a structural analysis, and
v
is the shear factor to account for shear deformation on the buckling
strength, or themodied effectiveslendernessratio, (KL/r)
m
should beused in thedetermination
of the compressive strength. Details of the development of the shear factor,
v
, can be found in
textbooksby Bleich [ 13] and Timoshenko and Gere[ 70] . Thefollowingsection briey summarizes

v
formulasfor variouslatticed members.
17.9.1 LacedColumns
For lacedmembersasshowninFigure17.18, byconsideringshear deformationduetothelengthening
of diagonal lacingbarsin each panel andassuminghingesat joints, theshear factor,
v
, hastheform:

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL
2
)
1
A
d
E
d
sin cos
2

(17.90)
whereE
d
isthemodulusof elasticity of materialsfor thelacingbars, A
d
isthecross-sectional area
of all diagonals in one panel, and is the angle between the lacing diagonal and the axis that is
perpendicular to themember axis.
If thelength of thelacingbarsisgiven (Figure17.18), Equation 17.90can berewritten as:

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL
2
)
d
3
A
d
E
d
ab
2
(17.91)
wherea, b, and d aretheheight of panel, depth of member, and length of diagonal, respectively.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.18: Typical congurationsof laced members.
The SSRC [ 36] suggested that a conservative estimate of the inuence of 60 or 45

lacing, as
generally specied in bridgedesign practice, can bemadeby modifying theoverall effectivelength
factor, K, by multiplyingafactor,
v
, originally developed by Bleich [ 13] asfollows:
For
KL
r
> 40,

v
=
_
1 +300/ (KL/r)
2
(17.92)
For
KL
r
40,

v
= 1.1 (17.93)
EXAMPLE17.9:
Given: Alacedcolumn with anglesandcover platesisshown in Figure17.19. K
y
= 1.25, L = 30
ft (9144 mm). Determine the modied effective length factor, (K
y
)
m
, by considering the shear
deformation effect.
Section properties:
I
y
= 2259 in.
4
(9.4 108 mm
4
)
E = E
d
A
d
= 1.69 in.
2
(1090 mm
2
)
a = 6 in. (152 mm) b = 11 in. (279 mm)
d = 12.53 in. (318 mm)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.19: A laced column.
Solution
1. Calculatetheshear factor,
v
, by Equation 17.91.

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
d
3
A
d
E
d
ab
2
=
_
1 +

2
E(2259)
(1.25 30 12)
2
12.53
3
1.69E(6)(11)
2
= 1.09
2. Calculate(K
y
)
m
by Equation 17.89.
_
K
y
_
m
=
v
K
y
= 1.09(1.25) = 1.36
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
17.9.2 ColumnswithBattens
Thebattened column hasagreater shear exibility than either thelaced column or thecolumn with
perforated cover plates, hencetheeffect of shear distortion must betaken intoaccount in calculating
theeffectivelength of acolumn [ 43] . For thebattened membersshown in Figure17.20a, assuming
that pointsof inection in thebattensareat thebatten midpoints, and that pointsof inection in
thelongitudinal element occur midway between thebattens, theshear factor,
v
, isobtained as:

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
_
ab
12E
b
I
b
+
a
2
24EI
f
_
(17.94)
whereE
b
isthemodulusof elasticityof materialsfor thebatten plates, I
b
isthemoment inertiaof all
thebattensin onepanel in thebucklingplane, and I
f
isthemoment inertiaof onesideof themain
componentstaken about thecentroid axisof theangein thebucklingplane.
FIGURE17.20: Typical congurationsof memberswith battensand with perforated cover plates.
EXAMPLE17.10:
Given: Abattenedcolumn isshown in Figure17.21. K
y
= 0.8, L = 30 ft (9144mm). Determine
themodied effectivelength factor, (K
y
)
m
, by consideringtheshear deformation effect.
Section properties:
I
y
= 144 in.
4
(6.0 10
7
mm
4
)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.21: A battened column.
E = E
b
I
f
= 1.98 in.
4
(8.24 10
5
mm
4
)
a = 15 in. (381 mm)
b = 9 in. (229 mm)
I
b
= 9 in.
4
(3.75 10
6
mm
4
)
Solution
1. Calculatetheshear factor,
v
, by Equation 17.94.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
_
ab
12EI
b
+
a
2
24EI
f
_
=
_
1 +

2
E(144)
(0.8 30 12)
2
_
15(9)
12E(9)
+
15
2
24E(1.98)
_
= 1.05
2. Calculate(K
y
)
m
by Equation 17.89.
_
K
y
_
m
=
v
K
y
= 1.05(0.8) = 0.84
17.9.3 Laced-BattenedColumns
For thelaced-battenedcolumns, asshown in Figure17.20b, consideringtheshorteningof thebattens
and thelengtheningof thediagonal lacingbarsin each panel, theshear factor,
v
, can beexpressed
as:

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
_
d
3
A
d
E
d
ab
2
+
b
aA
b
E
b
_
(17.95)
whereE
b
isthemodulusof elasticity of thematerialsfor battensand A
b
isthecross-sectional area
of all battensin onepanel.
17.9.4 ColumnswithPerforatedCover Plates
For memberswith perforated cover plates, shown in Figure17.20c, consideringthehorizontal cross
member asinnitely rigid, theshear factor,
v
, hastheform:

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
_
9c
3
64aEI
f
_
(17.96)
wherec isthelength of aperforation.
It should bepointed out that theusual K-factor based on asolid member analysisisincluded in
Equations17.90 to 17.96. However, sincethelatticed membersstudied previously havepin-ended
conditions, theK-factor of themember in theframewasnot included in thesecond termsof the
squareroot of theaboveequationsin their original derivations[13, 70] .
EXAMPLE17.11:
Given: Acolumnwithperforatedcover platesisshowninFigure17.22. K
y
= 1.3, L = 25 ft (7620
mm). Determinethemodied effectivelength factor, (K
y
)
m
, by consideringtheshear deformation
effect.
Section properties:
I
y
= 2467 in.
4
(1.03 10
8
mm
4
)
I
f
= 35.5 in.
4
(1.48 10
6
mm
4
)
a = 30 in. (762 mm)
c = 14 in. (356 mm)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.22: A column with perforatecover plates.
Solution
1. Calculatetheshear factor,
v
, by Equation 17.96.

v
=
_
1 +

2
EI
(KL)
2
_
9c
3
64aEI
f
_
=
_
1 +

2
E(2467)
(1.3 25 12)
2
_
9(14)
3
64(30)E(35.5)
_
= 1.03
2. Calculate(K
y
)
m
by Equation 17.89.
_
K
y
_
m
=
v
K
y
= 1.03(1.3) = 1.34
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
17.9.5 Built-UpMemberswithBoltedandWeldedConnectors
AISC-LRFD [ 4] species that if the buckling of a built-up member produces shear forces in the
connectorsbetween individual component members, theusual slendernessratio, KL/r, for com-
pression membersmust bereplaced by themodied slendernessratio,
_
KL
r
_
m
, in determining the
compressivestrength.
1. For snug-tight bolted connectors:
_
KL
r
_
m
=
_
_
KL
r
_
2
o
+
_
a
r
i
_
2
(17.97)
2. For welded connectorsand for fully tightened bolted connectors:
_
KL
r
_
m
=
_
_
KL
r
_
2
o
+0.82

2
(1 +
2
)
_
a
r
ib
_
2
(17.98)
where
_
KL
r
_
o
istheslendernessratio of thebuilt-up member acting asaunit,
_
KL
r
_
m
isthemod-
ied slenderness ratio of thebuilt-up member,
a
r
i
is thelargest slenderness ratio of theindividual
components,
a
r
ib
istheslendernessratio of theindividual componentsrelativeto itscentroidal axis
parallel to theaxisof buckling, a isthedistancebetween connectors, r
i
istheminimum radiusof
gyration of individual components, r
ib
istheradiusof gyration of individual componentsrelative
to itscentroidal axisparallel to themember axisof buckling, istheseparation ratio = h/2r
ib
, and
h isthedistancebetween centroidsof individual componentsperpendicular to themember axisof
buckling.
Equation 17.97 is the same as that used in the current Italian code as well as other European
specications, based on test results[ 74] . In theequation, thebendingeffect isconsidered in therst
term in squareroot, and shear forceeffect istaken into account in thesecond term. Equation 17.98
wasderivedfromelasticstabilitytheoryandveriedbytest data[ 9] . Inbothcasestheendconnectors
must bewelded or slip-critical bolted [ 9] .
EXAMPLE17.12:
Given: Abuilt-up member with two back-to-back anglesisshown in Figure17.23. Determinethe
modied slendernessratio, (KL/r)
m
, in accordancewith AISC-LRFD [ 4] and Equation 17.98.
r
ib
= 0.735 in. (19 mm)
a = 48 in. (1219 mm)
h = 1.603 in. (41 mm)
(KL/r)
o
= 70
Solution
1. Calculatetheseparation factor .
=
h
2r
ib
=
1.603
2(0.735)
= 1.09
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.23: A built-up member with back-to-back angles.
2. Calculatethemodied slendernessratio, (KL/r)
m
, by Equation 17.98.
_
KL
r
_
m
=
_
_
KL
r
_
2
o
+0.82

2
(1 +
2
)
_
a
r
ib
_
2
=
_
(70)
2
+0.82
1.09
2
(1 +1.09
2
)
_
48
0.735
_
2
= 82.5
17.10 TaperedColumns
The state-of-the-art design for tapered structural members was provided in the SSRC guide [36] .
Thechartsshown in Figures17.24 and 17.25 can beused to evaluatetheeffectivelength factorsfor
tapered columnsrestrained by prismatic beams[ 36] . In thesegures, I
T
and I
B
arethemoment
of inertia of thetop and bottom beam, respectively; b and L arethelength of beam and column,
respectively; and isthetaperingfactor asdened by:
=
d
1
d
o
d
o
(17.99)
whered
o
and d
1
arethesection depth of column at thesmaller and larger end, respectively.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.24: Effectivelength factor for tapered columnsin braced frames.
17.11 CraneColumns
Thecolumnsin mill buildingsand warehousesaredesigned to support overhead craneloads. The
cross-section of acranecolumn may beuniform or stepped (seeFigure17.26). Over thepast two
decades, a number of simplied procedures have been developed for evaluating theK-factors for
cranecolumns[ 5, 6, 7, 11, 29, 30, 41, 51, 61] . Thoseprocedureshavelimitationsin termsof column
geometry, loading, and boundary conditions. Most importantly, most of thesestudiesignored the
interaction effect between theleft and right column of framesand werebased on isolated member
analyses[ 59] . Recently, asimpleyet reasonably accurateprocedurefor calculatingtheK-factorsfor
crane columns with any value of relative shaft length, moment of inertia, loading, and boundary
conditionswasdeveloped by Lui and Sun [ 59] . Based on thestory stiffnessconcept and accounting
for both member and frame instability effects in the formulation, Lui and Sun [59] proposed the
followingprocedure[ seeFigure17.27] :
1. Applythectitiouslateral loads, P ( isan arbitraryfactor; 0.001maybeused), in such
adirection asto createadeected geometry for theframethat closely approximatesits
actual buckled conguration.
2. Performarst-order elasticanalysison theframesubjected to thectitiouslateral loads
(Figure 17.27b). Calculate
1
/

H, where
1
is the average lateral deection at the
intermediate load points (i.e., points B and F) of columns, and

H is the sum of all

ctitiouslateral loadsthat act at and abovetheintermediateload points.
3. Calculate usingresultsobtained fromarst-order elasticanalysisfor lower shafts(i.e.,
segmentsAB and FG), accordingto Equation 17.81.
4. CalculatetheK-factor for thelower shaftsusingEquation 17.80.
5. CalculatetheK-factor for upper shaftsusingthefollowingformula:
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.25: Effectivelength factor for tapered columnsin unbraced frames.
FIGURE17.26: Typical cranecolumns. (From Lui, E.M. and Sun, M.Q., AISC Eng. J., 32(2), 98,
1995. With permission.)
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
FIGURE17.27: Cranecolumn model for effectivelength factor computation. (From Lui, E.M. and
Sun, M.Q., AISCEng. J., 32(2), 98, 1995. With permission.)
K
U
= K
L
_
L
L
L
U
_
_
_
P
L
+P
U
P
U
__
I
U
I
L
_
(17.100)
whereP istheapplied load and subscriptsU and L represent upper and lower shafts, respectively.
EXAMPLE17.13:
Given: Astepped cranecolumn isshown in Figure17.28a. Theexampleisthesameframeasused
by Fraser [ 30] and Lui and Sun [ 59] . Determinetheeffectivelength factorsfor all columnsusingthe
Lui approach. E= 29,000ksi (200GPa).
I
AB
= I
FG
= I
L
= 30,000 in.
4
(1.25 10
10
mm
4
)
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FIGURE17.28: A pin-based stepped cranecolumn. (From Lui, E.M. and Sun, M.Q., AISCEng. J.,
32(2), 98, 1995. With permission.)
A
AB
= A
FG
= A
L
= 75 in.
2
(48,387 mm
2
)
I
BC
= I
EF
= I
CE
= I
U
= 5,420 in.
4
(2.26 10
9
mm
4
)
A
BC
= A
EF
= A
CE
= A
U
= 34.14 in.
2
(22,026 mm
2
)
Solution
1. Apply aset of ctitiouslateral forceswith = 0.001 asshown in Figure17.28b.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
2. Performarst-order analysisand nd
(
1
)
B
= 0.1086 in.(2.76 mm) and (
1
)
F
= 0.1077 in. (2.74 mm)
so,

H
=
(0.1086 +0.1077)/2
0.053 +0.3 +0.053 +0.14
= 0.198 in./kips (1.131 mm/kN)
3. Calculate factorsfromEquation 17.81.
Sincethebottomof column AB and FG ispin-based, m = 0,

AB
=
FG
=
(3 +4.8m+4.2m
2
)EI
L
3
=
3EI
L
3
=
(3)(29,000)(30,000)
(396)
3
= 42.03 kips/in. (7.36 mm/kN)

= 42.03 +42.03 = 84.06 kips/in. (14.72 mm/kN)

4. CalculatetheK-factorsfor columnsAB and FG usingEquation 17.80.
K
AB
=
_
_

2
(29,000)(30,000)
(353)(396)
2
___
353 +193
396
__
1
5(84.06)
+0.198
__
= 6.55
K
FG
=
_
_

2
(29,000)(30,000)
(193)(396)
2
___
353 +193
396
__
1
5(84.06)
+0.198
__
= 8.85
5. CalculatetheK-factorsfor columnsBC and EF usingEquation 17.100.
K
BC
= K
AB
_
L
AB
L
BC
_
_
_
P
AB
+P
BC
P
BC
__
I
BC
I
AB
_
= 6.55
_
396
156
_
_
_
353
53
__
5420
30,000
_
= 18.2
K
EF
= K
FG
_
L
FG
L
EF
_
_
_
P
FG
+P
EF
P
EF
__
I
EF
I
FG
_
= 8.85
_
396
156
_
_
_
193
53
__
5420
30,000
_
= 18.2
TheK-factorscalculated abovearein good agreement with thetheoretical valuesreported by Lui
and Sun [ 59] .
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
17.12 ColumnsinGableFrames
For a pin-based gable frame subjected to a uniformly distributed load on the rafter, as shown in
Figure17.29a, Lu [ 56] presented a graph (Figure 17.29b) to determinetheeffectivelength factors
of columns. For frameshavingdifferent member sizesfor rafter and columnswith (L/h) of (f/h)
FIGURE17.29: Effectivelength factors for columns in a pin-based gableframe. (From Lu, L.W.,
AISCEng. J., 2(2), 6, 1965. With permission.)
ratios not covered in Figure17.29, an approximatemethod is availablefor determining K-factors
of columns [ 39] . Themethod is to nd an equivalent portal framewhosespan length is equal to
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
twicetherafter length, L
r
(seeFigure17.29a). TheK-factorscan bedetermined formthealignment
chartsusingG
top
=
I
c
/h
I
r
/2L
r
and correspondingG
bottom
.
17.13 Summary
This chapter summarizes the state-of-the-art practice of the effective length factors for isolated
columns, framed columns, diagonal bracing systems, latticed and built-up members, tapered
columns, crane columns, and columns in gable frames. Design implementation with formulas,
charts, tables, various modication factors adopted in current codes and specications, as well as
thoseused in engineering practicearedescribed. Several examples illustratethesteps of practical
applicationsof variousmethods.
17.14 DeningTerms
Alignment chart: A monograph for determining theeffectivelength factor K for sometypes
of compression members.
Braced frame: A framein which theresistanceto lateral load or frameinstability isprimarily
provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls, or equivalent means.
Build-up member: A member madeof structural metal elementsthat arewelded, bolted, and
riveted together.
Column: Astructural member whoseprimary function isto carry loadsparallel to itslongitu-
dinal axis.
Cranecolumn: A column that isdesigned to support overhead craneloads.
Effectivelength factor K: Afactor that when multiplied by actual length of theend-restrained
column givesthelength of an equivalent pin-ended column whoseelastic bucklingload
isthesameasthat of theend-restrained column.
Framed column: A column in aframed structure.
Gableframe: A framewith agabled roof.
Latticed member: A member made of two or more rolled-shapes that are connected to one
another by meansof lacingbars, batten plates, or perforated plates.
Leaningcolumn: Acolumn that isconnected toaframewith simpleconnectionsand doesnot
providelateral stiffnessor sidesway resistance.
LRFD (Load and ResistanceFactor Design): A method of proportioning structural compo-
nents (members, connectors, connecting elements, and assemblages) such that no ap-
plicable limit state is exceeded when the structure is subjected to all appropriate load
combinations.
Tapered column: A column that hasacontinuousreduction in section fromtop to bottom.
Unbraced frame: A framein which theresistanceto lateral loadsisprovided by thebending
stiffnessof framemembersand their connections.
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Further Reading
[ 1] Chen, W.F. and Lui, E.M. 1987. Structural Stability: TheoryandImplementation, Elsevier,
NewYork.
[ 2] Chen, W.F., Goto, Y. and Liew, J.Y.R. 1996. StabilityDesignof Semi-RigidFrames, John Wiley
and Sons, NewYork.
[ 3] Chen, W.F. andKim, S.E. 1997. LRFDSteel DesignUsingAdvancedAnalysis, CRCPress, Boca
Raton, FL.
c 1999by CRCPressLLC