The Knuckles Range: protecting livelihoods, protecting forests

THE KNUCKLES RANGE: PROTECTING LIVELIHOODS, PROTECTING FORESTS

H.M. Bandaratillake

Name of forest: Location:

Knuckles (Dumbara) Kandy/Matale District, Central Province 17 835

Area (hectares):

Managing entity: Forest Department of Sri Lanka Mgt. objectives: Conservation of biodiversity, watershed protection Sri Lanka

Country:

never saw before so perfect a specimen of forest scenery. Here lie trees of different kinds, sizes and ages: some saplings, some dead and decaying, and some of very great bulk and height towering above the rest in their prime, wrote British administrator John Davy in his nineteenth century volume, An Account of the Interior of Ceylon in 1821. Davy was referring to the Knuckles Range forests, some of the most important tropical rain forests in Sri Lanka. But he is not alone in his awe of the Knuckles forests. Former Conservator of Forests, V.R. Nanayakkara, also commented on the ranges beauty during his term in 1988: The Knuckles Range and the entire massif are, without doubt, the most scenic part of the Highlands of Sri Lanka, containing, as they do, some of the most rugged, spectacular and breath-taking mountain scenery on the island. The Knuckles Range lies in the central part of Sri Lanka and covers an area of 17 830 hectares, most of which is natural forest, although 1 880 hectares of forest plantations have also been established in the Knuckles Range. The Forest Department manages about 70 percent of the forest plantations and the remainder
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is under private management. The Knuckles Range falls within the administrative districts of Kandy and Matale. The area was named Knuckles by British surveyors, due to a prominent landscape feature a group of five peaks that resemble the knuckles of a clenched fist as seen from many observation points in the area. The local name for the Knuckles peaks is Dumbara, which means, mountains covered with mist. The unique landscape and spectacular scenic beauty are the main features of the Knuckles Range. The highest peak, Gombariya, reaches 1 906 metres and six of the major peaks are covered with montane and submontane forest types. In the montane forests, stunted trees (about one metre in height) characterize pygmy forest. The Knuckles Range also has broad climatic diversity, from extreme wet on the southwestern slopes to very dry on the eastern slopes.

Blue mormon (Papilio polymnestor) found in the Knuckles Range

Tennents Horned Lizard (Ceratophora tennentii), endemic to the Knuckles Range, found nowhere else in the world (courtesy H.M. Bandaratillake).

High level of biodiversity Distinctive climatic, topographic and edaphic factors combine to create a unique ecosystem, containing exceptionally rich and diverse fauna and flora. Several species of endemic fish, amphibians and reptiles are confined solely to the Knuckles Range, while 14 of the 21 endemic species of birds in Sri Lanka inhabit the area. Many rare and very rare faunal species and some endangered and threatened plant species are also found. Among the fauna, 14 species of birds, 5 species of amphibians, 6 species of mammals and 10 species of reptiles are considered threatened. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) notes that 3 of these species are globally threatened and 32 are nationally threatened. They should be saved in the Knuckles Range to prevent extinction of the species, a report by the IUCN stated. Agricultural production The direct economic contribution of the Knuckles region to the national economy has declined significantly since 1990, when the government imposed a ban on
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logging in all of the countrys natural forests. The Knuckles forests most significant economic contribution comes from the 1 880 hectares of forest plantations and from non-timber forest products such as fuelwood, honey, medicinal plants, edible plants, roping material and bamboo. Local people also tap the flowers of the kitul palm (Caryota urens), which provide a base for toddy (a local alcoholic beverage) and a sugary substance that is used for making local sweets. The Department of Export Agriculture reports that 2 700 hectares of cardamom (Elettaria repens) are planted within and around the Knuckles forests. This represents approximately 55 percent of Sri Lankas total area under cardamom cultivation, and accounts for 32 percent of the countrys cardamom production. In 2002, the contribution of cardamom cultivation to the national economy was around US$250 000. A major economic activity in the periphery of the Knuckles Range is tea cultivation. Like cardamom, tea is a major export. Currently, there are about 40 tea plantations in the Kandy-Matale region a number of which are found in the buffer zone of the Knuckles Range. Most of the tea plantations are owned by the state, but managed by private companies. Only a few are owned by individual farmers. Most of the communities living near the Knuckles Range are dependent on forest areas for shifting cultivation (chena), cardamom cultivation, timber and fuelwood collection and harvesting of non-timber forest products. For the past several decades, most of us have cultivated cardamom in the forest, because it provides good income. In fact, it has become the main source of livelihood in my village, said Tikiribanda, a resident of Narangamuwa. We do not have permission or authority from the Forest Department to carry out this cultivation. Some villagers own small paddy fields, but many do not. In any case, income from paddy cultivation is not sufficient and consequently most of us also engage in chena cultivation. Paddy and chena cultivation are the core components of our traditional way of living, but cardamom growing has become the most important activity because of the potential to earn cash. We are hopeful that the Knuckles conservation programme will help us to develop alternative sources of income and livelihoods from new agricultural crops or other sources. That way, we will be able to give up cardamom cultivation in the forest, added Tikiribanda. We realize the need to protect the forests that we have inherited from our grandfathers and great-grandfathers. But we need to make a living as well. Deforestation and logging As in many other Asian countries, deforestation is a major concern in Sri Lanka. In 1990, in response to the heavy depletion of natural forests, the government
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imposed a complete ban on logging in the natural forests in the country. The logging ban was implemented as a strategy to conserve the countrys natural forests, safeguard biodiversity and protect soil and water resources. At the time it was imposed, the majority of the population, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), environmentalists and forestry professionals supported the logging ban and the conservation lobby strongly influenced the government in making the decision. The logging ban has continued to the present time and, as a consequence, natural forests throughout the country are no longer harvested for timber. Consistent with national policy, the logging ban also applies in the Knuckles region. This is especially relevant given that the Knuckles region is one of the most critical watersheds in the country. It forms an important part of the catchment of the Mahaweli River, which provides water to irrigate large areas of agricultural land and for generating hydroelectricity. New management regimes The biological and hydrological values of the Knuckles Range have been recognized since as long ago as 1873, when the colonial government of Ceylon (under British rule), declared a section of the Knuckles region above 1 500 metres as a climatic reserve. However, problems have persisted. Until recently, there was no appropriate legal framework under which the Knuckles Range could be protected. Furthermore, the area had no formal management plan and was susceptible to continuous shifting cultivation and the occasional illegal felling of trees. Forest boundaries were inadequately surveyed and demarcated in many areas making it possible for people to encroach on the forest for unauthorized cultivation and settlement. Faced with these varied and intricate problems, Ranasinghe Premadasa, the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, commissioned a special cabinet paper in September 1985. The paper concluded, The Knuckles Range is one of the few large natural areas with a unique ecosystem left in the country and, therefore, it is essential that the Knuckles Range be conserved. The paper recommended improved conservation of the Knuckles Range for hydrological stability, soil erosion control, preservation of rare and endemic fauna and flora, and management as an outdoor laboratory for educational purposes and for research. An action plan for the conservation of Knuckles was developed and a special committee was appointed to oversee its implementation. In 1994, as a follow-up to these initial activities, the government developed a more comprehensive management plan for the Knuckles Range in consultation with various stakeholders including state agencies, local communities, NGOs and community-based organizations.

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The special features of this management plan were: community participation; restoration of degraded forests; development of alternative income-generating activities for village communities in the buffer zone; relocation of settlers; soil conservation; agroforestry; raising awareness; and provision of special legal status to the Knuckles forests. The Forest Department, with the participation of local people living in peripheral villages, currently implements these programmes in the Knuckles forests and buffer zone areas. In the past, the IUCN has supported some of the programmes with supplementary funding and technical support. Cardamom cultivation within the forested area remains a serious management challenge. It prevents the natural regeneration of forest tree species in the understorey. About 60 percent of the cardamom cultivation in the Knuckles Range is located in potentially sensitive areas above 1 200 metres in elevation. These disturbed sites without adequate natural vegetation are highly susceptible to soil erosion. The eroded soil (as much as 10 tonnes/hectare/year) enters rivers, causing siltation problems in hydropower reservoirs. The costs of banning cardamom cultivation in the Knuckles Range are estimated to be around US$104 000 per year. In spite of this, the Forest Department in consultation with the scientific community, local government administrations and other stakeholders has taken a firm decision to stop all cardamom cultivation in the Knuckles forests as one of the main strategies of forest conservation. The economic losses have been weighed against ecological losses incurred through biodiversity depletion and watershed degradation, caused by increased soil erosion. The government has stopped issuing new permits for cardamom cultivation and has restricted farmers from maintaining existing cardamom plants. It is envisaged that these measures will enable the forest to revert back to its natural state. Obviously, they will have a major impact on local villagers, however, especially those who have been cultivating cardamom over the years. Consequently, the ban on maintenance is being phased in at a pace that will enable local people to adjust to other livelihoods. A number of activities aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions of peripheral area inhabitants have been introduced in the buffer zone, to help offset the losses due to the cessation of cardamom cultivation.

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In 2002, as envisaged in the management plan, the Knuckles Range was surveyed, demarcated and declared as a Conservation Forest under the Forest Ordinance. Other significant activities prescribed in the management plan focus on providing alternative income-generating activities to the communities and restoring degraded forests. Key pillars in the development strategy focus on strengthening community groups. Activities include training and support in procuring materials for new livelihoods. The management plan outlines a programme for assisting local people in obtaining credit, training in micro-credit management, and establishing mechanisms to coordinate production and marketing. A programme designed to promote rapid restoration of degraded forests is also being implemented. Key activities include enrichment planting and maintaining a physical presence in the forests to complement legislative protection. In addition to enrichment planting and erection of boundary posts, other implementation activities include: opening and maintenance of nature trails, clearing of fire lines, assistance to build houses for relocation of families, buffer zone planting, an education and awareness programme for communities and schoolchildren, a micro-credit programme, construction of a mini-hydropower station, providing energy efficient stoves and assistance to minor irrigation work. The main objective of the Knuckles programme is to use local resources to create new economic opportunities in the buffer zone, thereby diverting villagers from their dependence on forests. These income-generating activities include: assistance for agriculture via extension programmes; training for farmers in alternative activities such as dryland farming, livestock management and vocational training; provision of high-quality planting materials; rehabilitation of minor irrigation structures; provision of credit facilities; training in adding-value to non-timber forest products; and facilitating the marketing of new agricultural products. Some families living in the buffer zone are being relocated to areas outside the forest reserve and awarded sufficient compensation to enable them to find new means of livelihood. A number of conservation measures have also been introduced to minimize soil erosion, including the building of stone terraces, introduction of new cultivation techniques and the development of taungya (agroforestry). The Forest Department and the Department of Agriculture have jointly implemented agroforestry development programmes. The most common taung ya system adopted in the area is known as Farmers Woodlots, in which farmers are given land and cash incentives for planting trees and crops, such as coffee and pepper, in an integrated manner.
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There is a high level of community participation in the management of the Knuckles Range, from the development of strategies to the implementation of management prescriptions. Dayapala, a local farmer, explained: Its good that the gover nment has continually involved us in the planning and the implementation of various activities in the Knuckles conservation programmes. As a result, we know what actions we need to take and how to do things right. Our involvement has greatly improved our lives. Farmers in Ranamure, Imaduwa, Narangamuwa, Lakegala and Illukkumbura are currently tilling 40 hectares, which will be planted with paddy and other agricultural crops. They have received assistance from the Knuckles conservation programme. In the past, the income from cardamom cultivation contributed to around 40 percent of our families cash income, Punchibanda said. Today, as a result of the Knuckles programme, we have opportunities to earn alternative incomes from cultivation of additional paddy areas and other field crops. I think this will compensate for the loss of income from cardamom cultivation. All of us are now working as a team to conserve our Dumbara forests. Responsibilities for directly managing the forests have not yet been devolved to the communities. However, they participate in forest protection, enrichment planting and other management activities through community-based organizations. Collection of non-timber forest products and participation in ecotourism activities are also planned in consultation with community-based organizations. The new systems mean that the forest is protected while local villages also benefit, through employment, and because their voice is heard in decision making. The intention of the Forest Department is to transfer increasing degrees of management responsibility to local communities as capacity for community-based forest management is developed. In the long run, the Forest Department plans to institutionalize these programmes through the development of strong community-based organizations. These programmes will play a big role in facilitating development, noted H.G. Gunawardane, the Deputy Conservator of Forests who is in charge of the programme. We want all the participating agencies, particularly those working directly with people living in the area, to be capable of managing their incomegenerating activities without the need for ongoing assistance from the Forest Department. Future in tourism and conservation The Knuckles area is rich in scenic, environmental, sociological and cultural resources. Local and foreign tourists enjoy panoramic views of mist-capped mountains, stunning valleys, impressive rock formations, crystal clear streams, hilly terrain, lush forests, waterfalls and cliffs. The ancient villages, picturesque rice terraces and cultural traditions of people living in the peripheral villages
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contribute to a unique blend of nature and culture. Most of the local people still practise village traditions dating back to the time of the Kandyan kings. In recent years, tourism has become an important source of income for local people. According to the IUCN and the Forest Department, more than 25 000 tourists visit the Knuckles forests each year. In 2001, the Forest Department and the IUCN prepared an Ecotourism Development Plan for the Knuckles Range. In 2002, in acknowledgement of the Knuckles forests as a unique national heritage rich in biodiversity, the Forest Department submitted a proposal to the United Nations Education, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to include the Knuckles Range in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Currently, UNESCO is reviewing this proposal. The proposal stresses the importance at both local and global levels of conserving the Knuckles Range. It highlights the areas significance given its high level of biological diversity and endemism, natural high forest ecosystems, attractive landscapes covering 21 000 hectares of hilly terrain and one of the most important watersheds in the country. The proposal further states it provides a variety of non-timber forest products for rural communities living in 77 villages and has very high potential as a site for nature-based tourism and recreation. It is a living laboratory providing facilities for environmental education and research for foreign and local researchers. We are confident that the Knuckles forests will qualify as a UNESCO Reserve and we intend to further upgrade these forests to achieve World Heritage status in the future, observed Sarath Fernando, the Conservator-General of Forests. Conclusion The courageous step of the government in declaring the unique Knuckles Range as a conservation forest, despite the socio-economic consequences, attests to the determination of the Government of Sri Lanka to conserve this unique ecosystem. However, the success of the conservation programme largely depends on finding alternative income generation options for the peripheral dwellers who depend on cardamom cultivation for their livelihoods. The programme implemented to date has achieved a measure of success in strengthening peoples participation and augurs well for success in the conservation of the Knuckles Range. About the author H.M. Bandaratillake has long experience as a forester with the Forest Department of Sri Lanka. From 1993 to 2002, he served as Conservator-General of Forests, the countrys top government forestry post. Currently, he is Director of the Forest Resources Management Project of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources of Sri Lanka.
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