OBJECTIVES:

1. To trace out the standing wave pattern developed along a waveguide.

2. To make direct SWR measurements using an SWR meter.
3. To make indirect SWR measurements using the Double Minimum Method.
4. To make a direct frequency measurement using a cavity wavemeter.
5. To make an indirect frequency measurement via a waveguide wavelength measurement.


INTRODUCTION

At radio frequencies (RF) and microwave frequencies, signals must be viewed as
waves instead of currents and voltages. One of the reasons is the wavelength becomes very
short that the current at one point of a long conductor is not the same as that at another point.
As a result, the ordinary Circuit Theory can no longer be used for the analysis of transmission
lines that have a physical dimension greater than 1/10 of the signal wavelength. This kind of
problems can be solved using Electromagnetic Theory.

The electromagnetic field at any point on a transmission line may be considered as the
sum of two traveling waves: the incident wave propagates from the generator and the
reflected wave from the load. These give rise to a standing wave along the line due to
constructive and destructive interference, as shown in Fig. 1. The electromagnetic field
strength varies periodically with distance. The maximum field strength E
max
is found where
the two waves add in phase, and the minimum E
min
where the two waves add in opposite
phase. The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR or just SWR) is defined as the ratio of the
maximum to the minimum field strength along the line, as given in Eq. (1). It is a parameter
used to describe the size of standing wave or the strength of reflected wave relative to that of
incident wave. The SWR will be higher (i.e. larger peaks and nulls in the standing wave
pattern) if there is more wave power reflected from the load end. The magnitude and phase of
the reflected wave are related to the load impedance which is generally a complex value.
Thus, the SWR and the positions of constructive and destructive interference depend upon the
load impedance.










Fig. 1: Standing wave pattern

FORMULATION

For a waveguide system, the SWR can be measured using a slotted-line method. A
short length of wire, acting as a probe, protrudes into the waveguide through a longitudinal
slot to couple to the electric field confined within the waveguide. A small fraction of power is
picked up and detected by a diode detector connected to the other end of the probe. By sliding
E
max
2

E
min
2

Power
Distance

g
/ 2
the probe along the longitudinal slot, the maximum power P
max
and minimum power P
min
can
be measured. The SWR is then given by

SWR
P
P
E
E
= =
max
min
max
min

or
) ( ) ( log 20
min max 10
dBm P dBm P SWR =

In normal operation, the diode detector gives a voltage which is proportional to the
electromagnetic wave power (or square of the electric field strength). This is the case if the
power is small enough to allow the diode detector to work in its square-law region. The
probe must not protrude too deep into the waveguide so that the power picked up by the
probe is small. This is also necessary to ensure that the field distribution in the waveguide is
not significantly disturbed.

An SWR meter can be used to give direct readings of SWR. A simple one consists of
a power meter with SWR scales on it. One way to establish an SWR scale on a power meter
is to make P
max
a known constant using a variable gain amplifier. A convenient constant for
this purpose is the full scale value of the power meter. With P
max
made constant, there is a
one-to-one conversion between P
min
and SWR, and SWR values can be marked on the power
meter in place of the power values. Fig. 2 shows an example SWR meter. There is a power
scale and an SWR scale on the meter. To use the SWR scale, one has to first set P
max
to the
full scale value, 1 W in the example, with the aid of a variable gain amplifier. Then, P
min
is
measured. The SWR will be

min
min
max
1
P
P
P
SWR = =


Note that this is exactly the relationship between the power and SWR scales. In other words,
the SWR can be read directly from the meter at the point of P
min
, no further division is
necessary.













Fig. 2: An example SWR meter


(1)
(2)
(3)
Power (W)
SWR
1.0
1.0
0.8
1.1
1.3
0.6 0.4
0.2
0
1.6
2.2

For the case where the SWR is high (for example, SWR > 3), the null points of the
standing wave pattern along the waveguide may have very low field strength. The probe
depth can be increased so that a sufficiently high meter deflection can be obtained at the
minimum power point. However, this will deform the field when the probe is moved to the
maximum power point. Also, the large electric field strength at the maximum point may
cause the diode detector to operate out of the square-law region. The above problem can be
overcome using the Double Minimum Method. In this method, one measures the distance
between the points where the detector output is double the minimum field strength, as
illustrated in Fig 3. It can be shown that the SWR is given by:

( )
SWR
E
E
d
g
= = +
max
min sin /
1
1
2
t










d
1
d
2


Fig. 3: The Double Minimum Method


A wavelength is defined as the distance between two successive points with the same
phase on a waveform. An electromagnetic wave is reflected from one waveguides wall to
another as it propagates along a waveguide As a result, the apparent longitudinal wavelength
is different from the free-space wavelength, as shown in Fig. 4. The relationship between the
apparent longitudinal wavelength or simply waveguide wavelength
g
and the free space
wavelength
o
is given by:

1 1 1
2 2 2

o g c
= +

where
c
is the cutoff wavelength for the particular mode of propagation. For an
electromagnetic wave with freespace wavelength equals to
c
,
g
will be infinitely long,
which means that no field variation occurs along the waveguide. A wave with freespace
wavelength equals or larger than
c
would not be able to propagate through the waveguide (in
the particular mode of propagation) and therefore
c
is called the cutoff wavelength (for the
particular mode of propagation). For the usual TE
10
dominant mode operation of a
rectangular waveguide,
c
= 2a with a being the broad-face dimension of the waveguide.





(4)
(5)
E
max
2

2E
min
2

E
min
2

d
Power
Distance

g
/ 2
3 dB










Fig. 4: Waveguide wavelength


Eq. (5) provides an indirect way of measuring the signal frequency. The waveguide
wavelength
g
can be measured as twice the distance between two successive minimum
points of the standing wave pattern. Using Eq. (5), the free space wavelength can be
calculated. The frequency f can be determined using the relationship u = f
o
, where u is the
speed of light in the waveguide medium. For an air-filled waveguide, u = 3 10
8
m/s.

Frequency can also be measured using a variable size resonant cavity known as cavity
wavemeter. A resonant cavity is made of a rectangular or circular waveguide with both ends
short-circuited. A cavity wavemeter is coupled to a waveguide by a small hole. Because the
hole is small, the cavity wavemeter can normally absorb only a tiny fraction of the energy
propagating in the waveguide. At a certain cavity size, a standing wave can be set up and
sustained between the cavity walls. When this happens, the cavity will absorb a larger
fraction of power from the waveguide system, which results in a progressive building up of
the the standing wave within the cavity. This in turn causes a small dip in the power in the
down-stream of the waveguide system. In this condition, the cavity is said to be in resonance
with the signal frequency. The resonant frequency can be calculated by solving Maxwells
equations with the dimensions of the cavity defining the boundary conditions. Varying the
cavity size will alter the resonant frequency. Some cavities are marked in frequency for direct
measurement reading. Others come with calibration charts so that the frequency can be read
off the charts. It is important to note that resonant frequency is not unique. There are
numerous resonance modes, each gives rise to a different resonant frequency. A solution to
this problem would be to use only the dominant resonant mode (lowest resonant frequency),
to search for the resonance from the smallest cavity size and gradually increasing its size, and
to read from the first resonance occurrence.

In the following experiments, you will trace out the standing wave pattern developed
along a waveguide. You will make direct and indirect SWR measurements using an SWR
meter and the Double Minimum Method, respectively. Also, you will make direct and
indirect measurements of the signal frequency using a cavity wavemeter and Eq. (5),
respectively.

o
equiphase
wavefront

g
the longitudinal
direction

plane wave
propagation

waveguides
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Initial Setup

1. Set up the equipment as shown in Fig 5.

Klystron
Source
Cavity
Wavemeter
Isolator
Slotted-line
Probe
SWR meter
Variable
attenuator
short-circuit
plane


Fig 5: Setup for slotted-line measurement.

2. Set the attenuator to > 2.8 mm.
3. Made sure that the SWR meter is in the normal deflection mode.
4. Switched on the Klystron power supply and SWR meter.
5. Adjusted the SWR meters gain until a significant deflection appeared on the meter.
6. Adjusted the repeller voltage knob for maximum reception at the SWR meter.
7. Adjusted the tuning gear of the slotted-line probe for maximum reception at the SWR
meter.
8. Adjusted the modulation frequency and amplitude for maximum reception at the SWR
meter.
9. At this stage, the SWR meter gave a good deflection at gain settings of 30 to 40 dB. Made
sure that a full deflection can be obtained by adjusting the vernier gain knob.
10. Made sure that the cavity wavemeter dial is set to maximum clockwise.

Trace Out The Standing Wave Pattern

1. Set the attenuators micrometer setting to 1.1 mm.
2. Moved the probe along the slotted-line waveguide to locate the point of maximum power.
Henceforth, for convenience, it was referred to as the maximum point.
3. Adjusted the gain of the SWR meter so that its reading is 0 dB on the bottom scale.
4. Moved the probe along the slotted-line waveguide to measure and record the relative
power at numerous points over a 50 mm distance along the waveguide. Recorded both the
relative power and position. Relative power was read from the SWR meter as the negative
of that given by the bottom scale.
5. Sketched a plot of relative powers versus positions.

Measure SWR Using an SWR Meter

1. Set the attenuators micrometer setting to 1.5 mm.
2. Moved the probe along the slotted-line waveguide to locate the maximum point.
3. Adjusted the gain of the SWR meter so that it has full scale deflection at the maximum
point.
4. Moved the probe to locate the minimum point. Read and recorded the SWR from the
SWR meter.
5. Set the attenuator to 1.1 mm. Repeat steps 2to 4
6. Set the attenuator to 0.5 mm. Repeat steps 2to 4

Measure SWR Using The Double Minimum Method

1. Set the attenuator to 0 mm.
2. Moved the probe along the waveguide to locate two successive minimum points.
Adjusted the SWR meter gain to have a decent deflection at the minimum points.
Recorded the positions of these two points (x
1
and x
2
). Determined the waveguide
wavelength,
g
.
3. Set the attenuator to 1.1 mm.
4. Moved the probe along the waveguide to locate the minimum point.
5. Adjusted the SWR meter gain to obtain a reading of 3 dB on the bottom scale.
6. Moved the probe to the left of the minimum point until the detected power increases to 0
dB. Recorded the probe position, d
1
.
7. Moved the probe to the right of the minimum point. Recorded the position d
2
where the
meter reading is 0 dB.
8. Calculated the SWR using Eq. (4).
9. Set the attenuator to 0.5 mm. Repeat steps 4to 8.

Frequency Measurement

1. Using the waveguide wavelength
g
from the above experiment, calculated the free-space
wavelength
o
using Eq. (5). The inner dimensions of the waveguide is given as
a=2.2870cm and b=1.0160cm. Calculated the frequency f
o
.
2. Set the attenuator to > 2.8 mm.
3. Adjusted the SWR meter gain to have a decent deflection on the meter.
4. Starting with the cavity wavemeter dial set to maximum clockwise, unscrewed the dial
slowly. Initially there was little effect on the SWR meter reading. At one point, cavity
resonance caused a noticeable dip in signal power. Read the resonant frequency f
o
of the
cavity wavemeter at this condition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Trace Out The Standing Wave Pattern

The first task was to trace out a standing wave pattern. The table below shows the relative
power at numerous points over a 50mm distance along the waveguide.

Position (mm) Relative Power (dB)
30 -41.0
32 -41.5
34 -42.0
36 -42.5
38 -45.0
40 -50.0
42 -58.0
44 -53.0
46 -49.0
48 -45.0
50 -43.5
52 -42.0
54 -41.2
56 -41.0
58 -42.0
60 -43.8
62 -47.0
64 -52.5
66 -56.0
68 -50.5
70 -47.0
72 -45.5
74 -43.0
76 -41.5
78 -41.0
80 -42.5

The plot obtained is available at the back of the report. The plot indicates a standing wave.

Measure SWR Using an SWR Meter

The attenuator is set to 1.5mm. By moving the probe, we locate the maximum point. We
adjust the SWR meter to have full scale deflection at the maximum point. Then by moving
the probe, we locate we SWR and record the SWR from SWR meter. We repeat the
experiment for attenuator of 1.1 mm and 0.5 mm.

Attenuator 1.5 mm 1.1 mm 0.5 mm
SWR 2.4 6.5 8

Measure SWR Using the Double Minimum Method

The attenuator is set to 0.2mm (minimum). We move the probe to find two successive
minimum points. We can find d = x
1
-x
2
.

g/2
= d = x
1
-x
2
= 2cm =>
g
= 0.04

The attenuator is set to 1.1 mm. The probe is moved to locate the minimum point. SWR
meter is adjusted to obtain a reading of 3dB. We move the probe left to fond the minimum
point. And then we move it to right to find another minimum. We read d = d
1
-d
2

SWR is calculated by the following formula

( )
SWR
E
E
d
g
= = +
max
min sin /
1
1
2
t


Length 1.1mm 0.5mm
d1 113 137
d2 115 138.5
SWR 6.47 8.57

Frequency Measurement

We use
g
in part D and calculate cut-off wavelength with
c
= 2a = 4.574 cm. Then we
calculate the free-space wavelength by the following formula:

2 2 2
1 1 1
c g o

+ = =>
o
= 3.01 cm

Using u = f
o
, we can find that f
o
= 9.963 GHz

The attenuator is set to 2.8 mm. The SWR is set to have a visible deflection of needle.

The cavity meter is unscrewed slowly. At first, the effect on SWR meter reading will be little.
But at resonant frequency there will be suddenly a high amount of reflection on SWR meter.
The frequency read was:
f
o
= 9.28 GHz

CONCLUSION

In this experiment, we learned how to measure SWR using SWR meter. We learned the
fundamental principles of Klystron source, and we learned to obtain the standing wave
pattern using double-slotted probe. The main focus of the experiment was on analyzing
propagation waves of transmission line, how the field depends on length of the probe
compare to the wavelength and maximum and minimum fields occurring along the
transmission lines. We inspected two methods of finding SWR, using SWR meter and
compared the results, which was nearly the same. The errors occurred was probably due to
human mistake and instrument inaccuracy and error. We also learned how to use the cavity
meter to find the signal frequency.