JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (2005) 20(7–8) 625–641

Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/jqs.988

Palaeohydrology of Laguna de Tagua Tagua

(34
300 S) and moisture fluctuations in
Central Chile for the last 46 000 yr
BLAS L. VALERO-GARCÉS,1* BETTINA JENNY,2 MAURICIO RONDANELLI,3
ANTONIO DELGADO-HUERTAS,4 STEPHEN J. BURNS,5 HEINZ VEIT2 and ANA MORENO1
1
Pyrenean Institute of Ecology, Spanish Scientific Research Council, Zaragoza, Spain
2
Geographical Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
3
Department of Forestry, University of Concepción, Los Angeles, Bı́obı́o, Chile
4
Estación Experimental del Zaidin, Spanish Scientific Research Council, Granada, Spain
5
Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

Valero-Garcés, B. L., Jenny, B., Rondanelli, M., Delgado-Huertas, A., Burns, S. J., Veit, H. and Moreno, A. 2005. Palaeohydrology of Laguna de Tagua Tagua
(34
300 S) and moisture fluctuations in Central Chile for the last 46 000 yr. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20 pp. 625–641. ISSN 0267–8179.
Received 6 June 2005; Revised 21 September 2005; Accepted 23 September 2005

ABSTRACT: Central Chile (32–35
S) lies at the northern border of the strong influence of
the westerly circulation belt and thus exhibits a steep rainfall gradient. A new core from Laguna
de Tagua Tagua (34
300 S) provides a sedimentologic, geochemical and palynological record of
regional hydrologic balance for the last 46 000 cal. yr BP. According to our age model, relatively
humid conditions occurred during glacial times before 43 500 cal. yr BP and from 40 000 to
21 500 cal. yr BP. Reduced moisture conditions and likely lower temperatures occurred from
42 400–40 100 cal. yr BP. Higher lake levels, and pollen assemblages with Valdivian rainforest taxa,
imply much higher precipitation during glacial times (40 100–21 000 cal. yr BP) compared to today
and, therefore, enhanced westerly activity in northern Central Chile. Afterwards, the general decrease
in moisture was punctuated by two abrupt arid periods at 21 000–19 500 cal. yr BP and 17 000–
15 000 cal. yr BP, and two more humid intervals: 19 500–17 000 (almost coincident with the global
Last Glacial Maximum, LGM) and 13 500–11 500 cal. yr BP. The early and mid-Holocene were the
most arid periods in Central Chile for the studied time interval. Millennial-scale palaeohydrological
reconstructions from Tagua Tagua are consistent with regional climatic records. Copyright ß 2005
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEYWORDS: westerlies; Last Glacial Maximum; South America; palaeohydrology; stable isotopes.

Introduction
The intensity and latitudinal shifts of the westerly circulation
belt (westerlies) during the Late Pleistocene in South America,
the correlation among marine, lacustrine and glacial records
during the last deglaciation, and possible interhemispheric
teleconnections have been topics of intense debate since the
1980s. The development of a Nothofagus forest during glacial
times (including the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ca.
20 000–18 000 cal. yr BP) (Heusser, 1983, 1990), and the
rich extinct Pleistocene megafauna with mastodonts found in
the Tagua Tagua site (Nuñez et al., 1994) have been interpreted
as evidence for more humid conditions and a northward shift
of the westerlies. Pollen data (Villagrán and Varela, 1990;
Moreno, 1997) and marine sediment studies (Lamy et al.,
* Correspondence to: Blas L. Valero-Garcés, Pyrenean Institute of Ecology,
Spanish Scientific Research Council, (CSIC) Apdo 202, Zaragoza 50080, Spain.
E-mail: blas@ipe.csic.es
1998, 1999; Stuut and Lamy, 2004) in Central Chile are also
consistent with a northward shift of the westerlies during the
LGM, although other pollen studies (Markgraf, 1989a, 1989b,
1998) and climate models (Hulton et al., 1994; Valdes, 2000;
Wyrwoll et al., 2000) disagree with these interpretations. In
southern latitudes, cooler and wetter conditions have also been
interpreted in the Chilean Lake District (Lowell et al., 1995;
Denton et al., 1999; Moreno et al., 1999) and adjacent
Andean region in Argentina (Ariztegui et al., 1997). Wetter
conditions have also been interpreted for the LGM in tropical
latitudes (Baker et al., 2001a, 2001b).
In order to test these competing hypotheses regarding the
palaeohydrologic conditions during Glacial and Lateglacial
times, and to provide new data to evaluate possible interhemi-
spheric teleconnections during the last glacial cycle, we re-
cored Laguna de Tagua Tagua and performed new analyses.
The Tagua Tagua site is one of the key sites for palaeoclimate
reconstruction in northern Central Chile, and provides the
longest lake record in this region, covering >46 000 yr.
The combined interpretation of isotope geochemistry, pollen
and sedimentological data from the new Tagua Tagua record
626 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
greatly improve our understanding of climate variability from
Central Chile. The lake is situated at the northern border of
the modern strong westerly influence. Currently, the precipita-
tion gradient is especially steep in that region with high rainfall
in the south (Lake District) and increasingly drier conditions
towards the north (Norte Chico). Consequently, lakes in this
area are ideal for the detection of humidity changes directly
related to the southern westerlies.
Research area
Laguna de Tagua Tagua (34
300 S, 71
100 W) lies in
a semicircular tectonic depression at 200 m elevation in
the coastal Chilean Cordillera. The catchment consists mainly
of volcanic and marine sedimentary rocks, tonalites and
granodiorites (Fig. 1). The drainage system contains many
small ephemeral creeks with water only during the winter.
No detailed surface and groundwater hydrological data
are available. According to Varela (1976), the basin formed
during the late Tertiary and early Quaternary and filled
with volcanic laharic deposits. The site was visited in the 19th
century by several naturalists (among others, Claudio Gay and
Charles Darwin) who described a large, ellipsoidal lake with a
surface area of about 30 km2, a maximum depth of 5 m, and
Figure 1 Geographical and geological setting of Laguna de Tagua Tagua in Central Chile. Location of Varela (1976) section, Heusser’s pollen profile
(Heusser, 1983), and the core studied in this work are indicated
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
abundant fish fauna. Dense littoral vegetation surrounded the
lake, and numerous floating islands, consisting of interwoven
rhizomes and stems of aquatic plants were common. Regional
vegetation is characterised by broad sclerophyllous woodland
or matorral (Heusser, 1990). While the former lake bottom is
used for extensive farming, the woodland covers mountain
slopes to a maximum altitude of 1600 m a.s.l. In 1841, a chan-
nel between the north shore and the Estero Zamorano, which is
connected with the Rı́o Cachapoal, was dug and the lake was
drained with a network of ditches in order to make the basin
suitable for agricultural use. Our coring site (34
29.170 S,
71
100 W) is very close to the coring site of Heusser (1983,
1990; Fig. 1).
The climate in the lowlands of Central Chile is Mediterra-
nean. The summer is dry with high radiation and evaporation
rates because the very stable subtropical high-pressure
cell blocks the frontal system of the westerlies. The winter
is cooler and humid, with positive moisture balance, as
the westerlies reach Central Chile (Weischet, 1996). The
seasonality of precipitation changes most rapidly around
34
S. South of 34
S, winter precipitation is dominant and reg-
ular, while north of 34
S, winter precipitation occurs epi-
sodically (Van Husen, 1967). Laguna de Tagua Tagua lies at the
northern border of the strong westerly influence where average
annual precipitation in the last 50 yr is about 800 mm (Heusser,
1990). The range of mean temperature in Central Chile is ca. 8–
10
C in winter and ca. 18–20
C in summer (Weischet, 1996).
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
 PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE 627

Methods
The sediment core analysed in this study (1105B, 834 cm long)
was taken from the dry former lake bottom in 1998 (Fig. 1)
using a modified Livingston piston corer 5 cm in diameter.
The core was split lengthwise and photographed. The facies
and sedimentary units were determined using lithology, miner-
alogy, organic macrofossils, sedimentary structures, smear
slides and thin sections. Magnetic susceptibility was deter-
mined at 0.5 cm intervals with a Bartington susceptibility
bridge.
Organic carbon content was determined as loss on ignition
(LOI) after Dean (1974). Stable carbon and oxygen isotope
compositions on calcite were carried out every 5 cm by mass
spectrometry in bulk sediment samples following standard
procedures and using an IRMS Finnigan MAT 251. The isotopic
values are reported in the conventional delta notation relative
to the PDB standard. After acidification of the samples with
HCl 1:1,
13C on organic matter was measured by an Elemental
Analyser Fison NA1500 NC. Certified standards and replicated
samples were routinely measured with satisfactory results,
being analytical precision better than 0.1%. Smear slides and
XRD analyses were performed to check the presence and type
of carbonate in the sediments. Only calcite was present,
although in small amounts, particularly in the lower part of
the sequence. Ten 14C dates were determined by conventional
and AMS analyses. Dates are based on terrestrial macrorests in
the lower part of the sequence and on bulk organic matter in
the upper part where terrestrial macrorests were not found.
Laboratory processing of pollen followed standard techni-
ques (Faegri and Iversen, 1975). Samples were treated with
KOH and HF, filtered and mounted on slides with glycerin. A
minimum of 300 pollen grains was counted per sample. The
identification of pollen was mainly based on Heusser (1971),
Markgraf and D’Antoni (1978) and Villagrán (1980).
Results
Chronology
Radiocarbon dates range from 6590  280 to 40 200 (Table 1,
Fig. 2). Those younger than 20 000 14C yr BP were calibrated to
calendar years with the Calib 5 program (Reimer et al., 2004)
based on the new calibration curve INTCAL04 and the oldest
ones were calibrated by CalPal2004 software (http://www.
calpal.de). In Table 1, ranges of the calibrated 14C years are
given for the 1- (68.3%) confidence interval. Dates older than
about 20 000 yr present a larger error than the younger ones (up
to 1300 yr in one case, Table 1), even causing overlapping in
two cases (Fig. 2). The first one occurs in the interval from
30k to 25k cal. yr where sedimentation rates are the highest
and the second one prior to 40k cal. yr when calibration proce-
dures still need to be improved (Reimer et al., 2004). In spite
of these limitations, the coherent results after the analyses
of up to 10 dates and the detailed comparison with previously
published sequences from the same lake, allow us to build
a well-constrained chronological model based on linear inter-
polation between dated intervals (Fig. 2).
Sedimentology
Varela (1976) provided the first detailed stratigraphic descrip-
tion of the Tagua Tagua lacustrine sequence. He described
several profiles close to the main drainage channel Fig. 1).
The 12.6 m thick lake sediment sequence described by Varela
(1976) overlies laharic deposits dated as 450 000 
60 000 yr BP (Stern et al., 1984) with an erosive unconformity,
and it is subdivided into eight members. Member 1 (12.62–
11.37 m) is composed of massive sand and gravel of alluvial
origin, and Members 2 to 8 are composed of lacustrine clays
and silts. The estimated age for the onset of lacustrine sedimen-
tation in the basin based on extrapolated sedimentation rates
following Varela’s chronology, is greater than 51 000 yr. In
our core, the lake sequence is composed of laminated to
banded greenish-brownish silt with variable organic matter
percentage (5–15%) and very low carbonate (only calcite) con-
tent, and a 1 m thick peat layer (Fig. 3). The upper sediment
shows redder, brownish colour with modern edaphic features
at the top. Seven main sedimentary facies have been identified
in our core after visual description, microscopic observation,
grain size and sediment composition analyses (Table 2). The
interpreted depositional environment for the sedimentary
facies is used here as a proxy for lake-level change, considering
Facies 1 deposited in the deepest lacustrine sub-environments
and Facies 7 in the shallowest one (Fig. 3). The new Laguna de
Tagua Tagua sequence does not record the whole lacustrine
sequence since it spans, according to our chronology, the last
46 000 yr.
Figure 4 shows the correlation among the eight members
described by Varela (1976), the pollen zones by Heusser
(1990) and the facies and sedimentary units defined in this
study. Unit 9 (833–702 cm, >42 400 cal. yr BP) is mostly com-
posed of dark brownish-greyish organic-rich silty sediments
(Facies 3), with thin intercalations of greenish banded silt layers
(Facies 2 and 1). This unit is interpreted as deposition in a
relatively deep freshwater lacustrine environment dominated

Table 1 Radiocarbon dating of Laguna de Tagua Tagua core. Ua ¼ Angstrom laboratory, Uppsala (AMS dating); Hv ¼ Radiocarbon Laboratory,
Hanover (conventional radiocarbon dating). See text for explanation about calibration procedures

Depth (cm) Age (14C yr BP) Age (cal. yr BP)
13C% (PDB) Material Laboratory no. Method Calibration curve

80.5 6590  280 7232–7728 26 Bulk organic carbon Hv-23492 CALIB 5.0 intcal04.14c
133.5 9735  270 10 687–11 413 24.6 Bulk organic carbon Hv-23493 CALIB 5.0 intcal04.14c
191.5 11 710  430 13 121–14 045 25.5 Bulk organic carbon Hv-23494 CALIB 5.0 intcal04.14c
272.5 19 320  230 22 611–23 330 24.0 Bulk organic carbon Ua-16878 CALIB 5.0 intcal04.14c
294 20 430  1300 23 318–25 787 23.8 Bulk organic carbon Hv-23485 CALIB 5.0 intcal04.14c
384.5 22 495  830 25 996–28 142 22.5 Bulk organic carbon Hv-23495 CalPal CalPal_2004_SFCP
411 22 430  485 26 355–27 706 27.8 Plant macrorests Ua-16458 CalPal CalPal_2004_SFCP
504.5 24 690  585 28 879–30 191 25.5 Charcoal and wood Ua-15091 CalPal CalPal_2004_SFCP
600.5 35 745  1950 38 599–42 109 28.9 Wood, carex Ua-15271 CalPal CalPal_2004_SFCP
697 >38 000 (40 200) 40 589–43 968 27.4 Wood (small branch) Ua-15272 CalPal CalPal_2004_SFCP

Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
628 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 2 Age–depth model of the Laguna de Tagua Tagua core.
Detailed information about the calibrated radiocarbon ages is given
in Table 1
by clastic sedimentation and with a significant organic produc-
tivity. The presence of molluscs (Tropicorbis) in Member 2
(Varela, 1976) also suggests deposition in a relatively deep lake
environment.
Unit 8 (702–598 cm, 42 400–40 100 cal. yr BP) groups peat
facies (Facies 7) and dark grey, brown massive silt (Facies 3).
The reworked nature of the base of the unit (702–686 cm) with
abundant fragmented peat and silty intraclasts, points to littoral
reworking and dominant shallower environments at about
42k cal. yr BP according to our chronology. Small water table
fluctuations could flood the peat bog and lead to the develop-
ment of a shallow lake where organic rich, massive silt would
have been deposited. The peat unit is also found in Heusser’s
core (1990). This unit would correlate with fine sands and silts
in the littoral areas (Members 3 and 4; Varela, 1976), where
sedimentary structures indicate deposition in a shallow lake
that dried out at the top of Member 3. Member 4 (5.61–
4.49 m), bounded by erosive unconformities, consists of clayey
silt towards the centre of the basin, and sand and fine gravel
closer to the margins. This is interpreted to indicate a very
shallow lake with frequent desiccation periods.
Unit 7 (598–402 cm, 40 100–26 850 cal. yr BP) is mostly
composed of greenish, laminated silty sediments characterised
by a low magnetic susceptibility that reflect deposition in a
relatively deep lake. The finely laminated Facies 1 represents
deposition in the offshore areas, not affected by bioturbation
or littoral reworking (subunits 7b and 7d). A relatively high
carbonate concentration, abundant intraclasts and poorly
preserved laminae indicate shallower, more littoral conditions
during deposition of the light greenish silt (Facies 2; subunits
7a, 7c and 7e). The alternation of these two facies reflects
changes in the lake level. The thickness of this unit decreases
toward the littoral area, and Member 5 of Varela (1976) encom-
passes Units 7 to 3 in our core.
Unit 6 (402–301 cm, 26 850–24 700 cal. yr BP) is charac-
terised by the alternation of centimetre- to decimetre-thick
layers of poorly laminated light greenish silt (Facies 2) and thin
(centimetre-thick) layers of dark brownish, more organic-rich,
massive silt with abundant intraclasts deposited in more littoral
conditions (Facies 3). The alternation of these Facies 2 and 3
reflects lake level fluctuations within a lake dominated by
clastic sedimentation and with depositional environments shal-
lower than during Unit 7. More littoral facies with abundant
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
aquatic plant macrorests, and reworked intraclasts occur in
subunits 6c (402–386 cm, 26 850–26 490 cal. yr BP) and 6a
(342–301 cm, 25 570–24 720 cal. yr BP) suggesting periods of
deposition with a higher alluvial-derived input and shallower
environments. Fluctuating, but relatively deeper deposition in
subunit 6b (386–342 cm, 26 490–25 570 cal. yr BP) is suggested
by the dominance of Facies 3.
Unit 5 (301–260 cm, 24 720–21 500 cal. yr BP) is composed
of alternating Facies 2 and 3 at the base, similarly to Unit 6,
and Facies 3 (massive, dark brownish organic-rich silts) and 4
(massive light brownish-greenish silts) at the top, reflecting a
trend toward shallower depositional environments. Unit 4
(260–193 cm, 21 500–13 790 cal. yr BP) is composed of alter-
nating brownish silt layers with lower magnetic susceptibility
values (Facies 3 and 4). The base of the unit is a 2 cm thick layer
composed of cm-long intraclasts. Higher amounts of intraclasts
and a susceptibility peak occur at the 245–217 cm interval
(19 780–16 500 cal. yr BP) suggesting increased alluvial influ-
ence and littoral reworking. Units 5 and 4 are interpreted to
reflect a dynamic wetland-lacustrine system composed of shal-
low submerged areas and more protected, deeper environ-
ments with lower clastic input. Unit 3 (193–150 cm, 13 790–
11 790 cal. yr BP) is composed of light grey-green, massive fine
silt (Facies 2). Abundant palaeo-Indian tools and remains of
extinct mastodont, horse and deer were found at the top of
Member 5 (Varela, 1976) that correlates with the top of Unit
3 (150 cm, 11 790 cal. yr BP). The high silicate content, lower
organic matter content, presence of transported plant remains
and relative increase in magnetic susceptibility indicate a
general increase in clastic input.
Unit 2 (150–60 cm, 11 790–6080 cal. yr BP) is composed of:
(i) dark brown, massive to poorly laminated sandy silt with
abundant organic-rich and dark coloured intraclasts (Facies
5), and (ii) light brown, massive to poorly laminated, fine
silt with carbonate intraclasts (Facies 6). These facies form
centimetre-thick fining-upward sequences. The coarser silt
represents deposition in a shallow lake during periods of higher
transport energy related to increased alluvial input from the
surrounding ephemeral creeks; the finer silt with carbonate
intraclasts represents littoral sedimentation in a shallower
environment. The sequences reflect decreasing transport
energy and lowering lake level in littoral, shallow depositional
environments. The top of Unit 2 is characterised by a small
increase in organic matter, abundant, large non-carbonate
intraclasts and an increase in susceptibility, probably indicat-
ing a period of higher alluvial input into the lake. It correlates
with Member 7 of Varela’s sequence (2.07–1.04 m) composed
of massive silts with abundant mollusc fossils.
Unit 1 (60–0 cm, 6080–0 cal. yr BP) corresponds to lake
sediments altered by edaphic processes after the basin was arti-
ficially drained. Varela (1976) described a palaeosoil horizon
with numerous archaeological remains at the top of Member
7 and dated as to about 6150 14C yr BP. He interpreted it as a
reflection of a low lake-level stand. Unit 1 correlates with Var-
ela’s Member 8, which is composed of clay-rich diatomites
reflecting a lake-level rise and a relatively deeper lake during
the late Holocene.
Stable isotopes
The
18O values of calcite range greatly (16% to þ0.3% vs.
V-PDB) suggesting significant palaeohydrological changes in
the lake basin (Figs 3 and 5). The range in
18O is attributable
to changes in the isotopic composition of authigenic calcite
alone, as a detrital source of calcite is absent in the Tagua
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE

Figure 3 Sedimentology and stable isotope geochemistry of the Laguna de Tagua Tagua core. Facies are arranged from 1 to 7 from deeper (Facies 1) to shallower (Facies 7) depositional environments. Lake types
also indicate qualitatively the lake depth, with 1 (relatively deeper lake), 2 (shallower lake, with wetland areas), and 3 (ephemeral lake, peat bog). Facies are described in Table 2

J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)

629
630 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Table 2 Sedimentary facies from Laguna de Tagua Tagua core
Facies Description
Facies 1 Finely laminated (about 1 mm thick), dark
green, siliciclastic silt. MS is low to
intermediate; OM < 10%
Facies 2 Massive to laminated, light green to greenish,
siliciclastic silt. MS is high and OM  10%
Facies 3 Massive, dark brownish-greyish organic-rich
silt with abundant intraclasts. MS is
intermediate and OM is higher than 10%
Facies 4 Massive, light brownish-greenish siliciclastic
silts. MS is low to intermediate and OM  10%
Facies 5 Massive to poorly laminated, dark brownish-
reddish sandy siliciclastic silt with abundant
organic–rich and dark coloured intraclasts.
MS is intermediate and OM  10%
Facies 6 Massive to poorly laminated, light brownish-
reddish fine silt with carbonate intraclasts. MS
is intermediate and OM  10%
Facies 7 Massive, dark brown, organic-rich peaty
sediments. MS is low and OM ranges from 10
to 25%
Tagua watershed. Accordingly, smear slides observations show
that carbonates particles are either small authigenic crystals
or fragmented bioclasts, most likely from calcite-coated macro-
phytes. The two primary factors controlling
18O values of
calcite are temperature and isotopic composition of lake water
(McCrea, 1950; O’Neil et al., 1969; Kim and O’Neil, 1997),
although pH can also be responsible for some variations
(Zeebe, 1999). Isotopic composition of source rainwater
depends on geographic and climatic parameters, and, for
one specific locality, temperature and amount of precipitation
are the most important effects (Craig, 1961; Dansgaard, 1964;
Rozanski et al., 1993; IAEA, 2001). In the Tagua Tagua region,
modern summer precipitation
18O values range between
2% and 6% whereas winter precipitation is considerably
depleted, ranging from 6% to 18%. (IAEA, 2001). Further
south, and at higher altitudes, rainfall is also isotopically
depleted. Surface meteoric water and in particular lakewater
are also affected by isotope fractionation due to evaporation
(Craig, 1961; Siegenthaler and Eicher, 1986; Gonfiantini,
1986; Gat, 1995, 1996). Consequently, the oxygen-isotopic
composition of lakewater is controlled by (1) the oxygen isoto-
pic composition of the rainwater which, in turn, is controlled
by the temperature, the altitude and the amount of the rainfall,
(2) relative humidity, (3) effective evaporation from open sur-
face, (4) the input of surface waters from runoff and creeks that
usually reflects rainwater isotopic compositions and (5) the
isotope composition of any admixed groundwater, if present
(Gonfiantini, 1986; Talbot, 1990; Chivas et al., 1993; Gat,
1995).
The 18O/16O ratio in authigenic carbonates depends on both
the 18O/16O ratio of the lakewater in which they were formed
and temperature. However, as temperature falls, the 18O con-
tent of rainwater decreases, while the
18O of calcite that forms
in equilibrium with rainwater increases. These two phenomena
counteract one another, thereby complicating the task of a
simple relationship between temperature and the isotope
composition of the calcite (Delgado and Reyes, 2001). The
temperature-dependent fractionation factor for oxygen during
calcite precipitation is 0.24% per degree Celsius (Craig,
1965; O’Neil et al., 1969). However, a 1
C temperature
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Depositional subenvironment
Distal (offshore) lacustrine
Deeper lake
Sublittoral with alluvial
influence
Distal to sublittoral with
significant organic
Shallower lake, with wetland areas
influence and alluvial activity
Distal to sublittoral with
significant alluvial activity
Littoral with significant
alluvial activity
Littoral with low alluvial
activity
Peat bog and wetland complex
decrease lowers rainwater
18O values by 0.69% (Dansgaard,
1964). As a net result, the effects of temperature on the isotopic
composition of rainwater and evaporation processes (palaeo-
hydrological information) generally outweigh a direct tempera-
ture effect (mineral–water fractionation). If the bulk of
carbonate was formed approximately at the same season with
a narrow range of temperature, the variation of the correspond-
ing
18O values may be primarily controlled by past changes in
the isotopic composition of the lakewater, a balance between
evaporation and input waters (meteoric and rainwater) isotopic
composition change. There are no isotope hydrogeological
data for the Tagua Tagua lake and catchment that allow us to
constrain this simplified model. The range of isotopic composi-
tion of lakewaters calculated using the equations by Kim and
O’Neil (1997) and the range of surface temperatures (15 to
25
C) and the extreme
18O values of calcites (12.5% and
þ1% vs. V-PDB) show
18O values between 10.3% and
12.6% and þ1% and þ3% (V-SMOW) (black and white rec-
tangles in Fig. 5(A)).
Intervals with low
18O values such as those from Units 9a,
8, 7, and Unit 5 could also represent changes in rainfall pat-
terns (both water sources or quantity), reduced evaporation
processes affecting the lakewaters, increased runoff and river
input, a lower mean air temperature or a combination of all
of these factors (Talbot, 1990; Gonfiantini, 1986; Gat, 1995).
A shift of
18O to more negative values, such as at the transition
from Units 9b/9a and from Unit 6 to 5, might have been caused
by an increased input of isotopically depleted rainwater. These
shifts could be related to higher effective moisture, a change in
the seasonality (more winter rains) or rain source (increasing
contribution of water from mountains: altitude effect), or an
increase in groundwater or surface water input. As rainwater
at low environmental temperature is more isotopically
depleted than at high temperature (Dansgaard, 1964), a
decrease in the mean annual temperature or a contribution of
more winter precipitation would deplete the isotopic value of
lakewater. In the Tagua Tagua record, periods with low
18O
values or the shift of
18O values to more negative numbers
correlate with sedimentological (finely laminated facies) and
palynological (increased arboreal components, see section
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
 PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE
Figure 4 Comparison of the three stratigraphies from the Tagua Tagua Lake Basin
below) proxies for more humid conditions. Conversely, periods
with high
18O values generally correlate with sedimentary
facies indicating low lake levels. Three main periods when
lakewater was enriched in 18O occurred; these are: Unit 9b
(>43 500 cal. yr BP), Unit 6 (26 900–24 700 cal. yr BP) and
Units 4 to 2 (21 500–6100 cal. yr BP). The base of the sequence
of subunit 9b shows the highest
18O values and finely lami-
nated facies (deep lake deposition), indicating
18Owater values
ranging between þ1% and þ3% (V-SMOW) (Fig. 5). Inflow of
more isotopically enriched water (rainfall) during the warm
periods cannot explain these positive values since rainwater
of middle latitudes usually ranges between 6% and 10%
(V-SMOW) (Rozanski et al., 1993; Aravena et al., 1999; IAEA,
2001). Consequently, the most plausible explanation is 18O
enrichment evaporation into a relatively dry atmosphere. Iso-
tope analyses performed in the very small amounts of calcite
occurring in the peaty sediments of Unit 8 show very low

18O values, similar to those of Unit 7. During this period, a
large change in the precipitation rate might have occurred as
the Tagua Tagua lake became a peat bog.
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
631
The
13C values of calcite cover an extremely large range,
from 26.7% to þ15.2% (V-PDB) (Figs 3 and 5(C)). The

13C curve shows a similar trend to the
18O profile: large

13C values in subunit 9b, 6, and 2, low values in Units 7
and 5, decreasing trends in Units 9a and 8, and at the top of
Unit 6, and increasing values in Unit 3. The top sample
(
13C ¼ 16.0%) could be affected by soil-forming processes.
In the absence of precipitation of carbonates during diagenesis,
changes in the
13Ccalcite reflect variations of the DIC (dissolved
inorganic carbon) input values and changes in the limnological
and biological parameters of the lake, as pH, alkalinity, pro-
ductivity, oxidation of organic matter in the sediments, equili-
brium with atmospheric CO2 evaporative and residence-
time effects (Hakänsson, 1985; Talbot, 1990; Kelts, 1988;
Street-Perrott et al., 1998; Bade et al., 2004). The correlation
of
13C and
18O values (Figs 3 and 5(C)) reflects a dynamics
that has been interpreted in terms of dominant hydrologically
closed behaviour where residence-time evolution plays a sig-
nificant role in the carbon isotope budget (Talbot, 1990; Li
and Ku, 1997). The correlation also suggests that high
13C
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632 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

Figure 5 Stable isotope composition. (A) Stable isotope palaeohydrology. The curves represent the theoretical temperature of formation of calcites in
equilibrium with meteoric waters based on the equations by Kim and O’Neil (1997). Surface temperatures (15 to 25
C) and the extreme more frequent
values of calcites (12.5% and þ1% vs. V-PDB) have been used to calculate the maximum and minimum
18O values of water (black and white rectangles).
(B)
18O in calcites vs. depth. Note that, at least, three relatively arid periods can be distinguished. (C)
18O–
13C isotopic composition cross-plot of calcite
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
 PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE
values could also be related to increased evaporation. The only
other source of such enriched DIC is methanogenesis, but
carbonates related with methanogenesis processes do not
necessarily correlate with increasing
18O values, nor is it
likely that methanogenesis was occurring in the lakewater col-
umn. Increased biological productivity can also be responsible
for higher
13C values in units where littoral environments are
dominant, although these effects are usually smaller compared
to the range observed in Tagua Tagua. The most negative
13C
values are mainly related with soil CO2 of areas dominated
by C3 plants, and the corresponding
13C values of dissolved
inorganic carbon (DIC) produced in these water bodies.
Soil CO2 is about 4.5% heavier than its corresponding plant
biomass (C3-C4) (Cerling, 1984; Cerling, 1991). The isotopic
difference between CO2 and dissolved inorganic carbon
(DIC) depends on pH and temperature. This difference is near
0% at pH values close to 5 (driven at very negative DIC), but for
pH values between 7.5 and 8 it is relatively independent
(Romanek et al., 1992), becoming enriched at 10%. Conse-
quently, areas with slightly basic pH generate DIC enriched
regarding the terrestrial vegetal biomass in about 14.5%. This
is concordant with
13C values in DIC of about 30% (V-PDB)
of lakes located in areas of acid rock (Bade et al., 2004). The
most negatives
13C values, related with slightly acid pH in soil
around lake where mainly DIC is generated are well correlated
with the most negatives
18O values typical of wet and cold cli-
mates (Fig. 5(B) and (C)).
The
13C values of organic matter (
13Corg) range from
15% to 27% (V-PDB) and they show good agreement with
the sedimentary facies described in the previous section. Less
negative
13C values (15% to 22%) occur in Units 9 and
7, and in the lower part of Unit 6. These facies were deposited
under deep-water conditions. Organic matter formed in shal-
low water and littoral lake sediments and peat facies yield
more negative
13Corg values (22% to 27%). Unit 9 shows

13C values from 23% to 17% at the bottom, and fluctuat-
ing values around 20% in the top, corresponding to two lake
level cycles. The peat unit has the lowest
13Corg values, indi-
cating an atmospheric CO2 source for C3 photosynthesis. After
a peak at the base of Unit 6,
13C values decrease to the top of
Unit 4. The upper part yielded relatively low
13C values,
although with an increasing trend in Units 3 and 2.
Factors such as lake palaeoproductivity, evaporation,
changes in the vegetation and the catchment of the hydrological
system could play a significant role (Aravena et al., 1992;
Meyers, 1994; Street-Perrott et al., 1998). However, the corre-
spondence of high
13Corg values with a deep-water facies and
low
13Corg values for peat and shallow lake facies suggest
that the
13Corg curve could be interpreted as a function of the
relative contribution of atmospheric CO2 or DIC in the synthesis
of vegetal tissues: (a) submerged aquatic algal (mainly 12% to
11%) and palustrine macrophytic (mainly 20% to 24%)
using CO2(aq) and HCO3 (Keeley and Sandquist, 1992).
Note that during periods when
13C values of DIC are most
positive, the organic matter is less negative (Figs 3 and 5(C)).
(b) emerged and terrestrial plants (C3 plants
13C values mainly
ranging between 25% and 30%; Deines, 1980; Pate, 2001)
are the source of the most depleted organic matter. Only a con-
tribution of C4 plants (11% >
13C <20%; Pate, 2001)
could be confused with submerged aquatic plant and algae.
Pollen
Our pollen record spans the last 30 000 yr, including the LGM,
the Lateglacial period and the Holocene. Six palynological
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
633
zones have been defined (Figs 6 and 7) and the correlation with
Heusser’s four main pollen zones is shown in Fig. 4. Heusser’s
(1983, 1990) pollen study was performed in a 10.7 m long core
retrieved near our coring site and south of the sites described by
Varela (1976) (see Fig. 1).
Pollen Zone TT6 (512–460 cm, 30 370–28 340 cal. yr BP)
This zone shows relatively low arboreal taxa, Nothofagus dom-
beyi-type (from 15% to 30%), Nothofagus obliqua-type (from
5% to 10%) and Prumnopitys (from <5% to >10%), and a
decrease in Chenopodiaceae (from 30% to 15%). The rela-
tively high percentage of Chenopodiaceae in the lower part
of the unit suggests a reduced arboreal cover and not very
humid conditions. The onset of Nothofagus expansion at the
top suggests increasing humidity; temperatures, however,
would remain cold, as indicated by the reduced presence of
Prumnopitys.
Pollen Zone TT5 (460–260 cm, 28 340–21 500 cal. yr BP)
Pollen spectra show large increases in arboreal and aquatic
vegetation: Prumnopitys progressively increases from 10% to
30%; Gramineae from less than 5% to 30%, Cyperaceae from
less than 5% to 40%, and Pediastrum up to 25%. Nothofagus
obliqua-type decreases from 10% to 1% and Chenopodiaceae
from 15% to less than 5%. Other taxa, like Nothofagus dom-
beyi-type (ca. 25%), Maytenus (ca. 5%), Asteraceae/Tubuli-
florae (ca. 20–15%) and Acaena (ca. 5%), maintain relatively
stable proportions in this zone.
Pollen Zone TT4 (260–193 cm, 21 500–13 790 cal. yr BP)
This zone is characterised by an increasing trend in Chenopo-
diaceae (from less than 5% to 30%) and Gramineae (from
10% to 20%), and the first appearances of Typha (from 1% to
ca. 5%), Euphorbiaceae (ca. 1%), and Poaceae >40 mm.
Nothofagus dombeyi-type maintain percentages around 30%,
and Prumnopitys andina shows the highest percentage (40%)
in this zone. The peaks in Myriophyllum, Lemna-type and
Cyperaceae point to shallower waters, particularly at the
base of the zone. Cyperaceae values remained below 10%
during the middle part of this zone (200–240 cm) correspond-
ing to the maximum of arboreal pollen, that indicates a regional
Fagaceae and Podocarpaceae forest. Other taxa with a signifi-
cant decrease are: Acaena (from 5% to 1%) and Gunneraceae
(from 10% to 1%).
Pollen Zone TT3 (193–150 cm, 13 790–11 790 cal. yr BP)
This zone is characterised by a drastic drop of Nothofagus type
antarctica/dombeyi and Prumnopitys that almost disappears at
the top. Cyperaceae, Asteraceae-Tubuliflorae, Amaryllidaceae,
Apiaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Typha percentages increase and
Chenopodiaceae maintain high values (45%).
Pollen Zone TT2 (150–60 cm, 11 790–6080 cal. yr BP)
Chenopodiaceae (45–60%) and Typha (15–30%) show
their highest values in the core. The high content of Typha
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634 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

Figure 6 Overview of the main pollen taxa in the Laguna de Tagua Tagua sequence

Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
 PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE
Figure 7 Overview of the main arboreal, fern, and aquatic taxa typical components of the mild-humid forest in Laguna de Tagua Tagua sequence
(10–30%) indicates a fluctuating water table. The arboreal
components, Nothofagus dombeyi-type and Prumnopitys,
almost disappear. Asteraceae-Tubuliflorae and Euphorbiaceae
also show significant decreases. The regional forest must have
almost disappeared at this time, and large areas colonised by
grasses.
Pollen Zone TT1 (60–0 cm, 6080–0 cal. yr BP)
This zone is characterised by a large decrease in Chenopodia-
ceae (from 60% to 10%), an increase in Gramineae and arbor-
eal taxa, and the reappearance of Prumnopytis (5%).
Gramineae values decrease from 30% to less than 15% and
Typha from 20% to 5% toward the top, suggesting less wetland
development.
Discussion
Regional vegetation and palaeohydrology
Sedimentary facies and pollen assemblages (Heusser’s Zone 4)
suggest that during deposition of Unit 9 (>42 400 cal. yr BP)
Laguna de Tagua Tagua was deep and the regional vegetation
was characterised by the presence of N. dombeyi type,
Prumnopitys andina and Gramineae. The development of this
beech woodland with podocarps represents displacement of
these trees northward and to a lower altitude compared to
today. An increasing trend in
13C and
18O (carbonate and
organic matter) values probably reflect increased evaporative
processes, and the presence of the lighter green to grey, slightly
laminated sediments (Facies 2) point to a shallower period at
the transition between subunits 9a and 9b, that, according to
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
635
the age model, corresponds to 43 500 cal. yr BP. A large change
in atmospheric circulation patterns might have occurred at that
time. The high
18O and
13C values in calcite precipitating in
relative deep water facies indicates that evaporation was not
the main driver of the isotopic composition of lakewaters,
and suggest a large input of isotopically heavier meteoric
waters. Higher biological productivity, and a pH increase
could also result in an enrichment of 13C (increasing in atmo-
spheric CO2 capture). An increase in winter precipitation and
colder temperatures conducive to reduced evaporation could
explain the lighter
18O compositions that dominate Units 8
and 7 (42 400 to 26 800 cal. yr BP).
Between about 42 400 and 40 100 cal. yr BP the water table
decreased and a peat bog (Unit 8) developed. It correlates with
Heusser’s (1983) Zone 3 and Members 3 and 4 of Varela (1976).
Pollen spectra from Heusser’s Zone 3 shows very high
Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae percentages, which indicate
a drier climate less favourable to tree populations. However,
the
18O curve does not reflect an increase in evaporation during
peat deposition. We interpret this as a period of decreased rain-
fall with a similar source to before and a decrease in temperature.
Heusser’s Zone 2 (28 500–10 000 14C yr BP) contains the
highest percentages of Nothofagus dombeyi type and Prum-
nopitys andina reflecting the beech–podocarp woodland
expansion, and a cooler climate with increased precipitation
and reduced evaporation. Our pollen zones TT6 to TT3, and
sedimentary Units 7 to 3 correlate with Zone 2. Unit 7 (598–
402 cm, 40 100–26 850 cal. yr BP) represents the deepest water
deposition in the Tagua Tagua sequence. Five main sequences
have been identified: lake transgression and deepening (subu-
nits 7e: 598–542 cm, 40.1–33.8k cal. yr BP), two cycles of ero-
sion and progressive deepening (7d: 33.8–29.3k cal. yr BP); a
period of dominant shallower littoral conditions with progres-
sive deepening (7c: 29.3–28.6k cal. yr BP); relatively deep
water conditions (7b: 28.6–27.5k cal. yr BP) and a progressive
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
636 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
shallowing trend marked by increasing magnetic susceptibility,
decreasing organic carbon and increasing carbonate content
(7a: 27.5–26.8k cal. yr BP). The absence of Typha in Zones
TT6 and TT5 may suggest that palustrine areas were greatly
reduced and open-water environments dominated when lake
level was higher.
Sedimentary facies (light green facies in subunit 7c), and pol-
len assemblages (higher proportion of Chenopodiaceae and
relatively lower Nothofagus) suggest relatively less humid con-
ditions for the short period from 29 300 to 28 600 cal. yr BP
(Pollen Zone TT6, and Heusser’s Zone 2b, about 530–
500 cm, around 28 000 14C yr). Pollen Zone TT5 (28 600–
21 500 cal. yr BP) shows large increase in arboreal and aquatic
vegetation, indicating the presence of a Podocarpaceae and
Fagaceae forest as the regional vegetation, and extended
wetland areas in the basin. Finely laminated facies (Facies 1)
and small decreases in
18O values mark the period 28 600–
27 500 cal. yr BP as another relatively high lake-level stand.
Decreasing regional lake levels led to a development of
wetlands at the top of Unit 7 and during subunits 6c and 6d,
as indicated by alternating Facies 2 and 3, higher
18O values,
and an increase in Pediastrum and Cyperaceae.
Pollen in the upper part of Zone TT5 correlating with sedimen-
tological Unit 5 (about 24 800–21 500 cal. yr BP) indicates a very
humid period when forests developed as the regional vegetation
and large areas around the lake were colonised with palustrine
vegetation. The decreases in Nothofagus obliqua-type and
Chenopodiaceae pollen percentages are a reflection of the
humidity increase. The increase in Poaceae and particularly in
Cyperaceae in the upper part also points to higher humidity
and the presence of large wetland areas in the surroundings. In
addition, small amounts of Lomatia and Myrtaceae, further
common taxa of the Valdivian rain forest and not of the montane
forest in northern Central Chile, were present. This zone corre-
sponds to Heusser’s profile 500–280 cm interval, starting around
28 000 14C yr BP, and lasting until about 15 000 14C yr BP
(ca. 18 000 cal. yr BP). Heusser also interprets this period as
indicating a beech–podocarp woodland expansion, with cooler
and more humid conditions, and with the highest lake level and
surface area. Lighter isotopic compositions in Unit 5 also support
the presence of a humid period.
The Cyperaceae peak at the transition between Zones TT5
and TT4 (ca. 21.5k cal. yr BP) and the first occurrences of Typha
suggest a large development of wetland areas that correlates
with sedimentological evidences for reworking (intraclastic
facies) in littoral lacustrine environments at the base of Unit
4. Sedimentary Unit 4 and pollen Zone TT4 show large
changes in vegetation and hydrology in Laguna de Tagua
Tagua from 21 500 to 13 700 cal. yr BP). The regional vegeta-
tion during the lower part of zone TT4 was a Fagaceae and
Podocarpaceae forest. Before 18 000 cal. yr BP, Nothofagus
ant./dom.-type percentages were high and Prumnopitys
showed the highest percentage in this zone and Chenopodia-
ceae were very low, indicating humid conditions. The highest
amounts of Prumnopitys, which often indicate very cool condi-
tions, coincide with the global LGM. Myrtaceae, a clear
component of Valdivian rainforest, was still present, but disap-
peared after 20 000 cal. yr BP. This zone shows the maximal
forest extension, generally humid conditions, where precipita-
tion exceeded evaporation. From 18 000 to 14 000 cal. yr BP,
this unit is characterised by an increase in Chenopodiaceae,
Typha and Gramineae. Euphorbiaceae appeared for the first
time. Arboreal taxa, such as Nothofagus dombeyi-type and
Prumnopitys, decreased. Heusser (1983) suggested that condi-
tions turned drier and lake level dropped after about 17 500
14
C yr BP, which corresponds to the change in our core around
18 000 cal. yr BP.
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The two Chenopodiaceae peaks in zone TT4 correlate with
the two
18O peaks of sedimentary Unit 4, marking two periods
of increased aridity at about 21–19.5k cal. yr BP and 17–
15k cal. yr BP. Chenopodiaceae percentages decreased and
forest taxa reached their highest levels, implying humid, but
also cold conditions during the period 13.5–11.5k cal. yr BP,
which was characterised by relatively deeper facies and lighter
oxygen isotope compositions.
Overall, the Pleistocene record of Tagua Tagua is dominated
by pollen taxa such as Nothofagus dombeyi-type and Nothofa-
gus obliqua-type, two classic arboreal components of the tran-
sitional zone between Mediterranean and temperate rainforest
vegetation, and Prumnopitys andina, modern high-elevation
woodlands in the Andes of Central Chile. The pollen assem-
blage includes common pollen taxa of the mild-humid forest
such as Lauraceae, Proteaceae, Winteraceae and, particularly
Myrtaceae, a typical component of the Valdivian rainforest.
There is no pollen record of Eucryphia/Caldcluvia and Wein-
mannia, however; their distribution is mainly restricted to the
area around 41
S.
The regional vegetation at the onset of Zone TT3
(13 790 cal. yr BP) was still a Fagaceae and Podocarpaceae for-
est. However, the forest opened and arboreal taxa decreased,
while Chenopodiaceae increased, indicating overall drier
conditions. Sedimentological data suggest an intermediate
lake level during Unit 3 (13 790–11 800 cal. yr BP), but with a
rapid transition to lower lake levels in Unit 2. These trends
correspond with the general increase in Chenopodiaceae–
Amaranths, and the dramatic decrease in sclerophyllous
woodland taxa recorded in the transition from Heusser’s Zone
2 and 1 (10 000–0 14C yr BP). Both trends are interpreted as
drier conditions during the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary
and the early Holocene. This corresponds to pollen Zone TT2
(11 800 and 6080 cal. yr BP), when the regional forest must
have almost disappeared, large areas were colonised by
grasses, and low lake levels dominated, with large wetland sur-
face fluctuations according with the relatively high and vari-
able content of Typha (10–30%). Hence, conditions at the
Pleistocene/Holocene limit and the early Holocene appeared
to be very dry.
After about 6000 cal. yr BP, conditions were more humid as
indicated by the reappearance of tree pollen and the sharp
decrease of Chenopodiaceae in Zone TT1. Pollen Zone TT1
shows a pollen assemblage similar to the upper part of Heus-
ser’s Zone 1 (late Holocene) that is interpreted as warmer tem-
peratures and more humid conditions than before. The regional
forest of Fagaceae and Podocarpaceae suggest the develop-
ment of a Mediterranean climate with a marked seasonality
in rainfall. Heusser’s profile (60–0 cm) also indicates more
humid conditions, but only during about the last 2000 yr. The
disturbance of the sediment in this unit, however, does not
allow for an exact dating of the onset of increasing humidity
during mid-to-late Holocene. Another sediment record from
Laguna Aculeo, however, allows better dating and shows a
change to more humid conditions after 6000 cal. yr BP as well
(Jenny et al., 2002, 2003).
In general, sedimentary facies, pollen assemblages and

13Ccalcite values provide coherent interpretations (Fig. 5). Very
negatives
13Ccalcite values, likely related with slightly acid pH
in soil around the lake where mainly DIC is generated, and
associated to an increasing in the vegetal biomass in the
recharge area, are well correlated with very negatives
18O
values typical of wet and/or cold climates (Fig. 5(B) and (C)).
More positive
13Ccalcite values are associated with high eva-
poration ratios (most positive oxygen values) and finally an
intermediate situation characterised by
13C values around
10% to 5%, and a relatively large range of
18O values.
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
 PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE
Palaeoclimate implications for the last 46 000 yr
The new record of Laguna de Tagua Tagua provides an oppor-
tunity to evaluate the different hypotheses concerning the gla-
cial climate in central Chile, the timing and structure of last
deglaciation and the teleconnections with other South Ameri-
can records for the Lateglacial and the Holocene.
Glacial period (>43 000 to ca. 18 000 cal. yr BP)
From the previously presented palynological, sedimentological
and geochemical indicators and according to our age model
we infer moister climatic conditions before 42 000 cal. yr BP,
and again from about 40 000 cal. yr BP to 12 000 cal. yr BP,
although with several oscillations. In association with these more
humid conditions, a rich, now extinct, megafauna, including
mastodonts, megatheria, native horses, Camelidae and deer,
has been documented around Laguna de Tagua Tagua (e.g.
Nuñez et al., 1994; Villagrán and Armesto, 1993). Around
12 000 cal. yr BP, moisture availability decreased rapidly and
conditions remained dry during the early and part of the mid-
Holocene. A return to more humid conditions occurred during
the late Holocene although the timing from the Tagua Tagua
record is less accurate.
During the Late Pleistocene in general, the temperature was
very low and therefore, evaporation must have been lower than
it is today. However, it is still under discussion whether or not
the dramatic moisture increase, inferred from the pollen and
sedimentological record, was just a response to the tempera-
ture decrease and hence less evaporation. From 42 000 to
40 000 cal. yr BP, water table decreased, a peat bog estab-
lished, and Chenopodiaceae increased (Heusser, 1990). Dur-
ing that period, temperatures were much lower than during
the Holocene, and evaporation would also have been reduced
but hydrological conditions in the basin indicate lower water
tables. So temperature depression alone was most probably
not able to provoke such a dramatic increase in moisture avail-
ability as it is postulated for the glacial period after
40 000 cal. yr BP.
The different interpretations of pollen records from Central
Chile (32–35
S) provide two different hypotheses about the cli-
mate mechanisms behind the increased moisture availability
during glacial times. Heusser (1983, 1990) postulated that pre-
cipitation was much higher in Central Chile than it is today, as
indicated by the northward displacement of the distributional
ranges of Nothofagus dombeyi and N. obliqua types, Podocar-
pus saligna, and Prumnopitys andina. He proposed a latitudi-
nal equatorward shift by at least 5
of the westerly
precipitation belt during the LGM and Lateglacial period, prior
to 12 000 yr. Markgraf (1989a, 1989b, 1993), and Markgraf
et al. (1992) postulated that the westerlies did not expand
equatorward, but intensified and shifted poleward, and a tem-
perature decrease of about 6
C is enough to explain the greater
effective moisture availability in the lowlands. Therefore,
instead of an equatorward shift of the Valdivian forest to the
Tagua Tagua region, as proposed by Heusser, Markgraf
(1989b) suggests that the full Glacial and Lateglacial vegetation
at Tagua Tagua represents a montane open forest that had
expanded into the lowland due to cooler conditions. Several
palaeoclimatic archives located near Laguna de Tagua Tagua
show indications for more humid conditions during the LGM
compared to today. Villagrán and Armesto (1993) suggest wet-
ter climatic conditions along the coast of Central Chile. Patches
of deciduous Nothofagus forests and evergreen rainforests
dominated by Aextoxicon punctatum occur today on the sum-
mits of coastal hills and in some ravines in Central Chile near
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
637
the coast (32–34
S). These patches may represent remnants of
a continuous band of rainforest found along the coast of Central
Chile during the Late Pleistocene. This view supports more
humid conditions and a probable northward shift of the wester-
lies as indicated by Heusser (1983). Moreover, both the wide-
spread Magellanic moorlands in Chiloé island (Villagrán,
1988a, 1988b) and further north in the lowlands of the Lake
District (Heusser et al., 1996; Moreno, 1997; Moreno and
León, 2003) indicate increased rainfall and a probable north-
ward shift of the westerlies. At Quereo (32
S), wetter condi-
tions prior to 10 000 14C yr BP are implied by abundant
pollen of swamp and wetland plants, before conditions
became much drier during the early Holocene (Villagrán and
Varela, 1990).
Simulations by Wyrwoll et al. (2000), however, suggested a
poleward displacement of the southern westerlies during the
LGM, based on a general circulation model, although the
changes in the westerly circulation show significant regional
differences. The simulations of Valdes (2000) also suggest a
general southward movement of the westerlies, but in some
models, the change is very small. Overall, the models produce
a relatively consistent picture of temperature cooling but show
greater uncertainty for precipitation.
The Laguna de Tagua Tagua pollen record favours more
humid, cooler conditions during the Late Pleistocene. Firstly,
we found small amounts of Lomatia, Myrtaceae, Lauraceae,
Drimys and ferns, which are typical components of the modern
cool-temperate rainforests. These plants have their main distribu-
tion in the Valdivian rainforest region between 39
and 41
S.
Very small amounts of Lomatia, Myrtaceae and Drymis prior to
the Holocene were also found by Heusser (1990) in the Pleisto-
cene record of Laguna de Tagua Tagua. Secondly, if the montane
forest range had lowered during glacial times, abundant montane
taxa between 34
and 36
S should have appeared in the Tagua
Tagua record, e.g. Austrocedrus chilensis. This pollen type, how-
ever, is completely absent in the record. Thirdly, sedimentary
facies and stable isotope geochemistry indicate the highest lake
level stands for the full glacial period (40 000–28 000 cal. yr BP).
The period of minimum regional insolation in the southern hemi-
sphere (30–35k yr) corresponds to deposition in Tagua Tagua of
the deepest lacustrine facies. The transition at 28k yr into shal-
lower facies of Unit 6 correlate with some Southern Hemisphere
records from New Zealand and Chile showing an early onset of
maximum glacial conditions at about 30k yr ago, soon after the
minimum southern insolation at 32k yr. (Vandergoes et al.,
2005). The similarities among these Southern Hemisphere
records (i.e. an earlier onset and longer duration of the LGM)
support the hypotheses of a strong link with regional Southern
Hemisphere insolation and asynchronous changes between the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Marine sediments off the coast in Central Chile (33
S) (Lamy
et al., 1999) indicate generally cold-humid conditions from
28 000 to 18 000 cal. yr BP with a short drier interval from
26 000 to 22 000 cal. yr BP. Subsequently, the deglaciation
period was characterised by a trend toward more arid condi-
tions. Further north, at 27
S, a region, which is still mainly
influenced by precipitation related to the westerlies, marine
sediments also indicate humid conditions during the LGM
(Lamy et al., 1998; Stuut and Lamy, 2004). In this marine
record, the reconstructed moisture variability is similar to the
Tagua Tagua sequence since the wettest period is confined
between 31 000 and 17 000 cal. yr BP, except for a dry event
around 25 000 cal. yr BP (Fig. 8). This dry interval may corre-
spond with Tagua Tagua Unit 6 (26 850–24 720 cal. yr BP).
According to these authors, the variations detected in the
moisture availability at 27
and 33
S are related to a latitudinal
shift of the westerlies.
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
638 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Modelling studies of the Patagonian ice cap by Hulton et al.
(1994) indicate much more humid conditions at 40
S during
the LGM and, hence, a northward shift of the precipitation belts
by about 5
. Glaciation during the LGM was very extensive in
northern Patagonia prior to 14 000 14C yr, also indicating cold-
humid conditions, before many ice lobes started to collapse
(Lowell et al., 1995). Based both on glacier advances deduced
from moraine deposits and on pollen analyses, the last glacial
period (ca. 30 000–17 750 cal. yr BP) in the southern Lake Dis-
trict and Isla Grande de Chiloé (40
–42
S) was also cold and
humid (Denton et al., 1999; Heusser et al., 1999; Moreno et al.,
1999; Clapperton and Seltzer, 2001).
Overall, there is general agreement for much lower tempera-
tures in northern Central Chile during glacial times, as derived
from pollen, marine and glacier studies. Therefore, evaporation
should have been reduced. However, most likely, reduced eva-
poration could not account for such a dramatic increase in
moisture as shown from the Heussers’ and our pollen and sedi-
mentological record of Tagua Tagua. The higher lake level, the
high pollen percentages of common mild-humid forest taxa,
even with some pollen taxa that are strongly related to the Val-
divian rainforest, such as Myrtaceae, imply enhanced precipi-
tation and, consequently, intense westerly activity in north
Central Chile during the LGM and Lateglacial times.
Deglaciation and Holocene (18 000–0 cal. yr BP)
The timing of the glacial advances and retreats in the central and
southern Andes, the moisture reconstructions, and the global cor-
relations for the deglaciation period are still controversial. The
variability deduced from glaciological and lake records is in con-
tradiction with the reconstruction from marine cores. From mar-
ine records located at 41
S (Lamy et al., 2004) a clear synchrony
with Antarctic cores is demonstrated during last deglaciation.
Two major warming steps were detected from the SST alke-
none-based record at 19.2–17.4k and 12.7–12.1k cal. yr BP, thus
highlighting the similar pattern with Byrd ice core and supporting
the hypothesis of a ‘see-saw mechanism’ acting during deglacia-
tion (i.e. Blunier and Brook, 2001).
The palaeovegetation and palaeohydrological sequence
of changes encompassing the last glacial termination studied
from the Laguna de Tagua Tagua record is characterised by an
increase in the aridity after the generally wet glacial period
(40–21.5k cal. yr BP). However, as presented before, this drying
trend is not uniform but interrupted by two very arid periods from
21–19.5k and 17–15k cal. yr BP, which are characterised by an
increase in Chenopodiaceae and more positive isotopes
values (Fig. 8). Between these events, a wet interval (19.5–
17k cal. yr BP) that almost coincides in time with the global
LGM is deduced from the decrease of Chenopodiaceae, more
negative isotopic values and the presence of laminated facies,
similar to those deposited during glacial times. This evolution
resembles the deglaciation pattern identified by glacial geologic
and palynological studies (Denton et al., 1999), with two
warming events at about 18k cal. yr BP and around 15k cal. yr BP.
A period similar to the Younger Dryas has been also proposed on
the basis of glacial geologic and palynological studies from the
southern South America region (Denton et al., 1999; Ariztegui
et al., 1997; Moreno et al., 2001). In Tagua Tagua, the period
between 13.5k and 11.5k yr BP characterised by a decrease in
Chenopodiaceae content and deposition of laminated facies
(Fig. 8) reflects a wet episode that could correspond to a cold
reversal (Hajdas et al., 2003) and the glacier advance postulated
for southern latitudes during that period (Denton et al., 1999). On
the other hand, marine sediments from the same southern
latitudes mark a clear warming period at that time (i.e. Lamy
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
et al., 2004). The explanation for this discrepancy may be related
to the different dominant forcing mechanism that influences the
records. Accordingly, the position and intensity of westerlies
together with the changes in the size and proximity of the ice
sheet may control the available moisture necessary for glacier
advances and retreats (i.e. Lake District). At the same time, these
factors may have modified the vegetation cover and lake levels
from 40
to 34
S (i.e. the Tagua Tagua record). On the other
hand, marine records would be more influenced by the intensity
and position of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) that led
to the variability detected in SST (Lamy et al., 2004).
The early Holocene in the Tagua Tagua record is marked by
an arid trend. In contrast, moisture availability, indicated by
pollen data, increased during the late Holocene. Detailed
information, however, is not preserved due to human distur-
bance of the top sediments by agriculture. Dry conditions
during the early to mid-Holocene are also shown in other
palaeoclimate records in Central Chile (32–35
S), e.g. in
marine sediments (33
S) by Lamy et al. (1999), in pollen
records at Quintero and Quereo (33
S) by Villagrán and Varela
(1990) and Villa-Martı́nez and Villagrán (1997) and in the
Laguna Aculeo (34
S) by Jenny et al. (2002). The same dry
scenario during the early to mid-Holocene is detected at
40–43
S (Abarzúa et al., 2004; Moreno, 2004; Moreno and
León, 2003). In Laguna Aculeo, the dry early to mid-Holocene
period lasted from >9500 to 5700 cal. yr BP. After
5700 cal. yr BP, effective moisture increased and at approxi-
mately 3200 cal. yr BP, modern humid conditions were
generally established and flood events related to strong ENSO
seemed to become very frequent (Jenny et al., 2003).
These lake records imply that during the Last Glacial Maxi-
mum, the westerlies appear to have been strongly enhanced
compared to today, whereas during the early and mid-
Holocene, the westerlies were probably blocked and hence
deflected southward by the subtropical high-pressure cell. Sub-
sequently, the higher precipitation during the late Holocene
seems to have been strongly related to a weakened subtropical
high-pressure cell with intensified westerlies and probably
increased El Niño activity, and increased seasonality following
the increase in precession at 30
S during the Holocene.
Conclusions
A multidisciplinary study of a new core from Laguna de Tagua
Tagua (34
300 S) provides a multiproxy record of past vegeta-
tional and hydrological changes in Central Chile for the last
46 000 cal. yr BP. Higher lake levels, and pollen assemblages
with Valdivian rainforest taxa, imply much higher precipitation
during the full Glacial and Lateglacial periods compared to
today and, therefore, enhanced westerly activity in northern
Central Chile. High lake level occurred before 43 500 cal. yr BP
and particularly during 40 000 to 21 500 cal. yr BP. A period
of reduced moisture conditions and probably lower tempera-
tures occurred during 42 400–40 000 cal. yr BP when a
peat bog developed. The general decrease in moisture during
deglaciation was interrupted by two abrupt arid periods that,
according to our chronology, occurred at 21 000–19 500 and
17 000–15 000 cal. yr BP, and two more humid intervals:
19 500–17 000 (corresponding to the global LGM) and
13 500–11 500 cal. yr BP. The early and mid-Holocene were
the most arid periods in Central Chile for the last 46 000 yr.
The millennial-scale palaeohydrological reconstructions from
Tagua Tagua are coherent with most regional records and sup-
port some differences in timing between the Southern and
Northern Hemisphere of the main climatic events.
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)
Copyright ß 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PALAEOHYDROLOGY OF LAGUNA TAGUA TAGUA, CENTRAL CHILE

Figure 8 Vegetational and palaeohydrological reconstructions for the last 46 000 yr in Laguna de Tagua Tagua sequence based on sedimentary facies,
180 and magnetic susceptibility profiles, and selected pollen taxa.
The N Chilean humidity index obtained from grain-size analyses in marine core GeoB3375 (27
S) after Stuut and Lamy (2004) is plotted for comparison

J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 20(7–8) 625–641 (2005)

639
640 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Swiss National
Science Foundation (NSF 21–50854.97 and 20.56908.99). We would
like to thank Daniel Ariztegui and Erika Gobet for scientific support and
fruitful discussions, Roland Beer for the pollen preparation, and
Andreas Brodbeck for the cartography. We thank Willi Tanner, Martin
Grosjean and Marc Begert for their help during fieldwork. We are grate-
ful to the departments of Botany, Geography and Geology (University
of Bern) and Limnogeology (ETH Zürich) for lab facilities. In addition,
we thank Patricio Moreno and Carolina Villagrán for laboratory facil-
ities and their valuable comments. The editor Donald Rodbell, and
Patricio Moreno, Tom Lowell and an anonymous reviewer are sin-
cerely acknowledged for their useful suggestions to an earlier version
of the manuscript.
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