IGCSE Chemistry 2012 exam revision notes

by Samuel Lees Contents:

1. The particulate nature of matter 2. Experimental techniques

2.1 Measurement 2.2 (a) Criteria of purity 2.2 (b) Methods of purification 3. toms! elements and compounds 3.1 tomic structure and the "eriodic Table 3.2 #ondin$ the structure of matter 3.2 (a) %ons and ionic bonds &.2 (b) Molecules and co'alent bonds &.2 (c) Macromolecules &.2 (d) Metallic bondin$ 4 (toichiometry 4.2 The mole concept 5 Electricity and chemistry 6 Chemical ener$etics 6.2 Ener$etics of a reaction 6.3 "roduction of ener$y 7 Chemical reactions 7.2 (peed of reaction 7.3 )e'ersible reactions 7.4 )edox 8 cids! bases and salts 8.2 The characteristic properties of acids and bases 8.3 Types of oxides 8.4 "reparation of salts 8.5 %dentification of ions and $ases 9 "eriodic table 9.2 "eriodic trends 9.3 *roup properties 9.4 Transition elements 9.5 +oble $ases 10 Metals 10.1 "roperties of metals 10.2 )eacti'ity series

(a) Extraction of metals 1,.& (b) -ses of metals 11 ir and .ater 12 (ulphur 13 Carbonates 14 /r$anic chemistry 14.1 +ames of compounds 14.2 0uels 14.3 1omolo$ous series 14.4 l2anes 14.5 l2enes 14.6 lcohols 14.7 cids 14.8 Macromolecules 14.8 (a) (ynthetic polymers 13.4 (b) +atural molecules
10.3

5stuff in blue is not on the syllabus but it mi$ht help you to understand to 2no. those thin$s. 5the section titles are underlined and in bold and in si6e 13. The sub5sections are only underlined and in bold. 5.ords in red are the ones .hich you ha'e to 2no. the definition of.

1. The particulate nature o matter

!inetic Theory:

States o matter: Solid: 1. (tron$ forces of attraction bet.een particles 2. 1a'e a fixed pattern (lattice) &. toms 'ibrate but can7t chan$e position therefore fixed 'olume and shape Li"uid: 1. 8ea2er attracti'e forces than solids 2. +o fixed pattern! liquids ta2e up the shape of their container &. "articles slide past each other. Gas: 1. lmost no intermolecular forces 2. "articles are far apart! and mo'e quic2ly &. They collide .ith each other and bounce in all directions. Chan#es o state: Condensation and solidi ication: condensation is .hen a $as turns bac2 into a liquid. 8hen a $as is cooled! the particles lose ener$y. They mo'e more and more slo.ly. 8hen they bump in to each other! they do not ha'e enou$h ener$y to bounce a.ay a$ain. They stay close to$ether! and a liquid forms. 8hen a liquid cools! the particles slo. do.n e'en more. E'entually they stop mo'in$ except for 'ibrations and a solid forms. Evaporation and boilin#: e'aporation constantly occurs on the surface of liquids. The hi$h ener$y particles escape from the liquid! e'en at lo. temperatures. #oilin$ occurs at the boilin$ point (% bet you did not 2no. that) and then the

liquid e'aporates e'ery.here in the liquid (not 9ust on the surface) and is much faster. :urin$ a chan$e of state the temperature of the mixture does not chan$e. $i usion: the process in .hich particles mix;spread by collidin$ randomly .ith each other! and bouncin$ off in all directions. "articles tra'el in random 6i$6a$ motions! this is ho. smells spread! solids dissol'e! dust particles tra'el in a random .ay .hen suspended in air. Evidence or di usion: %n li"uids: potassium man$anate (<%%) in a bea2er of .ater. (The colour .ill spread as a result of #ro.nian;random motion! this is dissol'in$.) In #ases: a $as 9ar of air and a $as 9ar of bromine are connected! the bromine tra'els up the tube. %actors that a ect the rate o di usion& Temperature increases rate of diffusion increases "article mass decreases rate of diffusion increases and 'ice 'ersa (this is sho.n by the follo.in$ experiment):

2. Experimental techni"ues
2.1 'easurement <ariable Time pparatus (top.atch Cloc2 Temperature Thermometer (liquid in $lass! thermistor or thermocouple) Mass #alance <olume 5bea2er (a) 5burette (b) 5pipettes (c) 5measurin$ cylinder (d) 5$as syrin$e

2.2 (a) Criteria o purity

*aper chromato#raphy: (To separate substances) a drop of the substance is placed at the centre of a piece of filter paper and allo.ed to dry. Three or four more drops are added to it. 8ater is dripped on! drip by drip! so the in2 spreads creatin$ different coloured circles. "aper = rin$s > chromato#ram. )in$s are created because different substances tra'el at different rates. (To identify substances) (pots of substances placed onto a pencilled line (as in2 .ould separate) .hich is called the ori#in! and labelled. "aper $oes in sol'ent! and sol'ent tra'els up paper! then paper is ta2en out. There are spots .hich ha'e tra'elled different distances. 5Interpretin# simple chromato$rams: 1. +umber of rin$s;dots > number of substances 2. %f t.o dots tra'el the same distance up the paper they are the same substance. &. ?ou can calculate the + value to identify a substance! $i'en by the formula: + value , distance moved by substance - distance moved by solvent To ma2e colourless substances 'isible you use a locatin# a#ent: 1. :ry paper in o'en 2. (pray it .ith locatin$ a$ent &. 1eat it for 1, minutes in o'en. The stationary phase is the material on .hich the separation ta2es place (e.$. the paper). The mobile phase consists of the mixture you .ant to separate! dissol'ed in a sol'ent. "ure substances ha'e a definite! sharp metin$;boilin$ point@ a substance = impurity has lo.er meltin# point and hi#her boilin# point! at a ran$e of temperatures@ more impurity means bi$$er chan$e. This is .hy salt is used on roads to pre'ent the formation of ice or to melt ice. "urity is important in dru$s and foodstuffs! they cannot contain harmful substances. 2.2 (b) 'ethods o puri ication /%iltration: Mixture $oes in a funnel .ith filter paper! into a flas2. )esidue is insoluble and stays at top. 0iltrate $oes throu$h. Crystallisation: (ome .ater in the solution is e'aporated so the solution becomes more concentrated. /ne drop is placed on a microscope slide to chec2 if crystals are formin$. The solution is left to cool and crystallise. Crystals are filtered to remo'e sol'ent.

$istillation: Simple distillation (left picture belo.) evaporates a sol'ent from a solution. %ractional distillation (ri$ht picture belo.) remo'es a liquid from a mixture of liquids! because the liquids ha'e different boilin$ points. -sed to separate substances in crude oil and $et ethanol from the products of fermentation. 1. mixture is heated to e'aporate the substance .ith the lo.est boilin$ point 2. some of the other liquid(s) .ill e'aporate too. mixture of $ases condense on the beads in the fractional column. (o the beads are heated to the boilin$ point of the lo.est substance in this case! so that the substance bein$ remo'ed cannot condense on the beads. The other substances continue to condense and .ill drip bac2 into the flas2. The bea2er can be chan$ed after e'ery fraction.

-sin$ a suitable sol'ent: (ol'ent .ater

%t dissol'es see A(oluble saltsB! su$ar

.hite spirit propanone ethanol

$loss paint $rease! nail polish $lues! printin$ in0s! scented substances in perfumes and aftersha'es

Choosin$ a suitable separation method: Method of separation filter e'aporate crystallise distil fractional distillation chromato$raphy

-sed to separate a solid from a liquid a solid from a solution a solid from a solution a sol'ent from a solution liquids from each other different substances from a solution

1. 2toms3 elements and compounds

1.1 2tomic structure and the *eriodic Table "articl )elati'e e char$e "roto n +eutr on Electr on =1 , 51 Mass (atomic mass units) 1 1 1;143,

*roton number: the number of protons in an atom (and the number of electrons in an unchar$ed atom). 4ucleon number: the number of protons = neutrons in an atom. %n the periodic table! .hen you $o one element to the ri$ht! you increase the proton number by 1. 8hen you $o one element do.n! you increase the proton number by 4 in the first & periods (.here the transition elements are not included). Isotope: atoms of the same element that ha'e different numbers of neutrons e.$. Carbon 12 and Carbon 13. There are non/radioactive isotopes and radio(active)/isotopes. )adio isotopes are unstable atoms! .hich brea2 do.n $i'in$ radiation.

Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) C rays 2ill cancer cells usin$ cobalt5D,. %ndustrial use: to chec2 for lea2s C radioisotopes called tracers are added to oil or $as. t the lea2s radiation is detected usin$ a *ei$er counter! (if you need to name an element then say carbon 13 C used for carbon datin$! .hen somethin$ dies it does not ta2e in ne. carbon atoms! but it still has remainin$ carbon513 atoms! the radiation can be measured to estimate ho. lon$ a$o somethin$ died). Electrons are arran$ed in electron shells. toms .ant to ha'e full outer shells (full set of valency electrons)! this is .hy they react. +oble $ases ha'e full outer shells so they ha'e no need to react. Electron shell structure: 2! 4! 4! 14. More reacti'e elements ha'e a $reater desire to ha'e a full outer shell! so also form more stable compounds. 1.2 5ondin#& the structure o matter Element: a substance that cannot be split into anythin$ simpler! in a chemical reaction. Each element has a unique proton number. 'ixture: t.o or more elements mixed to$ether #-T that are not chemically combined Compound: a substance in .hich t.o or more different elements are chemically combined. 'etals: 1. stron$ 2. malleable and ductile 3. sonorous 4. $ood conductors of heat and electricity 5. ha'e hi$h meltin$ and boilin$ points 6. hi$h density 7. react .ith oxy$en to form bases called metal oxides 8. in reactions they form positi'e ions (cations) 9. some! e.$. iron! are ma$netic. 4on metals: 1. re brittle 2. 1a'e lo.er meltin$ and boilin$ points than metals! &. "oor conductors of electricity! except for $raphite (carbon) and are also bad conductors of heat 3. 1a'e lo. densities E. Most react .ith oxy$en to form oxides D. 0orm ne$ati'ely char$ed ions (anions) in a chemical reaction 2lloy: a mixture .here at least one other substance is added to a metal! to impro'e its properties@ the other substance is often a metal too (but not al.ays) e.$. brass (F,G copper and &,G 6inc) is harder than copper! does not corrode! used in musical instruments. 1.2 (a) Ions and ionic bonds Ion: is a char$ed atom (i.e. number of protons does not equal number of electrons). They form by losin$ an electron (reduction) increases char$e by 1! or by $ainin$ one ( oxidation) decreases char$e by 1. )emember /%H )%*: oxidation is loss! reduction is $ain. positi'ely char$ed atom is called a cation! it is usually a metal. ne$ati'ely chan$ed atom is called an anion! it is a non5metal(s). Ionic bond: the bond formed bet.een ions of opposite char$e. *roup 1 metals react .ith halo$ens. %n the reaction the metal $i'es one electron to the halo$en! as sho.n belo. (+/TE the .ay the ions are represented usin$ brac2ets and = and C si$ns)

%n a reaction a metal $i'es a non5metal its 'alency electrons. n ionic compound (in solid state) has a re$ular arran$ement (lattice) of alternatin$ positi'e and ne$ati'e ions. 1.2 (b) 'olecules and covalent bonds (in$le co'alent bond: a bond .here 2 non5metals share a pair of electrons to $et full5outer shells as seen in 12! Cl2! 12/! C13 and 1Cl represented by a line connectin$ the t.o symbols e.$. 151 :ouble bond is .hen 3 electrons are shared (t.o from each atom) and a triple bond is .hen D are shared (& from each atom) e.$. C>C and +I+ <olatility (forms (olubility Electrical 'apour) conducti'ity %onic compound Co'alent compound lo. hi$h usually soluble .hen molten or in solution (except

the ma9ority do not none dissol'e $raphite)

Jno. ho. to dra. the follo.in$ structures: +2! C213! C1&/1! and C/2

%mportant thin$s to note: co'alent bonds are .ea2! and ionic bonds are stron$. 8hen you melt an ionic solid you brea2 up the compound into ions! so it ta2es more ener$y! therefore ionic compounds ha'e hi$her meltin$ points. 8hen you melt a co'alent solid! the molecules are bro2en up from each other but are still bonded (e.$. .hen you melt ice you $et 1 2/ molecules but in a liquid! but meltin$ +aCl $i'es you a molten mixture of +a= and Cl5 ions). 1.2 (c) 'acromolecules

$iamond: has four bonds! hi$h meltin$ point! does not conduct and is 'ery hard. -sed for cuttin$! because it is the hardest 2no.n substance (2 left pictures belo.). Graphite: has three bonds! made of flat sheets that are held to$ether by .ea2 forces so it is soft and slippery! so it is used as a lubricant. %t can conduct electricity because it has one free electron. %t is slippery because the sheets ha'e .ee2 bonds bet.een them (middle picture). Silicon (I6) oxide-silicon dioxide-silica: ma2es up most of sand. Each (i atom is bonded to four oxy$en atoms! and each oxy$en atom is bonded to t.o silicon atoms. s a result it has a hi$h meltin$ point and is hard! li2e diamond (ri$ht picture). (ilicon %< oxide and diamond both ha'e hi$h meltin$ points and are 'ery hard substances.

*E+E) H ")/"E)T%E( /0 *% +T M/HEC-HE( 'ELTI4G *7I4T 5 <ery hi$h since structure is made up of a lar$e number of co'alent bonds! all of .hich need to be bro2en if atoms are to be separated ELECT+IC2L 5 :on7t conduct electricity 5 ha'e no mobile ions or electrons! #-T... *raphite conducts electricity ST+E4GT8 5 1ard 5 exist in a ri$id tetrahedral structure e.$. :iamond and silica ((i/2)... but *raphite is soft 1.2 (d) 'etallic bondin# 5Metallic bondin$: a lattice of ti$htly pac2ed positi'e ions in a sea of electrons! resultin$ in crystals! therefore: 1. Metals are malleable and ductile C the layers of ions can slide o'er each other 2. Metals are #ood conductors C free electrons ta2e ener$y

9. Stoichiometry
5%n a symbol equation the number of atoms on each side of the equation should balanced for each element. 5%n an equation! remember to .rite the symbol for the state (aqueous! solid! liquid! $as) in brac2ets! and the oxidation state of a transition metal in a .ord equation. +elative atomic mass! r: the a'era$e mass of the atoms of an element! relati'e to the mass of an atom of carbon512. +elative molecular mass! Mr: the mass of a molecule! found by addin$ the relati'e atomic masses of the atoms in it! it is called the relative ormula mass for an ionic compound. :eterminin$ the name and formula of a compound: To determine the formula of an ionic compound the positi'e char$e must equal the ne$ati'e char$e. +amin$ compounds: %f only t.o elements are combined! the name ends in KCide. Exception: ammonia 8ith co'alent bonds! *ree2 prefixes are used to denote the number of atoms 1 > mono carbon monoxide

2 > di & > tri 3 > tetra E > penta D > hexa

carbon dioxide phosphorus trihydride

The only time .e drop a prefix is if the mono is to appear at the be$innin$ of the name %f there is an oxide the Ka7 or Ko7 of the prefix is lost e.$. carbon monoxide %f a metal ion is combined .ith a polyatomic ion in a compound and one is oxy$en! the name ends in Cate! except hydroxides 8ith ionic compounds! the cation (metal) $oes first in the name. 8ith co'alent compounds the element further on the left $oes first (hydro$en is thou$ht of bein$ in bet.een nitro$en and oxy$en so: phosphorus trihydride ; hydro$en peroxide) 9.1 The mole concept mole is the r or Mr expressed in $rams e.$. 1 mole of Carbon512 is equal to 12 $rams. %t is equal to D.,2 L 1,2& atoms! this number is called 2vo#rado:s constant. 1 mole of a $as at +T* (2EMC and 1atm or room temperature and pressure) occupies a 'olume of 23dm &. The symbol for a mole is AmolB e.$. 1mol. Concentration is measured in mol;dm& or M for short. Moles calculations: *rams to moles: number of $rams L 1 ; Mr Moles of one substance to another: number of moles of substance L

number of moles of substance B balanced equation number of moles of substance A balanced equation

Moles bac2 to $rams: +umber of moles L (number of $rams per mole e.$. 2,$;mole) Moles of $as to 'olume (at )T"): +umber of moles L 23dm& *as 'olume to moles: 'olume ; 23dm& Moles to atoms: +umber of moles L D.,2 L 1,2& <olume to moles: 'olume L concentration (concentration>moles of solute;total 'olume) *ercent purity > amount of .anted substance ; total amount of substance L 1,,G *ercent yield > actual yield ; theoretical yield L 1,,G Emperical ormula: simplest ratio of atoms in the chemical formula. 'olecular ormula: the formula usin$ the actual number of atoms in a molecule. To find out the emperical formula you: 5ma2e the percent ratio into the simplest .hole number ratio (+/TE: if it is percent mass! then you ha'e to di'ide each percenta$e by its r to con'ert the mass ratio to an atom ratio (because atoms ha'e different .ei$hts) then ma2e that ratio into the smallest .hole number ratio by di'idin$ the coefficients of each element symbol by the lo.est coefficient! for example:

1. substance is 3,G carbon! D.DDDDG hydro$en and E&.&&&3G oxy$en by mass. 0irst you must con'ert the mass ration (3,:D.DDDD:E&.&&&3) to an atom ratio: 2. 3,;12 > &.&&&& N C&.&&&& &. D.DDDD;1 > D.DDDD N 1D.DDDD 3. E&.&&&3;1D > &.&&&& N /&.&&&& E. The ratio is C&.&&&& 1D.DDDD /&.&&&& D. Oust by loo2in$ .e can see there are t.ice as many hydro$en atoms in the formula as either oxy$en or carbon! but let us suppose that the ratio .asn7t so easy to simplify! you .ould then ha'e to: F. Con'ert moles of carbon to the simplest .hole number: &.&&&& ; &.&&&& > 1 4. Con'ert moles of hydro$en to the simplest .hole number: D.DDDD ; &.&&&& > 2 P. Con'ert moles of oxy$en to the simplest .hole number: &.&&&& ; &.&&&& > 1 1,. The ratio is therefore 1:2:1 so the empirical formula is C12, 5simplify the molecular formula for example ta2e CD112,D and di'ide each coefficient by the smallest number (D) N C12, 5if you are $i'en the masses of each element in the compound you di'ide the masses by the r! and con'ert into the simplest .hole number ratio. To calculate the molecular mass: 5if you ha'e the emperical formula you 2no. the emperical mass as .ell. Then if you are $i'en the molecular mass you 9ust do molecular mass;emperical mass to $i'e you AnB. Then you multiply the emperical ratio by AnB. +o. let7s suppose that they tell you the molecular mass of the compound that has the empirical formula C12/ is 14,! and you are as2ed to find the molecular formula 1. 0ind out the empirical mass: 12 = (2 L 1) = 1D > &, 2. 0ind the number you must multiply the empirical formula by! let7s call it Kn7: 14, ; &, > n > D &. Multiply the empirical ratio by D N 1:2:1 L D is D:12:D 3. The molecular formula is therefore CD112,D

;. Electricity and chemistry

-sin$ inert electrodes (platinum or carbon) Electrolyte "roduct at cathode lead (%%) bromide (l) concentrated 1Cl (aq) concentrated +aCl (aq) lead 1ydro$en 1ydro$en "roduct at anode bromine Chlorine chlorine

%n $eneral! metals or hydro$en are formed at the cathode (ne$ati'e electrode! .here reduction ta2es place)! non5metals except hydro$en are formed at the anode (positi'e electrode! .here oxidation ta2es place). 1o. to predict products: (0%? they .ill only $i'e compounds .ith 2 elements li2e .ater! but no more i.e. not Cu(/3) 5if molten compound (e.$. iron oxide) then you 9ust $et the t.o components produced in elemental form (e.$. molten iron = oxy$en $as)

5in a solution! at the cathode! the less reacti'e of the t.o positi'e ions .ill be reduced e.$. aqueous +aCl .ill produce hydro$en! not sodium. 5if a halide is in a concentrated solution! then a halo$en .ill be produced at the anode. %f the solution is dilute! oxy$en! from the .ater! .ill be produced. Electroplatin# (picture on the left) 0or electroplatin$! you need: 5an anode made of the metal that you .ant to electroplate the ob9ect .ith! 5ions of the same metal as the anode in solution 5ob9ect to be plated at cathode %t is used to ma2e thin$s loo2 better (coatin$ a .atch .ith $old) or to pre'ent corrosion. 2luminium is used for electricity cables (not .ires) because it is li$ht! does not corrode! is a $ood conductor! and cheaper and much li$hter than copper. The cables ha'e a steel core! for stren$th. "lastics and ceramics are used as insulators because they do not conduct electricity! and conduct heat poorly. "lastic is used for the casin$ in electric plu$s. Ceramics (inor$anic! non5metallic solids) are used to support the cables in electricity pylons. Copper is used in electrical .ires (not cables) as it is a 'ery $ood conductor and ductile (not as $ood a sil'er! .hich is the best conductor used in circuitry in 2eyboards! phones etc.! but it is cheaper) Choice of electrodes can affect products. n example:

Electrolyte dilute copper sulphate dilute copper sulphate

Cathode made node made "roduct of: of: cathode: (%%) inert material copper copper (%%) inert material inert material copper

at at anode: +othin$ but Copper is lost oxy$en

This concept is used to refine copper

Electrolysis is a .ay to decompose compounds! usin$ electricity. )eduction of positi'e cations happens at the cathode (C Tions at C Thode. /xidation of ne$ati'e anions happens at the anode ( +ions at +ode) for example: t the anode: 2Cl5 Cl2 = 2e5 t the cathode: 21= = 2e5 12 Extraction of aluminium and electrolysis of brine luminium (%%%) oxide (alumina) is dissol'ed in molten cryolite (+a& l0D). The mixture melts at a lo.er temperature.

:urin$ electrolysis aluminium is produced at the carbon cathode and oxy$en at the carbon anode. Electrolysis of 5rine #rine is concentrated +aCl solution Chlorine is produced at the titanium anode! hydro$en is produced at the steel-nic0el cathode (in the boo2 it says steel in the text and nic2el in the dia$ram) and sodium hydroxide is left o'er. 2sbestos diaphra#m lets ions pass throu$h! but 2eeps $ases apart.

<. Chemical ener#etics

<.1 Ener#etics o a reaction Exothermic reaction: $i'es out ener$y to the surroundin$s. Endothermic reaction: ta2es in ener$y from the surroundin$s. #ond brea2in$ is endothermic #ond ma2in$ is exothermic <.2 *roduction o ener#y uel is a substance used to obtain ener$y. #urnin$ fuels (li2e oil! coal etc.) to form oxides is an exothermic reaction ($i'es out heat). The heat from burnin$ fuels is used in po.er plants to create steam from .ater and turn turbines. 8ydro#en: #urns explosi'ely .ith oxy$en! so it is used in roc2ets. #ut in a uel cell it combines .ith oxy$en .ithout burnin$ (details of the construction and operation of a fuel cell are not required). 4uclear uels: are not burned. The radioisotopes (unstable atoms) decay naturally $i'in$ out ener$y. %n a nuclear po.er station they are forced to brea2 do.n by shootin$ neutrons at them. They heat up .ater to ma2e steam .hich turns turbines. d'anta$es: lots of ener$y is

made from a small amount of fuel and no carbon dioxide is produced. :isad'anta$e is that it produces radiation and radioacti'e .aste! non5 rene.able Electrochemical cell: consists of a ne$ati'e pole (the more reacti'e metal) and a positi'e pole (less reacti'e metal) and an electrolyte. The $reater the difference in reacti'ity of the t.o metals! the $reater the 'olta$e .ill be. The electrons flo. because one metal is more reacti'e! so it has a stron$er dri'e to $i'e up its electrons. The atoms $i'e up electrons and enter the solution as ions.

=. Chemical reactions
Collision theory: collisions are needed for a chemical reaction to ta2e place Q the successful collisions ha'e enou$h ener$y! also 2no.n as acti'ation ener$y! at the moment of impact to brea2 the preexistin$ bonds and form all ne. bonds. =.1 Speed o reaction 0actors affectin$ the rate of reaction are: 5Concentration (pressure in $ases): the hi$her the concentration of reactants is (hi$her pressure in $ases) the faster the reaction .ill happen. This is because there is more chance of reactant particles collidin$! so there .ill be more collision per unit of time. 5*article si>e: 0or the same mass of particles (e.$. 12$) the smaller the particles are the faster the reaction .ill ta2e place. This is because many small particles .ill ha'e more surface area than fe.er lar$e particles. More surface area means that there is more area in .hich particles can collide. More collisions per unit of time means a faster reaction. 5Catalysts (includin$ en6ymes: biolo$ical catalysts): catalysts are substances .hich speed up reactions! .hilst remainin$ chemically unchan$ed. Catalysts .or2 by lo.erin$ the acti'ation ener$y and pro'idin$ an alternati'e path.ay for the reaction. )eactions can ta2e place .ith less ener$y. En>ymes: proteins that function as biolo$ical catalysts 0actors that control ho. .ell en6ymes .or2: Temperature: en6ymes ha'e an optimum temperature& the temperature at .hich they .or2 best $i'in$ the fastest reaction. %n humans! most en6ymes ha'e an optimum temperature of &FMC! but in plants it is around 2EMC. 8hen temperature increases! the molecules mo'e faster so collide .ith an en6yme in less time! ha'in$ more ener$y ma2es them more li2ely to bind to the active site: the part of an en6yme .here a specific substrate .ill fit perfectly. %f the temperature is too hi$h! the en6yme molecules 'ibrate too 'i$orously and the en6yme is denatured: it loses its &: shape and .ill no lon$er bind .ith a substrate. 8hen the temperature is too lo. there is not enou$h 0inetic ener#y for the reaction so it reacts too slo.ly. p8: The base or acid conditions can denature en6ymes too! but the en6yme can be denatured if the p1 is too lo. /) too hi$h. En6ymes ha'e an optimum p8 too! for example amylase has an optimum p1 of F.E! and pepsin7s is p1 2. 5Temperature: hi$her temperature speeds up reactions in t.o .ays: 1) particles tra'el faster so they collide .ith other particles faster! so a reaction (.hich needs collisions) .ill ta2e less time and 2) particles .ill more often o'ercome the acti'ation ener$y. Experiments:

1) 1ydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate solution are mixed in a flas2! and a stop.atch starts. They react forms sulphur .hich is insoluble in .ater so precipitates. The flas2 is on top of a cross dra.n on a piece of paper. ?ou measure the amount of time ta2en for the cross to not be 'isible because there is enou$h sulphur. The diameter of the cylinder should be 2ept constant (since that and the 'olume of reactants .ill control the depth of the mixture@ deeper means that the cross .ill be in'isible sooner! it7s li2e ho. in the sea! .hich contains insoluble particles in flotation! it is harder to see the sea floor in deep .ater). <ariables that can be chan$ed: temperature and concentration of reactants.

2) )eactions .ith different si6ed particles (e.$. ma$nesium po.der 's. ribbon = acid! marble chips 's. smaller chips). Time ta2en for a certain amount of $as to be produced is measured! or chan$e in mass! because the $as escapes (e.$. hydro$en for M$ = acid reaction! carbon dioxide for marble chip = acid experiment.) Marble is calcium carbonate. %nterpret data: less time ta2en for a reaction means a faster rate@ the reaction in terms of data can be a certain amount of $as produced or a chan$e in mass etc.

Har$e surface area can mean dan$er: 0lour dust! .ood dust! custard po.der! instant coffee! su$ar! and dried mil2 ha'e lar$e surface areas! and are combustible. spar2 from a machine! or a lit match! can cause an explosion! this also applies to $ases from mines (another syllabus specified example). &) 0ill a $as 9ar .ith a mixture of hydro$en and oxy$en! and co'er it. E'en if you lea'e it for hours! no reaction .ill happen. Then dip a platinum .ire into the mouth of the 9ar. The $as mixture explodes immediately .ith a pop! producin$ .ater.

Li#ht can affect the rate of reaction: photochemical reactions for example in photosynthesis. Hi$ht pro'ides ener$y for the reaction! chlorophyll is a dye that absorbs li$ht. carbon dioxide = .ater N (li$ht = chlorophyll) N $lucose = oxy$en DC/2 = D12/ N (li$ht = chlorophyll) N CD112/D = D/2 (il'er salts in photo$raphic film: (il'er bromide brea2s do.n! .here li$ht stri2es the film! so sil'er is reduced. (il'er ions are reduced to sil'er. =.2 +eversible reactions )e'ersible )eactions : reactions .hich can $o both .ays! dependin$ on the conditions. Example: Cu(/3.E12/ (blue) Cu(/3(.hite) = 12/ (to $et anhydrous you heat it! Q to $et the hydrated form! 9ust add .ater) There are t.o types of equilibrium: static and dynamic. :ynamic equilibrium (0%? on the moc2! these .ere the & points you needed for the definition of equilibrium): )ate of for.ard reaction > rate of re'erse reaction Concentrations of all reactants and products remain constant. The system is closed! and on the lar$e scale (macroscopic) e'erythin$ is constant. If the conditions of an equilibrium are changed, the position of the equilibrium moves to oppose the change (this is 2no.n as Ch?telier:s *rinciple3 if you 2no. this! you can extrapolate ho. the conditions belo. .ill affect an equilibrium): 5TEM"E) T-)E: %f the temperature is lo.ered C the equilibrium mo'es in the exothermic direction. %f the temperature is raised C the equilibrium mo'es in the endothermic direction. 5")E((-)E: %f the pressure is raised the equilibrium mo'es to reduce the side .ith fe.est $as molecules. %f the pressure is lo.ered the equilibrium mo'es to the side .ith most $as molecules. 5C/+CE+T) T%/+: :ecreasin$ reactant concentration or increasin$ product concentration mo'es equilibrium to the reactant side. %ncreasin$ reactant concentration or decreasin$ product concentration mo'es it to the product side. +/TE C T H?(T( :/ +/T C1 +*E T1E "/(%T%/+ /0 T1E ER-%H%#)%-M@ %T O-(T ))%<E( T T1E ER-%H%#)%-M 0 (TE). =.1 +edox 7xidation Is Loss of electrons or the $ain of oxy$en! +eduction Is Gain of electrons or loss of oxy$en. )emember /%H )%*. +edox reaction is a reaction .here reduction and oxidation happen! .here there is electron transfer. )eduction and oxidation must happen to$ether. /ne substance $i'es electron(s) to the other. %n a redox reaction the substances .ill chan$e oxidation state (their char$e .ill chan$e). /xidation state is .ritten usin$ roman numerals .hen there is a transition metal in a .ord equation. +educin# a#ents are oxidised and oxidisin# a#ents are reduced. /xidation state is .ritten li2e this %ron(%%%) > 0e&= (a reaction .here different atoms of the same element are reduced and oxidised is a disproportionation reaction) Examples to 2no. (pa$e 111): 5potassium iodide .ill $o from colourless to red5bro.n! it is a reducin$ a$ent! it therefore is oxidised to produce %2 12/2 = 2!I = 12(/3 I2 = J2(/3 = 212/ 2%5 (colourless) %2 (red5bro.n) 5"otassium man$enate! an oxidisin$ a$ent! .ill $o from purple to colourless. ()ecall of equations in'ol'in$ JMn/3 is not required.) 5potassium dichromate! an oxidisin$ a$ent: Cr2/F25 (oran$e) 2Cr&= ($reen)

@. 2cids3 bases and salts

@.1 The characteristic properties o acids and bases 2cids turn blue litmus red. cids ha'e are p1 D and belo. (the syllabus says that p1 'alues .ill be inte$ers! no decimals) cid = metal N metal salt = hydro$en cid = base (except carbonates) N salt = .ater cid = metal carbonate N metal salt = carbon dioxide = .ater 5ases turn red litmus blue. #ases ha'e are p1 4 to 13. cid = base N salt = .ater = (carbon dioxide .hen the base is a metal carbonate) ll al2alis (except ammonia) .ill react .ith ammonium compounds! remo'in$ ammonia for example: calcium hydroxide = ammonium chloride N calcium chloride = .ater = ammonia 4eutral substances are p1 F. 5 cidity in soil: plants $ro. at a p1 near F. %f it is too acidic or al2aline they .ill not $ro.. cidic soil is fixed by addin$ lime. Stron# acids: all molecules dissociate to become ions! lo. p1! hi$h conducti'ity! .ea2 bonds Aea0 acids: only some molecules do! hi$her p1! lo. conducti'ity! stron$ bonds (.ea2er effer'escence .hen reactin$ .ith carbonates or metal than a stron$ acid! this property can be used in experimental demonstrations) Stron# al0ali: hi$h conducti'ity and p1! .ea2 bonds! hi$h dissociation Aea0 al0ali: lo. conducti'ity and p1! stron$ bonds therefore lo. dissociation %n al2alis! more dissociation i.e. hi$her concentration of /15 ion > hi$her p1. %n acids! hi$her concentration of 1= ion (proton) > lo.er p1 -ni'ersal indicator is an indicator .hich can be used as paper or in solution

@.2 Types o oxides (+/TE: this .as the first question on the paper & in the moc2 exam) %n $eneral! metal oxides are basic! and non5metal oxides are acidic. 4eutral oxides: are neither acidic nor basic! they are neutral for example carbon monoxide. 2mphoteric oxides: e.$. luminium oxide and 6inc oxide: they react .ith bases and acids. @.1 *reparation o salts "reparin$ salts in the lab (all on pa$es 123 and 12E) (tartin$ .ith a metal: 1. dd excess metal to an acid 2. 8hen bubblin$ (hydro$en) stops the reaction is done 3. 0ilter off excess metal (because a metal is a solid! except mercury) (tartin$ .ith an insoluble base: 1. dd insoluble base to acid and heat $ently! it .ill dissol'e 2. Jeep addin$ until no more dissol'es (reaction is done) 3. 0ilter out the insoluble (excess) base

(Titration): (tartin$ .ith an al0ali (soluble base): 1. "ut a certain amount (e.$. 2Ecm&) al2ali in a flas2 2. dd phenolphthalein (pin2 in al2aline! colourless in acid or neutral) you could use a different indicator but this is quite simple 3. dd acid from a burette! slo.ly .hile stirrin$! until it $oes colourless 4. 0ind out ho. much acid you used (usin$ the scale on the burette). 5. )epeat! this time add the same amount of base! but you 2no. exactly ho. much acid to add to $et a neutral solution! don7t add indicator thou$h (you don7t need it anymore! and it .ould ma2e it impure) 6. E'aporate the .ater from the neutral solution usin$ a #unsen flame and an e'aporatin$ dish %f they don7t tell you if the salt is soluble or not then you need to 2no. this: (oluble salts are: %nsoluble salts are: all potassium! sodium and ammonium salts all nitrates 1alides except (ulphates except potassium! carbonates sodium and ammonium sil'er and lead halides Calcium! barium and lead sulphate ll other carbonates

@.9 Identi ication o ions and #ases 2"ueous cations: Test Ion dd a fe. drops of dilute sodium Cu2= hydroxide solution. precipitate 0e2= .ill form. &=

0e l&=! Sn2=! Ca2= :i'ide the solutions into t.o equal l&=
'olumes. To one! add double the 'olume of sodium hydroxide solution. To the other! add double the 'olume of aqueous ammonia. Sn2=

Ca2= Ta2e a small amount of the solid or +13=

solution. dd a little dilute sodium hydroxide solution and heat $ently.

+esult "ale blue precipitate *reen precipitate )ed5#ro.n precipitate 8hite precipitate The precipitate dissol'es a$ain in sodium hydroxide solution $i'in$ a colourless solution but not in excess ammonia solution "recipitate dissol'es in both solutions! $i'in$ a colourless solution. :issol'es in neither. mmonia $as $i'en off (it has a stron$ sharp smell and turns red litmus blue)

2nions: Test Ion Ta2e a small amount of the Carbonate solid;solution. dd a little dilute hydrochloric acid. Ta2e a small amount of the solution. dd an equal 'olume of dilute nitric acid. Then add sil'er nitrate solution. (il'er halides are insoluble! so a precipitate forms. Ta2e a small amount of the solution. dd a little sodium hydroxide solution. dd aluminium foil and heat $ently. Ta2e a small amount of the solution. dd an equal 'olume of dilute hydrochloric acid. Then add barium nitrate solution. #arium sulphate is insoluble so... Gases: Test (mell $as! use indicator paper. %t is a .ea2 acid! so reacts .ith calcium hydroxide (lime .ater) to form insoluble calcium carbonate *reen poisonous $as .hich bleaches dyes. 1old damp indicator paper in the $as (in a fume cupboard). Collect in a tube then put a li$hted splint to it. Collect in a tube then put a $lo.in$ splint to it. Chloride %odide

+esult Carbon dioxide $as is produced so there are bubbles and lime.ater $oes mil2y 8hite precipitate ?ello.

+itrate

mmonia $as $i'en off

(ulphate

8hite precipitate sulphate)

(barium

Gas mmonia Carbon :ioxide

+esult )eco$ni6able odour! indicator paper turns blue .hite precipitate! solution $oes mil2y %ndicator paper turns .hite.

Chlorine

1ydro$en /xy$en

(quea2y pop (plint immediately into a flame bursts

B. *eriodic Table
The *eriodic table is a method of classifyin$ elements. They are arran$ed in order of increasin$ atomic number. The columns are called #roups. The ro.s are called periods. Metals are to the left and non5metals are to the ri$ht. Elements in the same $roup ha'e similar

properties. 0or a specific $roup! $roup number tells us the number of 'alency electrons and the period number tells us about the number of electron shells. :ependin$ on .hether an element is a metal or a non5metal! this information can help us to predict the properties. B.1 *eriodic trends +on5metals are on the ri$ht side of the periodic table! and metals are on the left. %f you $o do.n a period of metals they become more reacti'e (this is because there are more electron shells so since metals lose electrons the more electron shells they ha'e! the .ea2er the bond is bet.een the positi'e nucleus and the 'alency electrons! so the more easily it is lost.) 8ith non5metals! $oin$ do.n a period! the non5metal becomes less reacti'e (the reason is the opposite than for metals). B.2 Group properties l2ali metals (only lithium! sodium and potassium): "hysical properties: 5*ood conductors of heat and electricity. 5 re soft! compared to other metals. 5They ha'e lo. densities (for metals). 5They ha'e lo. meltin$ and boilin$ points compared to most metals. Chemical properties: 50orm ionic compounds 5)eact 'iolently .ith chlorine 5#urst into flames .hen heated .ith oxy$en: 5a red flame for lithium 5a yello. flame for sodium 5a lilac flame for potassium 5"roduce soluble .hite compounds. 5)eact .ith cold .ater. "atterns: )eacti'ity! density and softness increases further do.n the $roup i.e. Caesium is more reacti'e that lithium. Meltin$ and boilin$ points decrease. )eacti'ity increases because more electron shells means there is a less stron$ attraction bet.een the nucleus and the 'alency electron so it is lost more easily. 8alo#ens3 #roup = C physical properties: 5form coloured $ases (at room temperature! fluorine is a yello. $as! chlorine is a $reen $as! bromine is a red liquid! and iodine is a blac2 solid) 5are poisonous 5are brittle and crumbly in solid form 5do not conduct electricity 5form diatomic molecules "atterns: (do.n the $roup) si6e! mass and density increase (and colour dar2ness). )eacti'ity decreases! because it has to $ain an electron! so the closer the electron is to the positi'e nucleus the more easily it .ill be $ained! so atoms .ith fe.er shells .ill react more easily. B.1 Transition elements collection of metals .ith the follo.in$ properties: 5hard! tou$h and stron$ 5hi$h meltin$ points (except mercury) 5malleable (can be hammered into different shapes) and ductile (can be dra.n out into .ires) 5$ood conductors of heat and electricity (sil'er is the best) 5hi$h density ($reater than .ater7s density) 5Much less reacti'e than $roup one metals! except for iron .hich rusts easily 51a'e no trend in reacti'ity 5can be used as catalysts

5Mostly form coloured compounds 5can form complex ions 5Can form se'eral differently char$ed ions: ha'e 'ariable 'alency! therefore..... 5they can form more than one compound .ith another element B.9 4oble #ases +oble $ases are unreacti'e! (also non metals! colourless $ases and monatomic). -ses: 1elium5 fillin$ balloons and aircrafts because it is li$hter than air and .ill not catch fire. r$on C fillin$ (tun$sten) li$ht bulbs to stop the filament reactin$ .ith oxy$en. +eon C is used in ad'ertisin$ si$ns because it $lo.s red.

10. 'etals
10.1 *roperties o metals (-sual) "hysical properties: 51i$h meltin$ points (except mercury) 5Malleable and ductile 5*ood conductors of heat C because of their free electrons 5*ood conductors of electricity C because of their free electrons 51a'e hi$h densities 5They are sonorous 5(ometimes ma$netic (e.$. iron) (-sual) Chemical properties: 50orm positi'e ions 5)eact .ith oxy$en to form oxides Metals are often used as alloys (mixtures of metals .ith other metals and;or non metals) because they ha'e an increased ran$e of uses! the mixture of atoms $i'es an irre$ular structure .hich stops the layers slidin$ o'er each other so easily! so they are stron$er. This is .hat the structure of an alloy (a) loo2s li2e! compared to a pure metal (b).

10.2 +eactivity series J 5 "otassium +a 5 (odium Ca C Calcium M$ C Ma$nesium l C luminium C C Carbon Sn C Sinc 0e C %ron "b C Head 8 C 8ydro#en Cu C Copper $ C (il'er u C *old E'erythin$ abo'e 1ydro$en can displace hydro$en from its acid! and hydro$en cannot reduce their oxides. Metals abo'e carbon! their oxides cannot be reduced by carbon. n element can

displace an other element from it7s oxide if it is more reacti'e e.$. copper oxide = 6inc N copper = 6inc oxide. More reacti'e metals .ill react .ith cold .ater! and less reacti'e .ill react slo.ly or not react .ith steam. ("aper D: copper (%%) oxide is a blac0 solid) The elements further up the reacti'ity series form more stable compounds and ha'e a $reater desire to exist in a compound than as an element! so: 5metals .ill displace a less reacti'e metal from its oxide or... 5displace a less reacti'e metal from a salt in a solution. Thermal decomposition: Metal hydroxide N (heat) N metal oxide = .ater This does not apply to potassium and sodium. %t happens faster! the further you $o do.n the reacti'ity series. ll nitrates decompose on heatin$! but don7t all form the same products. "otassium or sodium nitrate N (heat) N potassium or sodium nitrite = oxy$en Metal nitrate (except J and +a) N (heat) N metal oxide = nitro$en dioxide luminium seems unreacti'e because it naturally forms an oxide layer .hich protects it. 10.1 (a) Extraction o metals 5The most unreacti'e metals li2e copper and $old exist in their ores as elements. ll that needs to be done is remo'e sand or soil and other impurities. They can be .ashed off! and no chemical reaction is needed. 5More reacti'e metals exist in compounds and ha'e to be reduced! for example ho. iron oxide is reduced in the blast furnace by carbon monoxide to form iron. Carbon monoxide is a reducin$ a$ent. 5The more reacti'e metals ha'e 'ery stable compounds and must be extracted by electrolysis. luminium7s main ore is bauxite! it is purified to $et alumina@ it is luminium (%%%) oxide (extraction of aluminium). Extraction of iron from hematite in the blast furnace: 1) Co2e burns .ith air: carbon = oxy$en N carbon dioxide (exothermic) 2) Carbon dioxide reacts .ith co2e: carbon dioxide = carbon N carbon monoxide (endothermic) &) %ron (%%%) oxide = carbon monoxide N iron = carbon dioxide 3) Himestone reacts .ith impurities: calcium carbonate (limestone) = silicon dioxide (silica) N calcium silicate = carbon dioxide %ron to steel: Molten iron from the blast furnace is poured into an oxy#en urnace. #asic calcium oxide is added! and a 9et of oxy$en is turned on. The calcium oxide neutralises the acidic impurities! formin$ sla$ that is s2immed off. The oxy$en burns the other impurities a.ay. The carbon content is chec2ed continually until it is 9ust ri$ht Cif there is too much it is brittle! too little and it is .ea2 C then the oxy$en is turned off. Extraction of 6inc from 6inc blende: Sinc blende is 6inc sulphide. %t is roasted in air! $i'in$ 6inc oxide and sulphur dioxide. Then either: 1) Sinc oxide is reduced by carbon monoxide in the furnace. Then the mixture of 6inc and sla$ under$oes fractional distillation.

2) Sinc oxide is insoluble in .ater and has a meltin$ point 9ust under 2,,,MC. (o it is dissol'ed in sulphuric acid. This is a neutralisation reaction: 6inc sulphate solution is produced. %n electrolysis! 6inc is deposited at the cathode! then scraped off and melted into bars. 10.1 (b) Dses o metals luminium is used for: - in the manufacture of aircraft because of its stren$th and lo. density (as an alloy) in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion %ron is made into steel alloys by the controlled use of additi'es (other elements) to impro'e its properties for example to ma2e it stron$er. 'ild steel (PDG iron and 3G carbon) is used for car bodies and machinery and stainless steel (F,G iron! 2,G chromium and 1,G nic2el) is used in chemical plants and cutlery. Sinc is used for #alvanisin# and for ma2in$ brass (F,G and &,G copper). Copper is non5toxic and a $ood conductor of heat and electricity so it is used in electrical .irin$ and coo2in$ utensils.

11. 2ir and Aater

Aater Chemical tests: 1) %t turns .hite anhydrous copper (%%) sulphate blue. 2) %t turns blue cobalt chloride paper pin2. "urification of .ater: dd a coa#ulant (for example iron (%%%) sulphate) to ma2e small suspended particles stic2 to$ether. Then air is blo.n into a flotation tan2! .here the air carries the coa$ulated particles to the top! so that they can be s2immed off. %t $oes throu$h a sand filter (a bed of fine sand) to remo'e the $ra'el and sand. Chlorine (or another chemical) is added to 2ill microbes.

-ses: at home 5 drin2in$! coo2in$! .ashin$ (people! clothes! and dishes)! in the toilet! on farms for animals or to .ater crops! in industry to dissol'e! .ash and cool thin$s! and in po.er stations .here steam is used to turn turbines. 2ir Clean air is approximately FPG nitro$en! 2,G oxy$en and the remainder as bein$ a mixture of noble $ases! .ater 'apour and carbon dioxide. Common pollutants: carbon monoxide (from incomplete combustion of carbon5containin$ substances)! sulphur dioxide (from combustion of fossil fuels containin$ sulphur compounds)! nitro$en oxides (from hot furnaces and en$ines and lead compounds (a lead compound is added to petrol to help it burn more smoothly). Effects of pollutants: carbon monoxide C reacts .ith haemo$lobin! pre'entin$ it from carryin$ oxy$en C so you can die from oxy$en star'ation (ulphur dioxide C irritates eyes and throat! causes respiratory problems and causes acid rain +itro$en oxides C causes respiratory problems! forms acid rain. Extraction of nitro$en and oxy$en: fractional distillation of liquid air: 1) ir is filtered to remo'e dust 2) 8ater 'apour and carbon dioxide remo'ed! (because they .ould free6e and bloc2 the pipes): 5air is cooled until .ater 'apour condenses 5then passes o'er absorbent beads to trap carbon dioxide &) %t is compressed! causin$ it to heat up. Cooled by recyclin$ cold air (dia$ram pa$e 2,3) 3) The cold compressed air is passed throu$h a 9et! into a lar$er space. %t expands rapidly! ma2in$ it 'ery cold. (teps & and 3 are repeated! coolin$ the air more. #y 52,,MC it is liquid except for neon and helium. These $ases are remo'ed. They can be separated from each other by absorption on charcoal. E) The liquid air is pumped into the fractionin$ column. There it is slo.ly .armed up. The $ases boil off one by one! and are collected in tan2s or cylinders. +itro$en oxides are produced .hen oxy$en and nitro$en from air react in hot conditions (in en$ines and furnaces). They are remo'ed usin$ a catalytic converter. +itro$en oxides are decomposed bac2 into nitro$en and oxy$en. )ust pre'ention: 1) coatin$ .ith somethin$ to pre'ent contact .ith air and moisture (plastic! paint! $rease! tin or chromium platin$ by electrolysis or $al'anisin$ (dippin$ in molten 6inc) 2) (acrificial protection 0ertilisers: +itro$en is needed for chlorophyll and other proteins. "otassium helps ma2e proteins and resist diseases. "hosphorus helps roots $ro. and crops ripen. ll al2alis (except ammonia) .ill react .ith ammonium compounds! remo'in$ ammonia for example: calcium hydroxide = ammonium chloride N calcium chloride = .ater = ammonia. *reenhouse $ases: carbon dioxide and methane. They stop heat escapin$ in to space. Too much $reenhouse $ases leads to climate chan$e. This .ill cause the ice poles to melt! risin$ sea le'els! more drou$hts! storms! floods and famine. 0ormation of carbon dioxide: 1) "roduct of respiration 2) C/M"HETE combustion of carbon5containin$ substances &) )eaction of an acid and a carbonate. (ources of methane: oil and natural $as! decomposition of 'e$etation! and .aste $ases from di$estion in animals. (acrificial protection: a more reacti'e metal is used to coat a less reacti'e metal. The more reacti'e metal .ill react more easily and be sacrificed. The 1aber process: + ($) = &1 ($) 2+1 ($)
2 2 &

+itro$en comes from the air. 1ydro$en can be made in se'eral .ays: 1) Methane = steam carbon dioxide = hydro$en 2) it can be crac2ed (usin$ a catalyst): C21D C213 = 12 C/+:%T%/+(: 3E,MC! 2,,atm! iron catalyst

The carbon cycle:

12. Sulphur
(ources: %t is found as an element! in lar$e under$round beds in se'eral countries. %t is also found around the rims of 'olcanoes. %t occurs in metal ores (lead sulphide a2a #alena). (ulphur compounds also occur naturally in the fossil fuels: coal! oil and natural $as. -ses: as a food preser'er (2ills bacteria)! as a bleach in the manufacture of .ood pulp for paper! in car batteries and in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (throu$h the Contact process). -ses of (ulphur dioxide 5manufacture of sulphuric acid 5to bleach .ool! sil2 and .ood pulp for ma2in$ paper

5it is used as a sterilisin$ a$ent in ma2in$ soft drin2s and 9am! and in dryin$ fruit. %t stops $ro.th of bacteria and moulds. The Contact process: sulphur N burned in air N sulphur dioxide N mixed .ith more air N passed o'er four separate beds of catalyst (pellets of <anadium (<) oxide) at 3E,MC N sulphur trioxide N dissol'ed in concentrated sulphuric acid N thic2 fumin$ liquid called oleum N mixed carefully .ith .ater N concentrated sulphuric acid. C/+:%T%/+(: 'anadium (<) oxide catalyst! 3E,MC! less that 2atm of pressure "roperties of sulphuric acid: 50orms salts called sulphates 58hen concentrated! it is a dehydratin$ a$ent! and a thic2 oily liquid 5%t turns blue litmus red 5%t is a stron$ acid 5normal stron$ acid properties (reacts .ith bases! lo. p1! hi$h conducti'ity etc.)

11. Carbonates
Manufacture of lime (Ca/) from limestone (CaC/&) CaC,& = heat Ca/ = C/2 -ses of quic2lime (Ca/): ma2in$ steel from iron! to neutralise acidity in soil! a dryin$ a$ent in industry -ses of sla2ed lime (calcium hydroxide): neutralise acidity in soil! and in la2es affected by acid rain! neutralisin$ acidic industrial .aste products! e.$. flue $as desulphurisation! made by addin$ Ca/ to .ater. -ses of calcium carbonate (limestone): ma2in$ cement C made by mixin$ limestone .ith clay! heatin$ the mixture stron$ly in a 2iln li2e the one belo.! addin$ $ypsum (calcium sulphate)! and $rindin$ up the final solid to $i'e a po.der (dia$ram pa$e 2&E). Ma2in$ iron from iron ore C the limestone reacts .ith (neutralises) sand (an impurity) formin$ sla$ (calcium silicate)! .hich is then used for road buildin$.

19. 7r#anic chemistry

This is .hat is on the syllabus only! but % ha'e made more concise notes .hich co'er all of or$anic chemistry in the boo2 chapters 1F and 14 # (%C( (stuff that isn7t in the syllabus but is important): l2ane C $eneral formula Cn12n=2 l2ene 5 functional $roup: C>C bond! $eneral formula: Cn12n lcohol 5 the /1 functional $roup and ha'e the $eneral formula: Cn12n=1/1 Carboxylic acid 5 C//1 functional $roup! and ha'e the $eneral formula: Cn12n=1C//1 ddition polymerisation C all atoms in the monomer are used to form the polymer! double bonds in molecules brea2 in order to form a ne. bond Condensation polymerisation C 2 different monomers 9oin! double bonds are not bro2en! in order form the monomers to 9oin a small molecule has to be expulsed li2e .ater or 1Cl Esters are produced .hen carboxylic acids react .ith alcohols! the functional $roup is the ester lin2 ( a carbon .ith a double bond to an oxy$en and a sin$le bond to another oxy$en! % don7t thin2 there is a $eneral formula but if there .as it .ould be somethin$ li2e this: Cn12n=1C//Ct12t=1 (note % used AtB and An) since you can ha'e se'eral different combinations .ith one alcohol or one carboxylic acid 19.1 4ames o compounds +ame and dra. the structure of the follo.in$ compounds: +ame Chemical (tructure formula

metha ne

C13

ethane

C21D

ethene

C213

ethano l

C21E/1

ethano ic acid

C1&C/ /1

+ame endin$ compound5type name AaneB al2ane AeneB al2ene AolB alcohol Aoic acidB carboxylic acid AylB! AoateB ester (as in ethyl ethanoate) #e able to dra. the follo.in$ +ame +umber of carbons of 1 2 family l2ane: methane ethane

& propane

3 butane

(tructur e:

l2ene: (tructur e:

ethene

propene

but515ene

lcohol : (tructur e:

methanol

ethanol

propanol

butanol

Carbox ylic acid: (tructur e:

methanoic acid

ethanoic acid

propanoic acid

butanoic acid

19.2 %uels 0uels to 2no.: 5coal 5natural $as (main constituent is methane) 5petroleum (a mixture of hydrocarbons .hich can be separated into fractions): 1. refinery $as C bottled $as for heatin$ and coo2in$ 2. $asoline fraction C fuel (petrol) in cars &. naphtha fraction C ma2in$ chemicals 3. 2erosene;paraffin fraction C 9et fuel! lamps E. diesel oil;$as oil fraction C fuel in diesel en$ines D. fuel oil fraction C fuel in ships and home heatin$ systems F. lubricatin$ fraction C lubricants! .axes and polishes 4. bitumen C ma2in$ roads 19.1 8omolo#ous series 8omolo#ous series: Kfamily7 of similar compounds .ith similar properties due to the presence of the same functional $roup. Characteristics of a homolo$ous series: 5all the compounds fit the same $eneral formula

5the chain len$th increases by 1 each time 5as the chain $ets lon$er! the compounds sho. a $radual chan$e in properties. Structural isomers: ha'e the same chemical formula! but different structures! they can be strai#ht or branched. 19.9 2l0anes Each carbon atoms in an al0ene has four co'alent sin$le bonds C this ma2es them quite unreacti'e. They only ha'e t.o reactions: 5combustion this can either be: 5complete: meanin$ there is enou$h oxy$en supply so .ater and carbon dioxide form. e.$. C13 = 2/2 C/2 = 212/ /) 5incomplete: meanin$ there is not enou$h oxy$en to burn them cleanly so either carbon monoxide and .ater or carbon and .ater form. e.$. 2C13 = &/2 2C/ = 312/ or C13 = /2 C = 212/ 5chlorine substitution: sunli$ht is necessary (or any li$htT). chlorine atom replaces a hydro$en atom. This can happen to all of the hydro$en atoms if there is enou$h chlorine. e.$. C13 = Cl2 (li$ht) 1Cl = C1&Cl ; C12Cl2 ; C1Cl& ; CCl3 these compounds are called chloromethane ; dichloromethane ; trichloromethane ; tetrachloromethane 19.; 2l0enes Crac0in#: is a thermal decomposition reaction! in .hich an al2ene (and sometimes hydro$en) are produced from an al2ane. Crac2in$ al.ays produces a short chain compound .ith a C>C bond. Crac2in$ of ethane .ill $i'e ethene and hydro$en. %n the lab it loo2s li2e this:

Saturated hydrocarbons: 5ha'e +/ double bonds 5do not react .ith aqueous bromine! so the mixture stays oran$e. Dnsaturated hydrocarbons: 5ha'e double bonds 5react .ith aqueous bromine! turnin$ the mixture from oran$e to colourless. "oly(ethene) ; "olythene: is a polymer produced from ethene by addition polymerisation. polymer is a compound .ith 'ery lon$ carbon chains made up of monomer units.

l2enes7 ddition )eactions: 5.ith bromine: (the test for saturation) e.$. ethene ($) = bromine (aq) 1!25dibromomethane (l) 5.ith steam: forms alcohols .ith heat! pressure and a catalyst e.$. ethene ($) = steam ($) ethanol (l) 5.ith hydro#en: double bond brea2s do.n to for an al2ane .ith heat! pressure and a catalyst e.$. ethene ($) = hydro$en ($) ethane ($) 19.< 2lcohols Ethanol can be formed in to .ays: 1) #y fermentation: en6ymes in yeast brea2 do.n $lucose (a simple su$ar) to ethanol and carbon dioxide! $i'in$ out heat (exothermic). This can be done .ith any substance that contains cellulose! starch or $lucose. %t is done by $rindin$ the source (e.$. corn or $rapes) and treatin$ it .ith en6ymes to brea2 do.n cellulose and starch into $lucose. Hea'e it to ferment. 0ractional distillation is used to $et the ethanol from the mixture of substances. 2) Ethene is obtained by crac2in$ lon$5chain al2enes from oil. The ethene reacts .ith steam (re'ersibly) in the follo.in$ conditions: EF,MC! D,5F,atm and a catalyst (phosphoric acid). Ho. temperature $i'es a better yield! but hi$h temperature is used to $i'e a better rate of reaction. UThey can be compared li2e this (in the syllabus it says AdescribeB so % don7t 2no. ho. much they .ant you to 2no.): %ermentation %rom ethene d'anta$es: 5rene.able source d'anta$es: 5fast

5$ood use of .aste or$anic material (e.$. the 5continuous process apples .hich don7t loo2 nice enou$h to be 5pure ethanol sold in shops.) 5smaller containers :isad'anta$es: :isad'anta$es:

5Hots of material needed to produce 9ust 1 5oil is a non5rene.able resource litre of ethanol so lots of bi$ fermentation 5lots of ener$y to ma2e steam and $et the

tan2s needed. 50ractional distillation is expensi'e 5(lo. process 5#atch process

ri$ht conditions 5a lot of ethene is un5reacted! (and then recycled)

Ethanol burns .ell in oxy$en! $i'in$ out plenty of heat! as .ell as carbon dioxide and .ater. Ethanol is used as a: 5sol'ent: to dissol'e the thin$s than .ater cannot. %t e'aporates easily! so it is used a sol'ent in $lues! printin$ in2s! perfumes and aftersha'e. 5fuel: added to or instead of petrol! because it burns cleanly 19.= 2cids 0ormation of ethanoic acid: 5oxidation of ethanol 5.ith acidified potassium man$enate (<%%) Ethanoic acid is a typical .ea2 acid: it has a hi$h (as in closer to F than 1) p1 for an acid! and only dissociates a little bit. Carboxylic acids react .ith alcohols to $i'e esters! in a condensation reaction! for example: Ethanoic acid = ethanol ethyl ethanoate = .ater (the alcohol7s name becomes A5ylB part and the carboxylic acid7s name becomes the A5oateB part.

19.@ 'acromolecules 'acromolecules are lar$e molecules built up from small units (monomers). :ifferent macromolecules ha'e different units and;or different lin2a$es (that7s all you ha'e to 2no.V) 0or example $lucose (the small unit) can 9oin to$ether to ma2e starch or cellulose (natural macromolecules). (+/TE: diamonds are other examples of macromolecules). Examples of the small units: 5$lucose 5amino acids 5fatty acids and $lycerol Examples of lin2a$es: 5amide 5ester Examples of macromolecules: 5protein 5starch 5lipids 19.@ (a) Synthetic polymers -ses of plastics: "olymer Example of uses polythene plastic ba$s and $lo'es! clin$film (lo. density)! mu$s! bo.ls! chairs! dustbins (hi$h

density) polychloroethane ("<C) polypropene polystyrene .ater pipes! .ellin$tons! hoses! co'erin$ for electricity cables crates! ropes used as expanded polystyrene in fast5food cartons! pac2a$in$! and insulation for roofs and .alls coated on fryin$ pans to ma2e them non5 stic2! fabric protector! .indscreen .ipers! floorin$ ropes! fishin$ nets and lines! tents! curtains clothin$ (especially mixed .ith cotton)! thread

Teflon

nylon Terylene

*ollution problems from plastics: 5cho2e birds! fish and other animals that try to eat them. /r they fill up the animals7 stomachs so that they can7t eat proper food! and star'e to death. 5they clo$ up drains and se.ers and cause floodin$. 5they collect in ri'ers! and $et in the .ay of fish. (ome ri'er beds no. contain a thic2 layer of plastic 5they blo. into trees and onto beaches. (o the place loo2s a mess. Tourists become put off. :educe the structure of the polymer product from a $i'en al2ene and 'ice 'ersa (% 9ust found as many as % could from the po.er points on moodle):

(0or ma2in$ nylon and Terylene: details of manufacture and mechanisms of these polymerisations are not required.) Ma2in$ nylon (a polyamide): The monomers are:

#ut they are represented li2e this:

+o double bonds brea2. %nstead! sin$le bonds brea2! and ne. sin$le bonds form. The monomers are able to 9oin to each other by eliminatin$ a small molecule: hydro$en chloride. This reaction continues at each the t.o monomers. Thousands of molecules 9oin to$ether! $i'in$ a macromolecule:

Ma2in$ Terylene (a polyester): The monomers are:

The monomers 9oin by eliminatin$ a .ater molecule. Thousands of molecules 9oin up! $i'in$ a macromolecule.

19.@ (b) 4atural macromolecules 0ood7s main constituents are proteins! fats and carbohydrates. *roteins contain the same lin2a$es (amide lin2s) as nylon! but .ith different units. (imilarly! lipids and terylene both ha'e ester lin2s but different units. The structure of a protein is:

%n di$estion proteins are bro2en do.n into amino acids (hydrolysis). %ats are esters possessin$ the same lin2a$e as Terylene (ester lin2s) but .ith different units. Soap is a product of the hydrolysis of fat. %t is done usin$ sodium hydroxide (as opposed to acid! in di$estion). The hydrolysis $i'es $lycerol and the sodium salts of fatty acids. The salts are used as soaps. Complex carbohydrates: are a lar$e number of 9oined su$ar units ( monosaccharide li2e $lucose). The su$ar units are represented li2e this:

They 9oin to$ether in a condensation polymerisation:

%n di$estion! the hydrolysis (:ecomposition of a chemical compound by reaction .ith .ater! such as the dissociation of a dissol'ed salt or the catalytic con'ersion of starch to $lucose!

.hich can be accelerated by an acid or base) of starch happens in the mouth by the en6yme amylase to ma2e $lucose. %n the lab! unless you ha'e en6ymes! you ha'e to boil the complex carbohydrate (or proteins or fats) in acid the products .ill be the follo.in$: 5starch $lucose 5proteins amino acids 5fats fatty acids and $lycerol #ut if hydrolysis is not complete! the macromolecules are not completely bro2en do.n. (o you $et a mixture of molecules of different si6es for example for starch you $et! $lucose! maltose (2 $lucose units) and maltotriose (& $lucose units). Chromato$raphy can be used to identify the products and the substances. 1o.e'er! amino acids and su$ars are colourless .hen dissol'ed in .ater! so a locatin$ a$ent is used. The substances can be identified usin$ the )f 'alues or by matchin$ them .ith spots .hich are hori6ontal.