DEN4101- Mechanics of fluids 1

Flow rate measurement experiment

Eryk Ryzko 06.01.2013

Abstract
This document investigates Venturi and Pitot tube flow rate measurements and makes a comparison between them. The flow rates obtained are consistent however, the Venturi gives more accurate results. The complexity of the Pitot tube flow rate measurements also makes it appropriate for different applications which are briefly discussed in this document.

Table of Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction................................................................................................................................... 2 Apparatus ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Experimental procedure ................................................................................................................ 4 Results........................................................................................................................................... 4 4.1. 4.2. 5. 6. 7. Venturi mass flow rate ........................................................................................................... 5 Pitot tube mass flow rate ....................................................................................................... 5

Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 7 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 8

8. Appendix .. 9

1. Introduction The aim of the experiment is to determine the mass flow rate of air in a horizontal pipe using two different approaches and compare the results. The first method involves the use of a Venturi tube of varying diameter connected to the pipe. The second technique comprises using a Pitot tube. The pipe is connected to an inclined manometer which is used to measure pressure differences. Both approaches are based on the Bernoulli principle and the law of conservation of mass. 1 (1.1) + 2 + = 2 (1.1) is known as the Bernoulli equation and states that for a steady, inviscid and incompressible flow, the total energy along a streamline is conserved (Munson, 2009). The first term represents the static pressure. The next term gives the amount of kinetic energy per volume of the fluid, where and represent the density and fluid velocity respectively. The last term refers to the potential energy per volume of the fluid, where and are the acceleration due to gravity and elevation of the fluid respectively. Every term of (1.1) therefore represents a different form of mechanical energy per volume meaning the units of the equation are the same as the unit of pressure, the Pascal. As the flow in the pipe is assumed to be steady, another useful equation can be applied. At any given time interval , the volume of the fluid, passing cross-section area of the pipe can be given as , where is the average velocity of the fluid. Therefore, the volume flow rate = or alternatively mass flow rate = where is the density of the fluid. As the flow rate must be equal at any cross-section of the pipe to conserve the mass, thus for any incompressible flow 1 1 = 2 2 1 = 2 (1.2)

Equations (1.1) and (1.2) can now be combined to calculate the flow rate in the pipe. As the pipe in the experiment is horizontal, the value of remains constant and (1.1) can be reduced to 1 2 1 2 (1.3) 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 2 2 where subscipts 1 and 2 refer to points upstream and downstream of the contraction of the Venturi. As the mass is conserved in any flow, the fluid must speed up when it passes through a contraction so that the flow rate remains constant. If 2 > 1 it then follows from (1.3) that 1 > 2 . As can be seen, as the pressure drops across the Venturi, the velocity of the fluid increases. This demonstrates the Bernoulli principle of conservation of energy along a streamline. Some of the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy to accelerate the fluid as the pipe contracts but the total amount of energy along the streamline remains constant, provided the flow is assumed to be steady, incompressible and inviscid. Rearranging (1.2) for 1 and substituting it into (1.3) gives 2 = 2(1 2 ) (1 (2 )2 ) 1 (1.4)

The pressure difference (p1 p2) can be read off the inclined manometer connected across the Venturi. However, the manometer gives the pressure difference as mm of water. In order to convert it to Pascals the value obtained must be multiplied by the specific weight of water w. Multiplying the value obtained from (1.4) by the known cross-section area 2 and density of air allows us to calculate the mass flow rate in the pipe. 2

The second approach comprises using a Pitot tube to measure the stagnation pressure at distinct locations across the pipe. As the fluid enters the Pitot tube it becomes stationary. Substituting 2 = 0 into (1.3) and rearranging for 1 gives 1 = 2(2 1 ) (1.5)

Here the pressure difference (2 1 ) measured by the inclined manometer is the difference between the pressures at mouth of the Pitot tube and the static pressure. The Pitot tube also follows the Bernoulli principle. In this case, all the kinetic energy of the fluid flowing into the tube is converted to give a rise in pressure when the fluid becomes stationary. The pressure at 2 is therefore the sum of the static pressure and the kinetic energy per volume, known as dynamic pressure. The collective term for static and dynamic pressure is stagnation pressure. As the pipe in the experiment is horizontal and the elevation effects can be neglected, the stagnation pressure is the highest pressure possible along a streamline. It is to be noted that the velocity calculated from (1.5) refers to the fluid velocity at a specific point whereas velocity calculated in (1.4) gives the average velocity across the Venturi. Therefore, a number of velocity readings, at different radii from the centre of the pipe must be taken using the Pitot tube. The value of the flow rate obtained by integrating this velocity profile should be higher than the corresponding value of the Venturi. Both the flow rate measurements are based on the Bernoulli principle which states that for a steady, incompressible and inviscid flow, the total energy is always conserved along a streamline. In reality no fluid is absolutely incompressible. However, at relatively low speeds the change in density is negligible (Flandro, 2012). An inviscid flow is also a simplification, however the dynamic viscosity of air at the temperature of 15 has a low value of 1.80 x 10-5 N.s/m2 (Munson, 2009) hence the fluid in our experiment can be considered inviscid. Therefore, the assumptions of steady, inviscid and incompressible flow are rational for our experiment and the use of Bernoulli equation gives a good approximation to the actual flow rate value. 2. Apparatus Venturi Pitot tube T4

Air Flow

T2 T1

T3

a)

b)

c)

d)

Fig. 2.1 a) Venturi and pitot tube b) electronic pressure transducer c) height gage d) inclined manometer 3

Fig. 2.1 shows the equipment used to investigate the flow rate in a pipe. Fig. 2.1a) represents a horizontal tube which narrows to form a Venturi. The inlet of the pipe is connected to a pump, which is capable of blowing air at various speeds, whereas the outlet is open to the atmosphere. The pipe is connected to a Pitot tube with a plastic disc attached to it. The height gage shown in Fig. 2.1c) is used to adjust and record the position of the Pitot tube across the tube, which enables a velocity profile to be generated. As mentioned previously in Sec.2, the pressure difference measurement can be taken with either the inclined manometer or the pressure transducer (PD) shown in Fig. 2.1 d) and b) respectively. The pressure transducer is more sensitive to any pressure fluctuations and therefore has a sampling key which enables for several readings to be taken and the average to be calculated. In order to measure the pressure difference across the Venturi the inclined manometer is connected to tappings T1 and T2 as shown in Fig. 2.1a). Similarly, the pressure difference measured by the Pitot tube is acquired by connecting the device to tappings T3 and T4. The equipment setup allows for the electronic pressure transducer to be used at the same time as the water manometer. There is a valve which enables to easily switch between the Venturi and Pitot tube readings.

3. Experimental procedure The temperature and atmospheric pressure is recorded before the start of the experiment. The barometer used gives the pressure reading in mm of mercury. With the air blower off, the water manometer is levelled and zeroed at the upper meniscus. The pressure transducer is zeroed by pressing the reset key. Air blower is then switched on and the readings given by the manometer and pressure transducer are compared at different speeds to ensure accuracy of PD. The following procedure is then followed: 1. Set the pump to blow at speed that corresponds to 30.0mm across the Venturi 2. Take the pressure difference across the Venturi with IM and PD 3. Switch the valve and use the height gage to move the Pitot tube across the tube. Align the Pitot parallel to the flow. Take extra care not to change the position of the plastic ring fixed to the Pitot shown in Fig. 2.1a). Take the readings with IM and PD every 2mm starting at the centre of the pipe. Steps 1-3 are then repeated for two additional blower speeds corresponding to 60.0 and 90.0mmwater across the Venturi. 4. Results Pressure difference across venturi (mmwater) 30.0 60.4 90.0 Venturi mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.0187 0.0265 0.0323 Pitot tube mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.0192 0.0268 0.0327 Difference between Pitot and venturi mass flow rates (%) 2.60 1.12 1.22

Fig. 4.1 Comparison between the mass flow rates obtained with a Pitot tube and Venturi at three different air pump speeds Fig. 4.1 summarises the data obtained in the experiment. It shows the variation in the mass flow rate in the pipe acquired by either the Pitot tube or Venturi at three different air pump speeds, corresponding to 30.0, 60.4 and 90.0mmwater across the Venturi. 4

The dimensions of the pipe as well as the environmental data collected at the start of the experiment were used to obtain the two cross-section areas of the pipe as well as the air density at the time the experiment was conducted. The calculation in presented in Sec. 8.2 and this data is summarised in Fig. 4.2 Small cross-section area A2 (m2) Large cross-section area A1 (m2) Air density (kg/m3) 0.000688134 0.009211849 1.245321545

Fig. 4.2 Air density and cross-section areas of the pipe

4.1.

Venturi mass flow rate

The mass flow rate obtained with the Venturi was calculated using (1.4). The pressure difference ( 1 2 ) was acquired by multiplying the value shown on the inclined manometer by the specific gravity of water w. The average velocity obtained from (1.4) was then multiplied by cross-section area A2 and the air density . A sample calculation of the flow rate at the speed corresponding to 30.0 mm of water across the Venturi is presented in Sec. 8.3.

4.2.

Pitot tube mass flow rate The Pitot tube was used to measure the stagnation across the narrow section of the pipe. The velocity of the fluid at these distinct locations can be calculated using (1.5). In this way, a velocity profile across the pipe was obtained. The pipe cross-section can be considered consisting of rings of thickness dr as shown in Fig. 4.3. The dashed lines represent the points where the Pitot tube readings were taken and are located halfway the thickness of each annulus.

dr r dr

Fig. 4.3 Pipe cross-section

The area of each annulus can be therefore calculated as = 2 (4.1)

where r is the distance from the centre of the pipe to mid-point of the annulus and dr is its thickness. It is to be noted that the area of the centre of the pipe is not donut-shaped. Therefore, its area can be calculated as the area of a circle of radius 1mm. Furthermore, the thickness of the last annulus is just 1.6mm due to the pipe diameter. The area of each annulus is then multiplied by the corresponding velocity and air density. The total mass flow rate is obtained by summing up the flow rates of all the rings as well as the centre of the pipe. The sample calculation is presented in Sec. 8.4 and the data obtained is summarised in Fig. 4.4. 5

Air pump speed expressed in pressure difference across manometer (mmwater) 30.0

Distance r from the centre of the pipe (mm) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Velocity at radius r (m/s)

Area of annulus (m2)

Mass flow rate through the annulus (kg/m3)

9.19414E-05 0.000732381 0.001462657 0.00218448 0.002899912 0.003603567 0.00431786 0.003877179

23.50064779 23.40000216 23.36635728 23.26513071 23.16346177 23.02720493 22.99301455 22.12108732

3.14159E-06 2.51327E-05 5.02655E-05 7.53982E-05 0.000100531 0.000125664 0.000150796 0.000140743

60.4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

33.49431038 33.30587394 32.94965115 32.63777994 32.34723012 32.24979848 32.1520716 30.82795702

3.14159E-06 2.51327E-05 5.02655E-05 7.53982E-05 0.000100531 0.000125664 0.000150796 0.000140743

0.00013104 0.001042419 0.002062539 0.003064525 0.004049659 0.005046826 0.00603784 0.005403238

90.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

41.3099011 40.75409422 40.59942917 40.34683396 40.24925985 39.55950298 38.57312764 36.69240415

3.14159E-06 2.51327E-05 5.02655E-05 7.53982E-05 0.000100531 0.000125664 0.000150796 0.000140743

0.000161616 0.001275536 0.00254139 0.003788367 0.005038941 0.006190735 0.00724365 0.006431104

Fig. 4.4 Pitot tube data showing velocity, area and flow rate of distinct rings 6

5. Discussion The results summarised in Fig. 4.1 show that the flow rate obtained with the Pitot tube is between 1.12 and 2.60 % higher than the value acquired with the Venturi. Whereas Venturi gives the average velocity in the pipe, the Pitot gives discrete measurements of the velocity across it. However, the velocity of the fluid starts to drop significantly near the pipe wall. This is due to the formation of a boundary layer; that is a layer of fluid near the boundary where the viscosity effects are not negligible. The fluid essentially becomes stationary at the boundary. The boundary layer thickness is usually very small compared to the pipe diameter. However, as it was not possible to take a reading at the actual boundary, the velocity of the annulus close to the pipe wall is a slight overestimation. This matches the values for the flow rate obtained in the experiment with the Pitot flow rate being slightly higher than the value obtained with the Venturi. Pitot tubes and Venturi meters are often quoted to give the value of the flow rate with 1% accuracy (Baker, 1992). The flow in the experiment cannot be considered laminar as indicated by the pressure fluctuations recorded by PD. Any turbulence in the flow will cause head losses, which in turn will affect the pressure readings. The major sources of error in the experiment are related to the equipment used as well as how accurate the experimental procedure is followed. The major problem in the experiment was adjusting the position of the Pitot tube. Inaccurate height gage reading can affect the value of the flow rate obtained. However, the precision of the instrument is high and the readings have the accuracy of +-0.005mm. The error in the flow rate related to the accuracy of the height gage is therefore relatively small. The other source of error was turbulent flow which caused pressure reading fluctuations. For instance, at the highest pump speed the manometer water column was fluctuating between 89.5 and 90.5mmwater. The 0.5mm uncertainty in the pressure difference means 0.56% error in the pressure measurement. If the true value of the pressure difference was 90.5mm, the corresponding value of the flow rate would be 0.0324 instead of 0.0323kg/s which corresponds to 0.30% error in the value of the flow rate. It can be therefore concluded that the value of the flow rate obtained with the Venturi is indeed accurate to within 1%. Furthermore, the maximum error related to the misalignment of the Pitot tube is less than 1% at an angle of 30o to the flow (Baker, 1992).

6. Conclusion The data obtained in the experiment matches the theory and predictions made in Sec.1. The flow rate value obtained with the Pitot is a slight overestimate. Furthermore, due to the fact that consistent results are acquired using the two different methods the data can be considered reliable. The value of the flow rate obtained with the Venturi is accurate to within 1% whereas the Pitot tube has a higher % error. As the Venturi is a more accurate device as well as easier to use, it is more useful in the industries where the accurate flow rate of fluid has to be known. However, Pitot tubes come very useful to obtain point velocity of an object or in determining velocity profile across tubes.

7. Bibliography Baker, R. C., 1992. An introductory guide to flow measurment. Oxford: The Alden Press. Flandro, G., 2012. Basic aerodynamics - Incompressible Flow. New York: Cambridge University Press. Munson, B. e. a., 2009. Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. 6th ed. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.