Lit Review 1st Draft - June 2009

Literature Review - 1st Draft
How are Web 2.0 ideas shaping UK

political party networks online?
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Image produced by http://www.wordle.net/
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Introduction
The relationship between the political party and the citizen is a key one for western
democracy, but it is rapidly changing, possibly for the worse. As parties change, the ties
between party elites and party members or supporters are breaking down and ultimately
this could lead to a loss of confidence in political parties as relevant institutions. The
emergence of the World Wide Web promised to revolutionise this relationship, but there
is little evidence that this is the case, instead the academic community has broadly
settled on the idea that the web has had little impact on politics to date. Recently
however, there have emerged a set of technologies and ideas collectively known as Web
2.0 that speak to the ambitions of the earliest web theorists. Web 2.0 has the potential to
provide the tools necessary to restore the faltering relationship between political parties
and their members and supporters. This review is aimed at placing the question of the
impact of Web 2.0 on party online networks in an appropriate context by outlining the
theoretical concepts that underlie the interaction of political parties and the world wide
web.
Political parties are a vital institution in modern democracies, providing a simple

decision making framework for the majority of electorate, as well as lending legitimacy
to governments formed by members of a political party. The party is perceived by many
to be in decline based on falling membership numbers and declining partisan affiliation.
Although not all would agree that this constitutes a decline, there are many different
explanations for party change, varying from developmental factors such as rising
educational standards to contextual factors such as wars and scandals. One of the
consequences of party change may well be a decline in the accountability of party elites
to their supporters as parties increasingly become detached from those they are
supposed to represent.
Initial work on the web rarely addresses the issue of political parties, but many of the
conclusions reached by the early theorists are as applicable to political parties as they
are to other organisations or individuals online. Traditionally the internet debate is
presented as being dominated by either optimistic or pessimistic approaches to the web,
either hailing the possibilities of having access to this vast new source of information, or
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warning against the dangers that are associated with replacing traditional activities with
pale online substitutes. Ultimately, the thesis which came to dominate our understanding
of the web and politics, and the one for which there is most empirical evidence, is that
the web has done little which has been either beneficial or detrimental to politics.
The final aspect of this question, and the one which opens up new opportunities for
research is that of Web 2.0. Although the term is something of an enigma, hard to define
and more likely to be a confluence of several independent trends as opposed to one
defining factor, it successfully distinguishes the web as it is now as compared to the web
as it was at the turn of the century. Blogs, social networking, and an overall focus on the
idea of user generated content rather than the content of an elite, has left the web in a
state which is markedly different from the early static web pages. As such it is again
time to re-evaluate what the web means for politics, and in this case, party politics, and
reassess the potential for the web to restore the connection between parties and their
supporters.
Theoretically Web 2.0 can accelerate the positive trends established by the early
optimistic writers by simplifying the requirements for individuals to participate in party
politics online. Making a contribution is no longer predicated on having a working
knowledge of constructing web pages, but is instead possible through a myriad of online
services, both hosted by political parties and independent of them. As well as the ease of
access, Web 2.0 also represents the web going mainstream and being embraced as a tool
by society at large. For many years the web existed in as an 'alternative' medium, the
realm of the technologically knowledgeable, but recently the web has found more
mainstream acceptance as a tool for social expression.
All in all, Web 2.0 may move the debate on from the politics as usual thesis by
providing a set of tools which enable parties to take greater notice of their supporters
and supporters to demand more of their parties. This thesis concentrates only on a small
part of a particular aspect of the liberal democratic system in the UK, specifically,
online party networks. But it is this area more than any other in which we can expect to
see the influence of Web 2.0 begin to unfold.
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Party Change
Starting at the most basic level we ask, what is a political party for?
The answer is not simple, but there is a surprisingly high degree of consensus around
the central roles of the modern political party:
 Candidate selection
 Interest aggregation
 Mobilising support
 A focus for the electorate
This is a generic list, but it does summarise lists produced by many writers who have
considered the subject of party function (Lusoli & Ward, 2004 ; Webb et al, 2002;
Margetts, 2001 ; Kirchheimer, 1969 ; McKenzie, 1965; Rommele, 2003; Webb, 2002).
It is perhaps evidence of the important role of parties in modern democracy that we see
such a consensus on their basic functions. Some writers have chosen to go into greater
detail than others, but the same functions appear on almost every list, the party is there
to select and train candidates for political office, to represent the views of those it claims
to speak for, aggregating competing ideas where necessary, provide a framework for
voters to make complex political decisions, and finally the party is there as a campaign
tool, to educate and motivate the electorate to vote for its agenda.
In addition to this basic list some writers have expanded on an important overall
function of political parties, legitimacy. Yani (1999) argues that political parties are key
to resolving the friction between the notion of equality and the practice of representation
inherent in western democracies, i.e. that whilst we are all notionally equal, only some
are permitted to make decisions:
'Most public institutions take part in some fashion in producing a response to

the overall problem of legitimacy of the representative regime. The political
party, however, plays a special and pivotal role in this process. Moreover the
very existence of the political party and the fulfilment of its special role in the
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periodic reorganization of the representative regime (elections and the

formation of the government) convert the unresolved problem of conceptual
legitimacy (the clash between equality and representation) into the more
manageable problem of institutional legitimacy (how do the parties and
institutions of government each perform their duties?)'
(Yani, 1999, p9)
Parties are not static organisations, but ones that change over time. The earliest parties
were institutionalised cliques of interest installed in legislative bodies such as the House
of Commons. In the UK the factional interests formed elite groups or cadres of
politicians, as the franchise at the time was so limited however there was little need for
these interests to even attempt to appeal to the interests of the common man or woman
(Margetts, 2001; McKenzie, 1965). McKenzie (1965) attributes the modern party
system in the UK to the 1832 Reform Act which expanded the franchise by an estimated
49% and marked the end of the Commons as a closed political arena. Leaving exact
dates aside however, as electorates began to enlarge there emerged a need for parties to
have some basis in the society at large as a way to attract enough votes to remain in
power. The mass party as a form was born out of a response to this change and the need
to establish supporting organisations which could allow parties to reach voters. Based
on having a large membership organisation, the mass party was able to communicate
with its members through the extensive party organisation which developed around it
(Margetts, 2001).
‘The caucuses of the first type are here replaced by ‘branches’. These are
working units, wider-based and less exclusive, in which political education of
members assumes considerable importance alongside the purely electoral
activity.’
(Duverger, 1954, p1-2)
In recent years, however, the mass party has also been challenged and to many it is seen
as a model of the past (Webb, 2002; Seyd & Whitley, 2004). Instead many parties seem
to be adopting a model which is de-coupled from what would have traditionally been
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considered the party membership base. Current parties are for the most part composed
of small professional and centrally controlled organisations which are reliant on the
mass media, not the mass organisation, in order to attract votes. Kirchheimer (1969)
identifies the catch-all model as the next step for parties in the post-war environment.
The catch-all model was de-coupled from the mass of the electorate, and instead was
focussed on vote getting from as broad a range of voters as possible. The catch-all
model is not dependent on a mass organisation to reach potential voters as in the mass
model and so, consequently, the importance of membership is reduced as full time
members are replaced by supporters.
Katz & Mair (1995) go even further than Kirchheimer in identifying a further
development in the party models in the development of what they term the cartel party.
Based on the increasing importance of political parties Katz and Mair outline a situation
where the party goes from being the agent of the citizen acting on the government (mass
party) to the broker between the citizen and government (catch-all) and then being
completely assimilated by the state (cartel). In this situation the party would sustain
itself with resources from the state and the relationship between the party and the citizen
would be dramatically curtailed.
The models described here are not absolute, in fact it is highly unlikely that any party
will fit completely within the definition of one model or another as the types above are
intended as conceptual ideas, not a historical framework. It is also possible for
contrasting models to operate within the same political system (Margetts, 2001). All in
all we should be careful to avoid viewing these models as a teleology or evolution to an
ultimate goal or 'higher' type of party, but instead recognise that parties will adapt their
parties according to their own unique circumstances (Padro-Solanet, 2009).
The principal consequence of party change is falling membership figures for political
parties. Measuring party membership is a very difficult proposition. There is no
requirement for parties to publish their membership figures, and arguably many reasons
to exaggerate or distort the figures when they do, as such any measurement of party
membership represents only a best guess (Margetts, 2001; Scarrow, 2000). Katz and
Mair found a precipitous drop in party membership in the UK between 1964 and 1987.
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As a percentage of the overall electorate the number of UK citizens involved in parties

fell from 9.4% to 3.3%, a decline of 6.1 percentage points (Katz& Mair, 1992, p334).
As an absolute number party membership went down by 56.2% in the same period
(ibid, p332). A follow up paper to this fills in the missing information between 1990 and
2000. It found that in this time period UK party membership again halved to the point
were only 1.92% of the electorate was a member of a political party (Mass & Biezen,
2001 p9 & p12). Scarrow's figures cover a wider time period, suggesting that party
membership as a percentage of the UK electorate has dropped from 10% in the 1950's to
1.9% in the 1990s (Scarrow, 2000, p90). Despite the methodological questions, the best
guess at party membership available points to less than 2% of the population being
members of a political party.
Heidar & Saglie (2003) are critical of treating part membership figures as the be all and
end all of the party change debate. They argue that the figures do little to explain who is
leaving the party and why, for instance there be a case for arguing that party activism
will remain relatively constant over time, despite declining membership figures simply
because the least active members of the party are the ones falling by the way side.
Despite this there is a question over what role a political party with so few members can
claim in a representative democracy.
In addition to the decline in party membership, another consequence of party change is

the apparent convergence of ideologies as parties’ dash to occupy the central ground
where they perceive they can attract the most votes (Webb et al, 2002; Margetts, 2001).
The classic demonstration of this has been the reinvention of the British Labour Party in
the 1990s, culminating in the election victory of 1997, but perhaps best characterised by
the 1995 decision to remove a commitment to nationalisation from the party's
manifesto. Kirchheimer (1969) in describing the catch-all party argued that any party
that wanted to adhere to the catch-all model would have to sever links with the
ideological past as a way to reach out to as many voters as possible. The resultant
parties are likely to be much less ideologically driven, and instead driven by vote
maximising behaviours which would require them to move away from any positions
which could drive away fickle floating voters (such as a commitment to nationalisation).
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The central dynamic of this change has been the relationship of the party to its members
or in the case of later party models, its supporters. By and large the trend has been one
of separation, with the party seemingly growing increasingly distant from the interests it
claims to speak for. Lusoli and Ward (2004) characterise this change as:
'These have arguably strengthened the position of party elites whilst eroding the
collective power of activists.'
(Lusoli and Ward, 2004, p454)
As communication has moved away from mass organisations and into the realm of the
mass media, and as parties have become less ideologically focussed and instead
concentrated on vote maximising behaviours, the notional base of support to which
political parties lay claim is evidently withering away. Lusoli and Ward characterised
this as moving away from an aggregating function which stipulates acting based on the
interests of party members, towards and articulating function, which is based to a much
greater degree on salesmanship (Lusoli & Ward, 2004).
Ultimately, the decline in membership and the decline in partisanship may result in a
loss of legitimacy for political parties (Seyd & Whitley, 2004; Yani, 1999). With fewer
members and fewer supporters, parties will have a harder and harder time maintaining
the notion that they have a legitimate base of support for their policies. Some have
argued that this has never been the case, that parties have always been essentially
vehicles to power for ambitious elites (McKenzie, 1965; Michaels, 1915). Despite this
background level of cynicism however the party has acted as a source of legitimisation
for candidates, and with its declining influence this function may grow increasingly
difficult resulting in a loss of confidence in the political system. If the relationship
between the party and its supporters breaks down, then to some extent at least the
relationship between citizens and the government also suffers.
As to what is causing party change, there are a number of theories which could explain
the transition from the mass party model to the catch-all or cartel model. The
overarching cause is one of societal change which has caused parties to adjust their
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organisations to cope with changing expectations from members of society. As society

has grown more complex and citizens' interests have diversified, the old identities which
sustained the mass party model are no longer as steadfast (Webb et al, 2002; Yani, 1999;
Kirchheimer, 1969; Katz & Mair, 1995). Citizens no longer easily fit into the categories
such as labour and management as they did prior to the Second World War, instead
society has atomised with individuals now basing their affiliations on complex sets of
interests. There is also an argument that increasing standards of education have also
brought with them an increased reluctance to toe the party line without question,
creating voters who have higher expectations of their politicians (Dalton & Wattenberg,
2000; Dalton, 2000). Where parties were once thought of as a way to simplify politics,
voters are increasingly willing to make up their own minds on issues rather than relying
on a party to tell them what 'people like them' should think.
Additionally, party change has coincided with the apparent rise of alternative political
groups which seemingly compete for attention with mainstream political parties (Seyd
& Whitley, 2004; Dalton & Wattenberg, 2000). As society becomes increasingly diverse
it requires a greater number of more diverse groups to represent it (Lipow & Seyd,
1996). In such a way a political party which is forced to aggregate the concerns of a
great many may be seen as a poor bet compared to a single issue group which
absolutely matches your interests.
The mass media has also been identified as one possible source of party change (Dalton
& Wattenberg, 2000). Under the mass party model the media is a secondary
consideration as a tool for reaching potential voters as the party organisation is expected
to be the principal channel of communication. With the arrival of television and radio
however, the public gained access to a host of new sources of information, none of them
controlled by a political party. Whereas once party members may have derived their
entire knowledge of politics based on their membership of the party they are now
exposed to competing sources of information. Dalton and Wattenberg (2000) argue that
the mass media usurped this party channel and replaced the party as the principal source
of political information for many. Of all the sources of party change, the mass media is
the one with the most direct link with the web. The idea of the web as new media as
well as the possibilities now emerging for video and sound online creates a direct
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parallel with the emergence of radio and television as sources of information with the
public.
We might also consider that party change may be a function of a broader change in
politics at the macro level (Dalton & Wattenberg, 2000). It may well be that the public
at large is simply no longer interested in politics and consequently the political parties
have learned to do more with less and adapted to the diminished levels of support now
available. As people become less engaged with politics as whole, naturally parties will
find greater difficulty in recruiting the members needed to sustain the mass party type
party and as such be pressured to move to more efficient party types.
One of the difficulties in negotiating the idea of party change is separating out cause and
effect. Although the above makes a distinction between the drivers of party change and
their impacts, this is largely arbitrary. For instance one could quite easily make the
claim that the reliance of parties on mass media as a communication channel is a result
of the shift towards the catch-all model rather than a cause of it. It may be difficult to
imagine, but there is nothing to suggest that a large party organisation and a competent
media operation are mutually exclusive. Likewise with the decline in partisanship or the
fall in membership numbers, are these results of party change, or is party change driving
the fall in numbers?
A final point about party change. Many have considered that the changes outlined above
represent a crisis or a decline for political parties. In many ways this is the case, but we
should also consider the starting point for this decline. Was there really a golden age of
mass parties in which the party leadership was under the leash of the party members?
(Scarrow, 2000; McKenzie, 1965) Many think not, in fact the emergence of the mass
party model itself has prompted similar claims of decline based on the supposed level of
party control over parliamentary business (McKenzie, 1965). It does seem that the link
between party member/supporters and parties is weaker now than it has been in the past.
Despite this, there is no indication that the party is about to disappear for ever. The
proliferation of party models demonstrates that parties have been able to adapt over time
to suit changing circumstance.
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Leaving aside the uncertainty around the issue of cause and effect, we can be relatively
sure that parties are changing. These changes have resulted in the decline of the mass
party model, and the apparent rise of catch-all and cartel parties, both of which place
considerably less emphasis on the role of membership in the party organisation. The
central hypothesis of this thesis is that the web, and more specifically Web 2.0 works in
such a way that it may reverse or temper this trend, handing power back to the
individual party members or supporters.
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The world wide web and party change
The internet is a global telecommunications network often described as a network of

networks. It allows computer users to communicate with one another using an agreed
set of protocols which in turn allows for a number of applications, including:
 email
 the world wide web
 multiplayer gaming
 voice over IP telephony
 instant messaging
The subject of this thesis is the web, but, for many writers the terms internet and web
have become almost interchangeable. This is perhaps symptomatic of the transition of
many services that were previously based on the computer desktop to the web, for
instance the prevalence of web mail services such as hotmail or Gmail. If, as some
predict, an increasing number of previously desktop applications are based on the web
in future, then this distinction is likely to become even fuzzier.1 As it stands though, this
thesis is focussed on the web and the impact of innovations in the web on political
parties.
Initially the web was created at CERN on the French-Swiss border, now home to the
Large Hadron Collider. Keeping track of information at CERN was difficult, especially
given the short tenure of many of the researchers there. Information was being lost in
the shuffle.
'In providing a system for manipulating this sort of information, the hope would
be to allow a pool of information to develop which could grow and evolve with
the organisation and the projects it describes. For this to be possible, the
method of storage must not place its own restraints on the information. This is
1 For an example of this trend we can look at the availability of applications online through Google
such as Google docs and the proposed forthcoming operating system from Google 'Chrome' which is
likely to be much more web centric than any OS before it. Microsoft has also announced it's intention
to provide applications online.
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why a “web” of notes with links (like references) between them is far more
useful than a fixed hierarchical system. When describing a complex system many
people resort to diagrams with circles and arrows. Circles and arrows leave one
free to describe the interrelationships between things in a way that tables for
example do not. The system we need is like a diagram of circles and arrows,
where the circles and arrows can stand for anything.'
(Berners-Lee, 1989)
This method of storage grew and developed into the World Wide Web, millions of pages
linked to one another, free from hierarchical constraints. Although the system described
by Berners-Lee is relatively dry compared to the rich visual experience we see today, it
remains the lynchpin of every site on the web.
For political parties, the web was potentially a source of great change, once again
altering the social landscape in ways to which the party must adapt. Just as the mass
media took over the functions of party information provision, the new media (as it has
come to be known) may well once again alter the dynamic.
Little has been written explicitly on the role of the web in party change. Despite this,
much of the general literature can applied to political parties. For the central dynamic of
party change, the relationship between the supporter and the party there are a number of
possible scenarios evident in the literature. For the purposes of this review I have
approached these scenarios as either optimistic (strengthening the relationship),
pessimistic (weakening the relationship) or finally neutral outcomes, having no effect
one way or another.
Optimistic scenarios
The defining characteristic of the web is the availability of information. Initially

conceived as an information storage system, the primary attraction of the web as a
medium is the amount of information available to the user from a diverse range of
sources. For a political party this is likely to alter the way in which they communicate
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information to their supporters or members.
Writers such as Benkler (2006) and Castells (1996) have speculated that we are now
living in a society which is based on information and not as has been the case in the past
the physical production of goods; as they term it an information society. Negroponte
(1995) concurs with this assessment, describing a transition from atoms to bits in his
exploration of the impact of the internet, i.e. that the emphasis of our economy has
moved from physical products to digital information. Negroponte emphasises the
opportunity provided for acquiring information from new and different sources,
suggesting that in the future we will all become the editors of our own 'Daily Me'
(Negroponte, 1995, p153). In this interpretation, the gatekeeping function of the mass
media would end, and instead, every user would in effect become their own gatekeeper,
choosing what sources they trust and what kind of information they want to see.
Given the importance of the mass media to the current crop of political parties, we may
well see this as a challenge to the existing order. Having new and diverse sources of
information may well be a boon to the ordinary supporter, allowing them to assess, in a
much more critical light, party communications and action. Despite this however, the
change from party led to media led communication effected in the transition from mass
to catch-all models seemingly had little effect on the role of the ordinary supporter. That
was however a case of communication passing from one elite, the party, to another, the
editors. What Negroponte describes is a broader democratisation of information. Parties
will always be able to use the web as a channel to their supporters, but now, so can
anyone else, and there is no guarantee that what the party has to say will be seen as the
dominant or 'true' side of the story. Party communications would now have to compete
with a vast number of diverse sources of information, many of them beyond the party's
influence.
As well as more information however, the arrival of the web and ICTs in general, has
also raised the question of how supporters interact and participate in political parties.
For the first time, frequent ballots on party issues are a real possibility for party
governance. The availability of connected computer terminals in the home or at work,
would theoretically dramatically reduce the participation cost and the logistics involved
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in a direct plebiscitary election. Budge (1996) advocates that in a governmental context

such technology would allow for referenda on any important decisions, a supposed
return to Athenian values. Budge even makes a case for saying that an argument against
this kind of hyper-plebiscitary democracy would be an argument against democracy
itself. The reality is, as usual, far more complex than the theory. The argument for direct
democracy is valid, but arguably places too much emphasis on the rhetoric of equality
rather than the experience of representation. Democracy is not perfect, and the
institutions that opinion is filtered through are as much a part of our democracy as the
act of voting. By reducing democracy to push-button ranking of preferences it seems
that some of the more nebulous aspects of what makes our democracy function may be
lost (Street, 1997).
There are of course further complications with the direct democracy argument, the
'black box problem' is a common one in technology. Put simply, we do not understand
how many things function at a basic level. Taking the web as an example, a user may
understand the inputs such as text or even html code, they may understand the outputs,
an email or a web page on the screen, but the process by which an input becomes an
output is largely unknown except to a small group of technologically skilled individuals.
Asked to describe how the internet works, it is unlikely that many users could describe
this even in conceptual terms, let alone in technical ones. Put another way, how many
people do you know who have the knowledge to build a telecommunications network?
In such circumstances, is it really possible to develop an online electoral system which
is not only tamper proof, but also has the confidence of the electorate or supporters? A
paper ballot is logistically complex, but conceptually very simple and therefore arguably
inherently more trust-worthy.
One key example concerns a 2009 internet poll by Time Magazine which sought to find
the top 100 most influential individuals. As an indicator of how these polls can be
rigged, not only did a relatively obscure website owner win the poll ahead of figures
such as Barack Obama, but the following entries were arranged so that their first initials
spelt out a message. (Time, 2009; Lamere, 2009) This is largely undocumented except
for sketchy blog postings, but serves as a good example of how little we understand the
inner workings of the web and consequently it may be difficult to stand by a poll result
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reached in this way.
Despite these problems, the embryonic empirical evidence on political parties’

participation systems seems to suggest that there is a role for direct democracy in
political parties. Boyd (2008) found that of the four e-political parties (parties which
function primarily online) he identified, three of them were incorporating direct voting
into their internal participation, voting in favour or against specific policies, and
transmitting these votes to their politicians who then carried them out. Only one party in
Boyd's study embraced a more holistic model which involved collaboration and
integrated deliberation. So despite the drawbacks, it seems that at the party level, direct
democracy is playing a key role in empowering supporters of some specific party types.
It is worth noting that Boyd only looked at parties he considered to be fully online, and
he did not look at the integration of online elements into existing parties.
More discursive forms of participation may be more likely in established parties. Since
the 'Zapatista effect' (Cleaver, 1998, p622) there has been a great deal of interest in how
social movements and campaign groups were taking advantage of ICTs in their
campaigns. Initially the simplest tools seem to have been the focus of these campaign
groups, such as email and websites (Lin & Dutton, 2003), but as time has gone on
efforts have become more sophisticated and now tools such as independent media web
sites like Indymedia (which was created to report on the 1999 WTO protests in Seattle),
or collaborative wikis, have been embraced and become an important aspect of online
activists (Pickerill, 2006). The development of the blogsphere is another area which has
been linked to the rise of online social movements and campaign groups (Khan &
Kellner, 2004). The emerging picture has been one of the development of communities
linked together through ICT, most with a strong commitment to internal democracy and
non-hierarchical forms of governance.
'Crucially, with respect to democratic principles, it has strengthened the ability

of networks to retain non-hierarchical forms of organising, thus contradicting
Michaels' Iron law of oligarchy.'
(Pickerill, 2006, p272)
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Chadwick (2007) theorises that such online protest movements may inspire groups
which are invested in more traditional forms of political participation.
'I want to suggest that traditional interest groups and parties are experiencing
Internet fuelled increases in grass roots influence in a way that social
movements now take for granted as part of their non-hierarchical 'movement is
the message' approach.'
(Chadwick, 2007, p286)
Chadwick argues that many established political groups are co-opting the tactics of
online social movements which suggests that political parties may be developing their
own online communities. The internet promotes organisational change and adaptation,
and as such allows established organisations to experiment with new forms of
mobilisation, going beyond 'brochureware' approaches towards a more community
based web presence by involving online networks. What is crucial to note from the
passage however is the idea that the increased importance of the grass roots was
internet fuelled, i.e. we should not expect the parties themselves to instigate such
change. Networks develop spontaneously on the web simply by virtue of the fact that
they are online. The web has always been based on linking information together in a
free-form, non-hierarchical fashion resulting in the development of networks around
issues. If this is the case, then discussion will take place, regardless of the wishes of the
party.
In summary, there are a number of reasons why the web might go some way to restoring
the link between parties and their supporters in a way which is not part of the present
party - supporter relationship. This may come through greater access to information and
therefore greater accountability and responsiveness, or it may come through new forms
of participation be they based on voting or discussing issues.
Pessimistic responses
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In direct opposition to the new wealth of information available is what Benkler (2006)
describes as the Babel objection, with so much information available, is there a risk that
users may simply drown in information, overwhelmed by too many contrasting
opinions? Benkler solves the Babel objection by arguing that internet users form self
recommending communities which vet materials for one another and pass the quality or
important information up the ladder to more generalist news sources. So for example, as
story may start out being talked about by a few friends in a forum before being picked
up by more and more sources until eventually it makes its way to a mainstream site
where it is available to be picked up some one who is only casually interested in the
subject. In this way much of the micro level detail, whilst available for those that want
to find it, is largely hidden from view. Still, there may be a case for arguing that in party
political terms, the more information is available to the supporters of a political party,
the less responsive the party needs to be as it can simply bury opponents with
information whilst safe in the knowledge that few if any would have the resources
necessary to sift through the masses of information available online.
Related but distinct from the Babel objection is the echo chamber effect described by
Sunstein (2007). Sunstein argues that in the online world information is so readily
available that a user would not necessarily ever have to view information they disagreed
with and that in such circumstances opinions become entrenched and radicalised.
Sunstein argues that communities feed off of themselves in the quest for social
acceptance and attempts to out radical fellows. There is no denying that the web has
enabled hate groups to co-ordinate in a way which was previously impossible, but the
argument for radicalisation is limited by diversification in the offline media which has
similar implications. Conservatives read conservative newspapers and liberals liberal
newspapers, just as conservatives read conservative blogs and liberals read liberal blogs.
The echo chamber effect by Sunstein is a problem, but not one confined to the online
world. For the party system, the echo-chamber effect would be manifest as an
entrenchment of party views to the exclusion of sensible debate. Many might argue that
this is already the case, that we currently have partisans for partisans sake, but a more
severe form of the echo chamber may be one of the consequences of increased access to
information.
19
The social aspects of the web look set to become the biggest drivers of its success,
however, they are not universally accepted. Putnam (2000) groups the internet with
other factors which he considers as privatisation of leisure time and therefore
detrimental to the forming of the 'real' ties which support political engagement. This
harks back to the image of the web as populated by only the socially isolated, and seems
to draw strength from studies carried out at the time which seem to point to the anti-
social effects of the internet (Nie & Erbring, 2000). This line of reasoning argues that
the web is not a valid medium for forming ties between users. Whilst there is a
difference between online and offline relationships, it is not the case that web can be
considered an isolated or private medium. Admittedly the ties that are formed online are
different to the real world ties which Putnam argues are necessary for engagement, they
none the less do seem to constitute social ties (Wellman et al, 1996). The argument that
the net is in someway antisocial and therefore of limited political use would preclude all
but the most cursory forms of participation online, and would in the end lead to a
decline in participation as the social factors which encourage people to get involved
with causes ebb away.
In addition to concerns over socialisation, many highlight the possible downside of

increased use of the online sphere by political parties as a potential increase in control.
'Do the new media, with their ability to collect, store, process and transmit
information facilitate and enhance or limit and regress debate? In other words
do new media offer potential for both liberation and control?'
(Wring & Horrocks, 2001,p 207)
As far back as pre-web networks such as the WELL described by Rheingold (1992,
2000) there have been warnings about the surveillance issues which come from living
even part of your life online, the most notable of which is Jeremy Bentham's
hypothesised panoptican. The best form of control is when an individual knows they
may be being watched at any time. As much power as the web grants to individuals, the
same benefits are enjoyed by party elites who now have access to levels of information
about individuals never before possible. Sophisticated marketing techniques are already
20
a key part of most election campaigns, but with the availability of information online
this issue can only grow more acute as party elites find out an ever greater level of detail
about their members and supporters.
One striking piece of real world testimony comes from the recent successful 2008
campaign of Barrack Obama, in particular the activities of one prominent group
MoveOn. Often praised for using technology in an innovative way, some reports argue
that technology was used in rigidly hierarchical ways by a campaign team intent on
controlling those lower down the chain.
‘No one really quit, but there was some crying and a lot of frustration just about
how rigid the campaign was… But if one day I’m someone who’s in the position
to be at the top of a big campaign wheel like that, I think I would more of a point
of making sure everyone felt empowered.’
(Hari, 2008, p12)
This is anecdotal evidence, but just as technology can empower the rank and file in an
organisation, it can equally empower those at the higher rungs of the ladder.
Politics as usual – the null
Despite the positive and negative interpretations of the web's impact, the dominant
thesis related to the web and politics is that it will have little impact in the grand scheme
of things. The earliest writers saw the web as a source of revolutionary rather than
evolutionary change, and they made bold statements about what the new technology
was capable of. It is difficult to read Rheingold and Negroponte without seeing the
world turned upside down. The politics as usual thesis maintains that the online world
will closely mirror the inequalities of the offline world, allowing the elite to empower
themselves at the expense of the masses who do not have the resources or the capacity
to exploit new technologies.
Margolis and Resnik (2000) describe the original net as existing in a Lockean state of
21
nature, based on mutual co-operation which was then corrupted by commercial

interests. As they see it the altruistic nature of the web was forsaken in favour of a more
commercial mentality. As a result:
'Political life on the internet has moved away from fluid cyber-communities in
which civic life centres around free discussion and debate. It has entered an era
of organized civil society and structured group pluralism with a relatively
passive citizenry.'
(Margolis & Resnik, 2000, p7)
They describe a situation where the big interests have once again come to dominate the
political landscape and majority are again reduced to passive consumers of politics. It
seems early for writers to already be harking back to a golden age of the web before it
'sold out' but none the less, it must be acknowledged that online content has become
more professional and the big parties have occupied prominent pieces of online real-
estate. Margolis and Resnik also argue that these new online giants are not online in the
interest of tapping the possibilities of increased supporter interaction, but simply to
protect their interests and push their message in the new media channel.
In addition, the fact is, that even today, despite the growth in net access world wide, the
majority of the world's population does not have access to the internet. Cyber
democracy as we are discussing it here will only apply to that small fraction of the
world which has both a democratic government of the type assumed here, and net
access. Beyond the international level, there are also divides within society, as the
online population is relentlessly bias towards the economically and socially advantaged
(Norris, 2001). It seems that there is little that can be said in defence of this online
participation bias, if the internet does create more responsive political parties, they will
not be responding to the under privileged, but in a sense, they will be responding to
similar sorts of people that they have always responded to. This is a scenario backed up
by research which has failed to reveal anything but the smallest of gains for what are
typically considered disenfranchised groups (Gibson et al, 2005; Digennaro & Dutton,
2006).
22
In the same way that mass illiteracy and poor access to books was not a permanent feature of
our society, neither is the Digital Divide. Some writers have argued that universal access
may one day be a reality, and given trends in development of mobile phones as well as
the most web aware generation of children ever, the digital divide seems like it may be
only a temporary fixture, a problem of today, but not of tomorrow. (Krueger, 2002). As
it stands though, the digital divide is a phenomenon we must take into account in this
analysis, the methods of participation discussed in this appear are not open to everyone.
Empirically, the trend has also been one of limited change. For political parties, there
seems to have little impact as a result of the web. Heidar & Saglie (2003) conducted a
study of linkage in Norwegian political parties. One of the components of their work
examined the theorised cyberparty model, and they found a stark contrast between those
who were members of a party and those who either held office or were Congress
delegates. They argued that:
'Likewise we must reject the hypothesis that internet based participation has
come into regular use (H3.1) The internet has as yet had limited impact on the
activism of ordinary party members. In spite of much hype about the parties'
web pages, the traditional organisation still structures the core party activities
of nominations, programme making and leadership selection. However the
higher levels of internet use among the most integrated and active party
members (H3.2) and the young (H3.3) may cause future changes in the way
'party politics' is conducted.'
(Heidar & Saglie, 2003, p782)
In addition, the most recent UK based party research found little role for ICTs in either
widening participation in political parties, or deepening it. Lusoli & Ward (2004)
conducted a survey of both Labour party members and Liberal Democrat Party
members using an online survey. They discovered that whilst there were significant
opportunities for online engagement, that they had little effect in expanding the user
base beyond those who were already active.
23
'Although ICTs may facilitate a modest widening of the party base, the more
significant impact is the further deepening of participatory activities amongst
activists. Consequently, ICTs may well further entrench existing participation
divides in political parties.'
(Lusoli & Ward, 2004, p467)
This is the position which pervades the literature on politics online. Empirical research
has failed to find any solid evidence of the predicted revolution, finding only minor
evolutionary changes in specific groups (Gibson et al, 2005; Bimber, 2001). Overall the
message is largely one of no change, although ICTs may be providing new ways for
people to engage with parties, by and large it is the same people who engage offline
who are active online. The limited impact of ICT on increasing participation in political
parties however masks other impacts which are equally important. Whilst it is true that
the same old crowd is interacting with political parties, the ways in which they are
interacting and the opportunities being created for interaction have seemingly expanded
as a result of these new technologies.
Party Networks
Despite the conflicting approaches to the impact of the web, every political party in the
UK has some kind of web presence, their sites range from the small scale to large
professional productions rich with interactivity. It is evident that none of the parties has
chosen to forego the web and concentrate solely on the offline world as a source of
support.
There is a rich tradition of social movements using technology as the basis for political
activity (Pickerill, 2006). The common originator of this trend for the majority of
writers is the Zapatista movement based in Mexico (Cleaver, 1998). The Zapatistas were
behind an uprising in Mexico in 1994 which was protesting land and labour reforms
seen as unjust by many. The movement was characterised by the skilful use of ICTs in
24
order to get their message across to the outside world, most notably foreign NGOs,
which linked the Zapatista's cause with a broader social justice movement.
We can expect to see a similar pattern of development for political parties. Their
websites will be situated within a broader network discussing politics. Just as the main
party site might contain links to local branch pages, candidate sites, there is also likely
to be links to think tanks, news stories and independent comment from individuals. For
a political party, the biggest consequence of this online link culture, is the ability of the
central party to control information within its online space. Whilst party websites can be
controlled through normal vetting practices, the party cannot control external sites
which may want to link in to the party network. So for example a page containing
information critical of a political party could link to the party homepage and
consequently form party of the online network.
Political parties online
There is some question as to how best to reconcile the arrival of the web with the
existing taxonomy of political parties. Firstly, there is the possibility that the web will
allow for the development of a new and distinct form of political party. Margetts (2001)
presents the web as an organisational challenge to which political parties will be forced
to respond in order to survive. She argues that the web will give rise to a new form of
political party:
'An alternative response might be another 'ideal type' of political party, with it's
origins in developments in media and information and communication
technologies, particularly the internet, combined with new trends in political
participation and de-institutionalisation of political parties: the 'cyber' party.'
(Margetts, 2001, p8)
For Margetts the defining feature of this new ideal party type was that the relationship
between members and elites would be strengthened through the use of ICT. In the
cyber-party routine party functions would be done online, allowing party supporters to
25
take a direct role in candidate selection.
Other approaches have predicted the response of established party models to the use of
the web. Lofgren and Smith (2003) produced a detailed taxonomy of political parties
online, arguing that existing party characteristics would play a big role in the parties
web operation and factors such as party ideology and typology would define how the
party would come to use the web and view its membership. They argue that there are
four key strategies that parties will adopt based on their values. For instance, that mass
parties will use the web as a bi-directional tool in order to give party members greater
say over what happens in the party day to day. In contrast he argues that cartel parties
will use the web as a uni-directional campaigning tool. He also outlines two other
approaches, consumerist (akin to catch-all) which uses the web as a way to gauge public
opinion and focus policy, and the grassroots strategy which is based on a multi-
directional discursive approach.
For Lofgren & Smith the web was not a defining factor for a party in the way it seems
to be for Margetts. Instead, they view the web as adding to the repertoires of existing
parties, and that web use will very much depend on how the party sees itself and where
they fit in in the taxonomy. Mass parties use the web to gain traction with their members
whilst more centralised parties use the web to better articulate their message to voters.
Such an approach tends to minimise the importance of the web as a factor for party
change. Whilst parties will always have the final say over the aspects of the web under
their control, this may not be the case for aspects of the web that are outside of their
control. A cartel party for instance may face calls to be more responsive to its supporters
demands in much the same way as a mass party as a result of supporters being able to
express their views through the web. Margetts argues that the web is a challenge to the
existing party model whereas Lofgren & Smith see it as something which can be co-
opted and controlled according to individual party rhetoric.
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Web 2.0
In its original incarnation the web seemed like it might spell dramatic change for the
political party as an organisation. The politics as usual thesis however seems to have
won out, with parties seemingly adapting to the new arena of party politics online in
ways which has done little to increase the power of the party supporters.
Like any research in a fast changing field however, we need to add the caveat 'yet' to
any finding. As some have acknowledged, in many ways the web has been in its infancy
during the initial period of research, not yet fully formed, its final manifestation still
being shaped by tech start ups, enthusiasts and millions of individual users. This process
is by no means yet complete, and in many ways it is doubtful that the web will ever
reach a static form in which we can finally and conclusively capture its effect on our
world. Much like the political party, the web is a constantly evolving and developing
phenomenon. Web 2.0 is a way of conceptualising the next stage of the development of
the web. It represents the next rung on the evolutionary ladder and the next set of
challenges to the current model of party organisation.
Defining Web 2.0 is a challenge, and a comprehensive definition has yet to emerge from
the literature. Some commentators decry the term as nothing more than a meaningless
buzz word, but at its heart, Web 2.0 does tell us about some fundamental changes in the
way we see and use the web.
In the popular understanding Web 2.0 can be thought of as services which rely on user-
generated content and allow for interaction over the web. When most people are asked
to give an example of a Web 2.0 site, they will invariably mention Facebook, or one of
the other social networking sites, as well as talk about blogging as a more general
phenomenon. One internet wag defines Web 2.0 as follows:
‘Web 1.0 was created for physicists to share papers
Web 2.0 was created so people could share pictures of cats.’
27
(Zuckerman, 2008)
I argue that Web 2.0 is more useful when it is considered the confluence of three general
trends rather than any one specific factor.
 The development of new technologies and services

 Increased value derived from having such a large user base
 A sea change in public attitudes towards the web
The exact origin of the term Web 2.0 can be traced to the technology and publishing
company O’Reilly. CEO Tim O’Reilly describes an exercise in which he and his staff
pondered the ramifications of the dot com crash which culminated in 2001 (O’Reilly,
2005). The team wondered why some companies had disappeared from the market
place, whilst others seem to be even more successful than before the crash. Using this as
the yardstick for measuring a successful company, the O’Reilly team outlined a
framework for a successful Web 2.0 company.
O’Reilly outlined seven headings which for them defined Web 2.0.
• The web as a platform

• Harnessing collective intelligence
• Data is the next intel inside
• End of the software release cycle
• Lightweight programming methods
• Software above the level of a single device
• Rich user experiences
As is evident from these headings, O’Reilly was looking for sound investments, not
attempting to create a definition which could be applied to the structures of political
parties.
Some further work has been done to strengthen our understanding of Web 2.0. Most
notably Anderson who outlines and expands on the topic of Web 2.0 by outlining ideas
28
in a more academic way, in particular by stressing the importance of user generated

content and the importance of network effects in the Web 2.0 paradigm (Anderson 2007
a, Anderson 2007 b).
What Anderson highlights is that Web 2.0 is built upon the two way flow of
information, that users were now uploading content to the Web rather than simply
downloading information as they had done in the past. Tim Berners Lee argues that the
web has always been designed so that people can upload information and that web
pages have never been in the hands of an elite cadre of web content producers
(Anderson, 2007a). In this sense there is little that has changed from Web 1.0 and Web
2.0. What has changed however is the ease with which content is uploaded. It is no
longer necessary to have available web space, a domain name and a working knowledge
of html to contribute, but it can instead be done through simple interfaces such as social
networking sites or blog platforms. In many cases the necessity to own a computer has
even been taken out of the equation with services such as Twitter now completely
functional from a mobile phone.
For party networks the focus on user generated content expands the trend of greater and
more diverse sources of information available online. In addition to the web sites
considered by the Web 1.0 theorists, in Web 2.0 information is also available from
sources such as social networking profiles, RSS feeds, Twitter streams, and perhaps
most importantly of all, blogs, all of which are potentially used by groups as diverse as
news organisations, interest groups and even politically minded individuals. From this
perspective we can see Web 2.0 as continuing the existing trend for the web expanding
and diversifying the information available within the party network. In addition to more
information, we can also view these new technologies and services as further expanding
the possibilities for participation within the party. For instance, whereas web 1.0
primarily limited users to text based responses, services such as YouTube, Flickr and
AudioBoo, now allow comment in visual and audio forms.
The principal criticism of this aspect of Web 2.0 however rests with the issue of quality.
Keen has argued that despite the massive amounts of information available, the majority
of it is likely to be of low quality, for the most part produced by none-experts (Keen,
29
2008). Much in the same way as the Babel objection described above, this argument
claims that the majority of worthwhile information will be lost in the noise, drowned out
by a million voices all talking at once. Keen likens Web 2.0 to a thousand monkeys at a
thousand type writers, eventually they may produce the works of Shakespeare, but only
by luck, not by design. Fortunately however, the Web is full of tools which allow us to
filter out noise. Not only do there exist conventional search engines such as Alta Vista,
Bing and most well know of all, Google, but there is also an entire sub-culture on the
web devoted to recommending content to others. Services such as Digg, Delicious,
Technocrati et al are quintessential Web 2.0 services, harnessing the power of the crowd
to drive people towards the content that may be useful to them (Benkler, 2006). Further
more, we should avoid harking back to the days of the mass media as some kind of
utopia, comparing the Web 2.0 paradigm with the mass media as it was, motivated by
profit and dominated by a select minority of gatekeepers (Benkler, 2006). Web 2.0 in
comparison may be chaotic, but at it's heart it may also be less dominated by elite
interest and so may serve the public interest better.
The second aspect that Anderson raises is the importance of network effects, a term
borrowed from telecommunications which has much relevance to the realm of the web.
For every new person that joins the network, the value of the network increase
exponentially as other users gain access to that person (Anderson 2007a). One example
of this is the recent expansion of social networking services (SNS). Having a presence
on a SNS is of little value if your friends are not also on the same service. Vice versa,
when a substantial body of your friends are on a particular SNS the motivation for the
individual to join becomes much greater as they will gain access to their friends. This
example continues in the context of the web. For every new person who connects to the
web and contributes information, the total value of the overall resources available over
the web increases.
So far I have described two distinct changes in the Web, the advent of new technologies
and services and the increase in the number of people world wide with web access. The
final change, I argue is the recognition of the web as a mainstream medium.
Going back to Putnam's response to the web we can recall how the web was viewed in
30
the beginning, a socially isolated medium populated by a technological elite. In contrast

today the web is at the very heart of our society, we socialise, carry out commerce, get
our news and work online. Additionally, all of our major institutions are online, from
political parties, to parliament to government departments. This change in perception is
difficult to measure, but is very noticeable. In this sense we can expect the Web to have
moved on considerably from the Web 1.0 understanding. At the most basic level, there
are more people online at the moment and the pariah status of the web in Web 1.0 has
been overturned as millions of new users have connected.
In summary, I argue that there are multiple facets of Web 2.0. It is not simply one thing,
but a combination of factors which have combined at a certain juncture resulting the
perception of a qualitatively different Web from what can be considered Web 1.0.
This new environment consists of:
 New technologies and services such as Wikis, Facebook, Flickr, YouTube,

Google, much of their content based on user generated content and collaboration
 An increase in the value of being online by virtue of the fact that there are so
many others connected
 A shift in the popular perception of the web from technological curiosity to
social necessity
By viewing Web 2.0 as a confluence of these three factors rather than attempting to
impose a strict taxonomy we can acknowledge that the potential for this kind of use has
always been present in the web, but not possible to exploit before now.
For political parties the impact of Web 2.0 is largely uncharted. Based on the tenants
above however we can see that in terms of the relationship between parties and
supporters, Web 2.0 seems set to reinforce trends uncovered in Web 1.0 literature.
The focus on user generated content can be seen as strengthening the role of
information online, principally by making the publishing of information considerably
easier through platforms such as blogs, SNS and YouTube. It is now possible for even
31
an inexperienced computer user to upload text, audio, images and video and then link
that content directly to a political party. Whereas Web 1.0 still retained barriers to entry,
these are all but gone in Web 2.0.
The new forms of co-operation offered by Web 2.0 can be viewed as an extension to the
trend of new forms of participation offered by Web 1.0. As well as the feasibility for
direct voting, Web 2.0 provides opportunities for collective working both implicitly in
the ease with which it allows the publication of content, and explicitly through tools
such as collaborative document management (wikis or the forthcoming Google Wave).
Web 2.0 is likely to provide more diverse opportunities to engage with political parties
than Web 1.0.
The final way in which Web 2.0 will likely impact party networks is the extent to which
it has bridged the credibility gap between the online and offline worlds. Where as Web
1.0 was seen as an ‘alternate’ medium to the mainstream, Web 2.0 can be seen as a
medium in its own right, on a par or in some cases even surpassing conventional media
such as newspapers. Parties will likely come to view the web as as important as offline
media.
In combination, these three effects indicate that contained within the Web 2.0 ethos,
there is the potential to empower a party supporter in way not possible under Web 1.0,
or even under the mass party model. Given the ability to publish, comment, vote and
interact with others it seems that the relationship between parties and supporters is set to
alter significantly. It is of course still early days. Just as those who predicted
revolutionary change brought about by Web 1.0 were ultimately disappointed similar
predictions for Web 2.0 may be equally as unfounded at this point. As such, it is too
early to attempt to link Web 2.0 ideas to an overall increase in participation, but instead
it is appropriate to examine what opportunities are being created as a result of changes
brought about by emergence of Web 2.0. Specifically, this project intends to look at the
extent to which Web 2.0 ideas are influencing party online networks.
32
Conclusion
The literature to date portrays political parties as organisations which shift according to
changing social circumstance. Adapting as changing societal circumstances dictate and
reforming based on new types which offer better results. Web 1.0 seemingly did little to
alter the relationship between the party elite and the member/supporters, instead
mirroring the relationship established in the offline world. Despite having the potential
to break the media monopoly over political information and allow for new forms of
direct participation the overall impact has been negligible. As Margolis and Resnik
(2001) argue, it's politics as usual on web 1.0.
But the web isn't finished yet. The project which began as a way to store information for
physicists now stores information for the world, and increasingly, it harvests
information as well. Web 2.0, for all the media hype, has captured an emerging series of
trends. As well as new technologies and services Web 2.0 represents the kind of social
acceptability and societal importance that Web 1.0 never enjoyed. The web has gone
from the underground playground of a few 'nerds' to a major forum for all corners of
society.
Due to the only recent emergence of Web 2.0 ideas it is still too early to consider
questions of participation. Just as early studies of Web 1.0 found little if any benefit in
terms of encouraging new users to participate, a similar finding for Web 2.0 would be
likely. However, we can begin to speculate about how Web 2.0 ideas might begin to
shape the way political parties do things, specifically how Web 2.0 ideas might
influence parties’ online networks. Web 2.0 is likely to bring about new opportunities
for participation, currently these are likely to be limited to a small number of early
adopters, but ultimately these are the tools which would form the basis of any future
increase in member/supporter influence in parties.
Based on the literature review I have identified four research questions which will
address the influence of Web 2.0 in party networks.
1) How important is the party network to party elites and users?
33
This question is designed to assess the overall importance of the web as a tool for both
parties and users. One of the key ideas of Web 2.0 is that the web has gained credibility
as a medium as the number of web users has expanded and as such it is valuable to
understand how important both the party and the users feel that the network is. In
answering this question I intend to look at two sources of information:
Firstly unstructured interviews with party elites will explain party reaction to Web 2.0,
in particular how much weight is placed on the online sphere in policy making and
candidate selection.
The second portion of this question is how seriously users within the party network feel
their contributions are taken. It may well be the case that users feel that only lip service
is paid to their contributions. I intend to assess this using data gathered through a survey
of blog users which will be taking place over autumn 2009.
2) What sources of information are present within party online networks?
This question is designed to map the origins of information within the party network as
well as the prominence of individual sites. Party networks that are strongly influenced
by Web 2.0 ideas are likely to contain large amounts of user generated content in
prominent positions within the network. Networks which are weakly influenced by Web
2.0 ideas are likely to rely more heavily on information from party sources. Mapping
party networks will be central to answering this question. In part this can be achieved
through hyperlink analysis using tools such as Issue Crawler or VOSON. These tools
'crawl' web links, following html links and recording their destination, in this way it is
possible to create a map based on a few selected starting points. The crucial variable to
consider is the starting points, source URLs will largely determine what the crawler
uncovers.
Mapping a network in this way has limitations; in particular, it may be difficult to

penetrate many Web 2.0 platforms using this method. For instance, a web crawl would
not necessarily capture YouTube contributions or Facebook groups, which would have
34
to be catalogued separately. Additionally, the resultant network will not be exhaustive;

no analysis could hope to capture every related site to any political party. Instead, the
aim is to use a consistent methodology which allows the mapping of a representative
network from which to work from. Social network analysis can add more depth to the
network map by indicating which nodes are the most connected and therefore are likely
to be the most prominent within the network.
Based on this 'map' of each party’s network it will then be possible to assess the
composition of each network by coding websites in a content analysis exercise that
would record variables including the web site origin and the disposition, either positive,
negative or neutral. In this way we should be able to understand how party online
networks are composed, what sources of information are present and where they are
found in the network.
3) What tools for participation are available within the party online network?
There is also a question of what kinds of participation are encouraged by Web 2.0 ideas.
Although there has been much written on deliberative forms of participation, it may be
the case that in established parties Web 2.0 ideas encourage the development of
discursive forms of participation such as the development of collaborative documents.
Again using the map of each party network and associated investigations of Web 2.0
services, I will investigate the websites present and opportunities within each for user
participation and what form it takes, whether directly democratic, or more discursive. In
addition we can look at who is instigating participation, is it members discussing the
party between themselves, at the behest of party elites in an officially sanctioned
discussion space, or in a space maintained by some sub party level faction or
organisation such as a local branch or interest group?
4) Are Web 2.0 ideas universal across party online networks?
Finally, I intend to undertake a comparative analysis of each of the parties covered in

order to assess the party specific factors which may be encouraging or discouraging the
35
use of Web 2.0 within the party. If there are differences in the influence of Web 2.0 ideas
this may be down to specific factors inherent in party ideology. If on the other hand
there is little difference between the parties there is a greater case for saying that Web
2.0 ideas are universal across party networks and will therefore impact all parties in a
similar way.
The questions above are based on the three key ways in which Web 2.0 ideas may
influence party networks:
• More information, principally in the form of user generated content

• New kinds of participation, either deliberative or discursive
• An increase in the overall importance of the web as a medium
Overall these questions are designed to measure to what degree various party networks
have been shaped by Web 2.0 ideas and ultimately indicate to what degree Web 2.0 has
been embraced as a tool for encouraging supporter participation in political parties.
Based on these answers we can begin to speculate about the future extent to which Web
2.0 ideas will allow either parties or their supporters to redress the declining influence
of supporters in party life.
36
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Literature Review - 1st Draft

How are Web 2.0 ideas shaping UK

Literature Review - 1st Draft

Image produced by http://www.wordle.net/

Political parties are a vital institution in modern democracies, providing a simple

'Most public institutions take part in some fashion in producing a response to

periodic reorganization of the representative regime (elections and the

(Yani, 1999, p9)

As a percentage of the overall electorate the number of UK citizens involved in parties

In addition to the decline in party membership, another consequence of party change is

(Lusoli and Ward, 2004, p454)

organisations to cope with changing expectations from members of society. As society

The world wide web and party change

The internet is a global telecommunications network often described as a network of

The defining characteristic of the web is the availability of information. Initially

information to their supporters or members.

in a direct plebiscitary election. Budge (1996) advocates that in a governmental context

reached in this way.

Despite these problems, the embryonic empirical evidence on political parties’

'Crucially, with respect to democratic principles, it has strengthened the ability

(Chadwick, 2007, p286)

In addition to concerns over socialisation, many highlight the possible downside of

(Wring & Horrocks, 2001,p 207)

Politics as usual – the null

nature, based on mutual co-operation which was then corrupted by commercial

(Margolis & Resnik, 2000, p7)

(Heidar & Saglie, 2003, p782)

(Lusoli & Ward, 2004, p467)

Political parties online

(Margetts, 2001, p8)

take a direct role in candidate selection.

‘Web 1.0 was created for physicists to share papers

Web 2.0 was created so people could share pictures of cats.’

 The development of new technologies and services

• The web as a platform

in a more academic way, in particular by stressing the importance of user generated

the beginning, a socially isolated medium populated by a technological elite. In contrast

This new environment consists of:

 New technologies and services such as Wikis, Facebook, Flickr, YouTube,

1) How important is the party network to party elites and users?

2) What sources of information are present within party online networks?

Mapping a network in this way has limitations; in particular, it may be difficult to

to be catalogued separately. Additionally, the resultant network will not be exhaustive;

4) Are Web 2.0 ideas universal across party online networks?

Finally, I intend to undertake a comparative analysis of each of the parties covered in

• More information, principally in the form of user generated content

Benkler, Y. 2006. 'The wealth of networks' London: Yale University Press

Bennett, L. 2003. 'Communicating global activism: strengths and vulnerabilities of

Berners-Lee, T. 1989. 'Information management: a proposal' available at

Bimber, B. 2001. 'Information and political engagement in America' in Political

Boyd, O. 2008. 'Differences in edemocracy party’s eparticipation systems' in

Castells, M. 1996. 'The rise of the networked society' Oxford, Blackwell

Chadwick, A. 2007. 'Digital network repertoires and organizational hybridity' in

Dalton, R. 'The decline of party identifications' in Dalton, R and Wattenberg, M. 'Parties

Dalton, R and Wattenberg, M. 2000. 'Unthinkable Democracy' in Dalton, R and

Duverger, M. 1951. ‘Political Parties’ London: Butler and Tanner

Keen, A. 2008. 'The cult of the amateur' London: Nicholas Brealey

Katz, R and Mair, P. 1992. 'The membership of political parties in European

Krueger, B. 2002. ‘Assessing the potential of internet political participation in the

Lamere, P. 2009. ‘Inside the precision hack’ available at

Lawson, K. 1980. 'Political parties and linkage: a comparative perspective' London:

Lipow, A & Seyd, P. 1996. 'The politics of anti-partyism' in Parliamentary Affairs.

Margolis, M and Resnik, D. 2000. 'Politics as usual: the cyberspace revolution'

McKenzie, R. 1965. 'British political parties' London: Mercury Books