Mediumship and Survival A Century of Investigations Alan Gauld Series Editor: Brian Inglis Published on behalf of the Society

for Psychical esearch

!EI"EMA"": #$"%$" &illiam !einemann #td' () *pper Grosvenor Street+ #ondon &(, -PA #$"%$" ME#B$* "E .$ $".$ /$!A""ESB* G A*C0#A"% 1 Alan Gauld (-23 4irst published (-23 SB" 565 3263) 7 Printed in Great Britain by ed8ood Burn #td+ .ro8bridge+ &iltshire

.his 8or9 is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution:"oncommercial:"o %erivative &or9s 6') #icense' Note to the Digital Edition .his edition of Mediumship and Survival is published 8ith the permission of the author and copyright holder+ Alan Gauld' .he te;t of the original hardcover edition has been professionally captured and edited' .he only changes in the te;t are the corrections of typographical errors+ modification of the table of contents to accommodate a digital format+ and the creation of lin9s from in:te;t references to the bibliography and from the inde; into the body of the te;t' .he page numbers of the original boo9 are indicated at the beginning of each page by red numbers 8ithin vertical lines: <(62<' Please report any errors found to rtberg=post'harvard'edu' .o Sheila &ho uncomplainingly put up 8ith a difficult summer By the same author

.he 4ounders of Psychical esearch !uman Action and its Psychological Investigation >8ith /ohn Shotter? Poltergeists >8ith A' %' Cornell? In the same series !A*".I"GS A"% APPA I.I$"S by Andre8 Mac0en@ie BEA$"% .!E B$%A: An Investigation of $ut:of:the:Body E;periences by %r Susan /' Blac9more .! $*G! .!E .IME BA IE : A Study of Precognition and Modern Physics by %anah Bohar G#$SSA A $4 .E MS *SE% I" PA APSAC!$#$GA compiled by Michael A' .halbourne

List of Illustrations
Bet8een pages (5C and (57 An ouiDa board sitting Mrs #' Piper &illiam /ames $liver #odge ichard !odgson Mrs G' #eonard Mrs M' de G' Eerrall Mrs' !' Salter Mrs &illett 4' &' !' Myers Automatic 8riting Mrs Eleanor Sidg8ic9 S9etch by 4' #' .hompson Painting by obert S' Gifford

Acknowledgements
4or their 9indness in reading a draft of this 8or9+ and for many helpful comments and suggestions+ I am much indebted to Ian Stevenson+ Brian Inglis+ /ohn St /ohn+ #ouise Bloomfield and /ohn Beloff' 4or valuable help in various related matters I have to than9 Bernard Carr+ .ony Cornell+ Sam Grainger+ Eleanor $F0eeffe+ %' "' Clar9e:#o8es+ Emily &illiams Coo9+ and Bert !aylett' A number in parentheses in the te;t refers to the source listed opposite that number in the Bibliography >pp' 3C2G323?' <;< <;i<

Foreword

Around the year (276+ 4rederic Myers 8as to recall in his Human Personality, a small group of Cambridge friends came to the conclusion that neither religion nor materialism had provided satisfactory ans8ers to Huestions that 8ere pu@@ling them: $ur attitudes of mind 8ere in some 8ays differentI but to myself+ at least+ it seemed that no adeHuate attempt had yet been made even to determine 8hether anything could be learnt as to the unseen 8orld or noI for that if anything 8ere 9no8able about such a 8orld in such fashion that Science could adopt and maintain that 9no8ledge+ it must be discovered by no analysis of tradition+ and by no manipulation of metaphysics+ but simply by e;periment and observation Jsimply by the application to phenomena 8ithin us and around us of precisely the same methods of deliberate+ dispassionate e;act inHuiry 8hich have built up our actual 9no8ledge of the 8orld 8hich 8e can touch and see' Along 8ith his friendsJchief among them !enry Sidg8ic9 and Edmund GurneyJMyers became one of the founder members of the Society for Psychical esearch+ 8hen it 8as formed in (223 to put these ideas into practice+ and this series is being published to mar9 the SocietyFs centenary' .he phenomena of the Kunseen 8orldF to 8hich Myers referred 8ere originally for convenience put into five categories+ each of 8hich a committee 8as set up to investigate: telepathy+ hypnotism+ KsensitivesF+ apparitions and Kthe various physical phenomena commonly called SpiritualisticF' $ver the years the emphasis has to some e;tent shiftedJin particular hypnotism+ 8hich at that time 8as dismissed as an occult delusion+ 8as Dust about to be accepted as a reality+ so it ceased to be on the psychic side of the fence' But broadly spea9ing+ the phenomena under investigation are the same+ and the 8ays in 8hich they have been investigated have remained as Myers planned' .he terminology+ ho8ever+ 8as changedJand changed rather often+ 8hich made for some confusion' Myers himself introduced <;ii< KtelepathyF+ as Kthought readingF 8as ambiguousI it could refer to the 8ay in 8hich Sherloc9 !olmes pic9ed up 8hat 8as in &atsonFs mind by 8atching his e;pression' KSupernormalF+ ho8ever+ 8hich Myers thought preferable to supernatural to describe the class of phenomena 8ith 8hich the Society 8ould be dealing+ has since itself been replaced by KparanormalFI and KparapsychologyF has been easing out Kpsychical researchFJthough some researchers prefer to restrict its use to laboratory:type 8or9+ leaving KpsychicalF for research into spontaneous phenomena' KPsiF has also come in as an all:purpose term to describe the forces involved+ or to identify themJfor e;ample+ in distinguishing a normal from a paranormal event' If evidence 8ere lac9ing for KparascienceFJas it might no8 more embracingly be described+ because the emphasis of research has been shifting recently a8ay from psychology to physics Jit could be found in the composition of the Society+ from its earliest beginnings' .here can be fe8 organi@ations 8hich have attracted so distinguished a membership' Among physicists have been Sir &illiam Croo9es+ Sir /ohn /oseph .homson+ Sir $liver #odge+ Sir &illiam Barrett and t8o #ord ayleighsJthe third and fourth barons' Among the philosophers: Sidg8ic9 himself+ !enri Bergson+ 4erdinand Schiller+ #' P' /ac9s+ !ans %riesch+ and C' %' BroadI among the psychologists: &illiam /ames+ &illiam Mc%ougall+ Sigmund 4reud+ &alter 4ran9lin Prince+ Carl /ung and Gardner Murphy' And along 8ith these have been many eminent ligures in various fields: Charles ichet+ a "obel pri@e8inner in physiologyI the Earl of Balfour+ Prime Minister from (-)3GC+ and his brother Gerald+ Chief Secretary for Ireland in (2-LGCI Andre8 #ang+ polymathI Gilbert Murray+ egius Professor of Gree9 at

$;ford and drafter of the first Covenant of the #eague of "ationsI his successor at $;ford+ E' ' %oddsI Mrs !enry Sidg8ic9+ Principal of "e8nham College+ CambridgeI Marie CurieI the !on Mrs Alfred #yttleton+ %elegate to the #eague of "ations AssemblyI Camille 4lammarion+ the astronomer+ and 4' /' M' Stratton+ President of the oyal Astronomical SocietyI and Sir Alister !ardy+ Professor of Boology at $;ford' Such a list+ as Arthur 0oestler pointed out in The Roots of Coincidence, ought to be sufficient to demonstrate that ESP research Kis not a playground for superstitious cran9sF' $n the contrary+ the standards of research have in general been rigorousJfar more rigorous+ as psychologists have on occasion had to admit+ than those of psychology' .he reason that the results have not been accepted is basically that <;iii< they have not been acceptable: e;tra: sensory perception and psycho9inesis have remained outside scienceFs domain+ in spite of the evidence' And although the preDudice against parapsychology has been brea9ing do8n+ so that it is being admitted as an academic discipline in universities+ it is still very far from securing a firm base in the academic 8orld' Sceptics have sedulously propagated the notion that psychical researchers believe in ESP+ P0+ apparitions+ and so on because they long to believe+ or need to believe' Anybody 8ho has studied the SocietyFs Journals and Proceedings+ or attended its meetings+ 8ill testify that this is a ludicrous misconception' Many of the most assiduous and s9illed researchers have originally been prompted by disbeliefJby a desire+ say to e;pose a medium as a fraud' It has to be remembered+ too+ that many+ probably the great maDority+ of the members have been and still are desirous of sho8ing that paranormal manifestations are natural+ and can be e;plained scientificallyJthough admittedly not in the narro8 terms of materialist science+ 8hich in any case the nuclear physicists have sho8n to be fallacious' "o: insofar as a Society containing such a diverse collection of individuals can be said to have a corporate identity+ it could almost be described as scepticalI certainly as rational+ as this series 8ill sho8' "ot+ though+ rationalist' *nluc9ily rationalists+ in their determination to purge society of its religious and occultist accretions+ often failed to dra8 a distinction bet8een superstitions and the observed phenomena 8hich gave rise to themJ8hich led them into such traps as refusing to accept the e;istence of meteorites+ because of the association 8ith /oveFs thunderboltsI and to this day+ they are prone to lapse into support for dogmas as rigid+ and as ill:founded+ as any of those of the Churches' If the series does nothing else+ it 8ill sho8 ho8 rationallyJusing that term in its proper senseJthe 8riters have e;amined and presented the evidence' $f all the issues 8hich have been of concern to psychical researchers+ SurvivalJcommonly spelt 8ith a capital S to indicate that it means the survival of the soul or spirit after deathJhas been the hardest to come to terms 8ith' 4rom the start+ the SP has included some members 8ho are Christians+ some 8ho are members of other religions+ some 8ho believe in reincarnation+ and some 8ho flatly reDect the e;istence+ or even the possibility of the e;istence+ of a discarnate spirit life' As the holders of these different vie8s are apt to hold them to be of transcendental importanceJnone more so than those 8ho regard <;iv< themselves as rationalistsJit has al8ays been difficult to survey the evidence for >and against? Survival as agnostics 8ould li9e to see itI 8ith the same detachment as+ say+ the evidence for >and against? telepathy' Many members of the Society+ in fact+ have felt inhibited about considering it at all'

Aet for obvious reasons Survival cannot be pushed to one side' If psychical research has any light to shed on it+ then that light ought to be shed+ because 8hether or not there is spirit life independent of the body is indeed of transcendent importance+ to all of us' K.he Huestion for man most momentous of allF+ as Myers put it+ 8as K8hether or not his personality involved any element 8hich can survive bodily deathFI and he 8ent on to state his belief that the ans8er should be sought through the method of science+ a method Knever yet applied to the all:important problem of the e;istence+ the po8ers+ the destiny of the human soulF' "obody is better Hualified than Alan Gauld to ta9e a dispassionate loo9 at the evidence from the metapsychicalJthe term coined by Charles ichet to describe the ne8 science+ as he believed it to beJrather than from the metaphysical or religious point of vie8' %r Gauld has for many years been a member of the Council of the Society+ his account of its early years established him as a historian in his o8n right' The Founders of Psychical Research 8as a 8ell: documented and obDective but very readable account of the SocietyFs early years+ and the problems its members faced' In Mediumship and Survival, he has set himself the same high standards' Brian nglis <(<

1 Introduction
People have believed or disbelieved in human survival of bodily death for various reasons+ philosophical+ theological+ religious+ emotional+ moral+ intuitive or factual' .his boo9 deals 8ith the factual reasons 8ith the empirical evidence >or some of it? on 8hich belief in survival+ and also disbelief in the very possibility of survival+ has been grounded' Philosophical issues 8ill be >briefly? raised only 8hen they bear upon the interpretation of the evidence' .he gathering of evidence+ or supposed evidence+ for survival is no ne8 endeavour' Many anecdotes that might be thought to bear upon the Huestion are strung together in lives of the early saints+ in the !ialogues of Pope Gregory the Great+ in various late mediaeval collections of ghost stories+ in post: eformation boo9s of remar9able KprovidencesF illustrative of GodFs mercies+ in the 8or9s of early nineteenth century German mesmerists influenced by Schelling and a romantic philosophy of nature' .hese materials 8ere+ ho8ever+ only rarely subDected to critical scrutiny+ and 8ere generally presented not as curious natural phenomena in need of an e;planation+ but as support for religious beliefs antecedently favoured by the 8riters' It 8as not until the last Huarter of the nineteenth century that a large:scale attempt 8as set afoot to collect and critically assess ostensible evidence for survival+ and to interpret that evidence in a scientific spirit and 8ithout any prior commitment to religious or survivalistic hypotheses' .his attempt began 8ith the foundation of the British Society for Psychical esearch >the KSP F? in (223 and of its American counterpart >the KASP F? in (225 >refounded (-)7?' Both are still active+ and I have dra8n heavily upon their publications in the preparation of this volume' .hese societies+ it should be noted+ do not hold corporate opinions+ and the vie8s advanced by members >including myself? are entirely their o8n' .he SP 8as not founded to pursue the problem of survival as such' .he aim e;pressed by its founders 8as Kto investigate that large group <3< of debatable phenomena designated by such

terms as mesmeric+ psychical+ and SpiritualisticF+ and to do so K8ithout preDudice or prepossession of any 9ind+ and in the same spirit of e;act and unimpassioned inHuiry 8hich has enabled science to solve so many problems+ once not less obscure nor less hotly debatedF >(52+ pp' 6 and 5?' .hese obDectives soundJindeed areJa little vague+ but in the conte;t of (223 it 8as reasonably clear 8hat 8ere the phenomena intended' 4irst of all there 8ere certain alleged findings that had increasingly caught public attention in the 8a9e of the mesmeric movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries >see 63I (33cI (33d?' .he facts >or supposed facts? of mesmerism >or Kanimal magnetismF? 8ere at first sight themselves sufficiently surprisingJstri9ing cures of cases given over by orthodo; medicine+ the KrapportF bet8een mesmeric operator and his subDects+ the induction in good subDects of a trance state in 8hich subDects might KperceiveF the nature of their o8n ailments+ predict their course and give prescriptions for them' $ut of happenings of the last 9ind+ further peculiar phenomena developed' Certain subDects began to manifest the ability to KseeF not Dust diseased and malfunctioning aspects of their o8n internal 8or9ings+ but those of other people+ sometimes even of distant people' A class of professional and semi:professional sensitives gre8 up+ 8hose members+ usually female and usually under the influence of one particular mesmeric operator+ 8ould diagnose+ predict and prescribe for all comers' "o8 if the KclairvoyantF vision of these ladies could reach inside people+ or reach distant people+ or predict the course of diseases+ 8hy should it not reach inside other 9inds of closed containers+ e'g' sealed bo;es+ or reach distant or even future scenes and eventsM Before long+ entranced clairvoyantes 8ere purportedly giving demonstrations of Dust these abilities' Some+ indeed+ believed that their vision e;tended beyond this 8orld altogether+ and regaled admiring 8onder:see9ers 8ith visions of heaven+ angels+ other planets+ guardian spirits+ and the souls of deceased human beings' $ut of the KrapportF bet8een mesmeric operator and mesmeric subDect >supposedly due to the transmission of the Huasi:electrical Kmagnetic fluidF from the former to the latter? arose other alleged KparanormalF phenomena' SubDects could+ it 8as believed+ read the thoughts of the operator+ feel pinpric9s inflicted upon him+ taste substances placed in his mouth' An operator might be able to entrance or influence the subDect by the sheer e;ercise of his 8illJit 8as supposed that he e;ercised this control by directing the magnetic fluid <6< into appropriate parts of his subDectFs nervous system' Indeed+ to8ards the middle years of the nineteenth century+ some mesmeric subDects purportedly fell under the KcontrolF of departed spirits and other e;alted beings+ and thus became KmediumsF for communication bet8een this 8orld and the ne;t' .he second category of phenomena falling 8ithin the SP Fs field follo8ed immediately from the first and 8as closely related to it' &hat may be called the spiritualistic 8ing of the mesmeric movement+ the 8ing that too9 seriously the tales of contact 8ith angels and departed spirits >there 8as+ incidentally+ a materialist+ even atheist+ 8ing+ 8hich allied itself 8ith phrenology?+ had by the late (25)s become moderately 8ell 9no8n+ and had+ especially in America+ achieved some degree of harmony 8ith the S8edenborgians+ 8ho 8ere li9e8ise 8ell 9no8n+ and in some Huarters influential' .hus it came about that 8hen 8hat loo9ed at first li9e an unremar9able poltergeist case+ of a 9ind common enough do8n the centuries+ and usually attributed to diabolic influence+ too9 a peculiar >but not unprecedented? turn+ a ne8 religious movement 8as born' %uring the early months of (252+ the small 8ooden cottage of Mr /' %' 4o;+ a blac9smith of !ydesville+ "e8 Aor9 State+ 8as disturbed by a variety of odd events' .he most notable 8ere sustained and imperious rapping sounds of un9no8n origin+ 8hich resounded night after night+ fraying the familyFs nerves and spoiling its sleep' Eventually+ in despair+ Mrs 4o; and her daughters began to address Huestions and commands

to the invisible agent+ and to their shoc9 and astonishment received intelligent replies+ rapped out by means of a simple code' "eighbours 8ere summoned' .he rappings assumed the form of communications from deceased persons+ and sho8ed a surprising 9no8ledge of local affairs' An enterprising local publisher+ Mr E' E' #e8is+ brought out a pamphlet containing the signed statements of t8enty:t8o 8itnesses >-)?' Sightseers began to come from miles around to 8itness the 8onders' Eventually it became apparent that the phenomena centred not upon the house+ but around the t8o youngest 4o; children+ Margaretta >aged fifteen? and 0ate >aged eleven?+ described by Slater Bro8n >(-+ p' --? as Ksimple+ corn:fed country girlsF' $thers discovered that they had similar gifts' .he phenomena spread by a 9ind of infection' Persons 8ho visited !ydesville found on their return home that the spirits 8ould also rap for them' .he 4o; sisters 8ent on the road+ e;hibiting their KmediumshipF in "e8 Aor9 and other large cities+ and by the early (2L)s KSpiritualismF had begun to spread Huite <5< 8idely through the Eastern *nited States' Spiritualist associations and Spiritualist ne8spapers sprang up+ and soon the phenomena 8ere e;ported >8ith some8hat limited success? to Britain and the Continent of Europe' >$n the early history of Spiritualism+ see (- and (33c'? .he relationship bet8een mesmerism and Spiritualism 8as t8ofold' .he mesmeric movement had accustomed the public to the supposed phenomena of clairvoyance+ and to the idea that certain gifted sensitives might perceive+ or be influenced by+ the inhabitants of the ne;t 8orld' .hus it had prepared the ground for the acceptance of Spiritualism' But the mesmeric movement also had its o8n press and its o8n supporters+ its o8n operators and its o8n clairvoyantes' .hese 8ere very readily transferred to or absorbed by the gro8ing Spiritualist movement' Mesmeric clairvoyantes+ or the type of person 8ho 8ould previously have become such+ no8 emerged as the first Kmental mediumsFJmediums 8hose contact 8ith the spirits 8as through KinteriorF vision or hearing+ or through the spirits Kta9ing overF and controlling their bodies or parts thereof+ especially+ of course+ the parts reHuired for speech and 8riting' KPhysical mediumshipFJthe sort in 8hich communication 8ith the departed proceeds through paranormal physical events in the mediumFs vicinityJdiversified during the remainder of the nineteenth century a great deal more than did mental mediumship' 4rom simple raps+ the spirits+ or the mediums+ or both+ graduated to Ktable:tippingF 8ith+ and sometimes 8ithout+ contact of hands 8ith table >an upturned top:hat made an acceptable substitute for a small table?I to movement of other household obDects+ including musical instrumentsI to actual playing on those musical instrumentsI to the visible Kmateriali@ationF of hands 8ith 8hich to move obDects and play instruments >these materiali@ations 8ere held to be made of a fluidic substance+ later 9no8n as KectoplasmF+ descended from the old magnetic fluid of the mesmerists+ and generated by the peculiarly constituted organism of the medium?I to the materiali@ation of vocal apparatus through 8hich the spirits could spea9 directly >the Kdirect voiceF?+ often 8ith the aid of a spea9ing trumpetI and at last to the materiali@ation of complete ectoplasmic replicas of the bodies 8hich deceased persons had formerly inhabited' $f course many of these phenomena reHuired dar9ness or near:dar9ness for their production >delicate ectoplasmic structures 8ere+ it 8as claimed+ liable to be damaged by light+ especially short: 8avelength blue light?+ a fact 8hich led cynics to suggest that dar9ness 8as merely a cover for fraud' .his <L< suggestion received support+ especially in and after the (27)s+ from a series of unsavoury Ke;posuresF' $ther phenomena of physical mediumship included: levitation of the medium+ elongation of the mediumFs body+ the production of Kspirit lightsF+ KapportsF >small obDects brought into the

seance room by the spirits?+ the precipitation of paintings onto blan9 cards or canvases+ and Kpsychic photographyF >the appearance of Ke;trasF+ often veiled in clouds of KectoplasmF+ on studio photographs of paying sitters?' E;posures of psychic photographers 8ere numerous and devastating' .he third category of phenomena falling 8ithin the provenance of psychical research 8as less directly lin9ed 8ith the other t8o+ though still having some connections 8ith them' It 8as that of traditional ghost storiesJapparitions+ hauntings+ and lin9ed perhaps thereto+ assorted cases of visions+ crystal visions+ and so forth' It 8as thus+ I thin9+ in the historical setting of (223+ fairly clear 8hat phenomena could be designated as the subDect matter of Kpsychical researchF' .hey included the phenomena of mesmerism and hypnotismI of paranormal healingI of clairvoyance+ thought:transference and precognitionI of mental and physical mediumshipI and of apparitions and hauntings' .here is no doubt+ of course+ that many of the founders of the SP hoped for a positive outcome to their inHuiriesI hoped+ that is+ that impartial investigation 8ould prove that some at least of the phenomena under scrutiny 8ere genuine' .he (27)s had been a decade in 8hich KscientificF materialism of a rather crude 9ind had made unparalleled advances at the e;pense of all varieties of religious belief' !u;ley+ .yndall+ Clifford+ Bastian+ dre8 upon the Continental materialism of BNchner and !aec9el+ and upon %ar8inian evolutionary theory+ to produce a Kmaterialist synthesisF 8hich shoo9 the faith of the older generation and drove many of the younger into agnosticism' *nder these circumstances the 8or9 of the SP assumed in the eyes of some a peculiar urgency and importance >see 55b?' Perhaps it 8ould be possible to ans8er materialism 8ith science and to sho8 that not all the findings of science tended to the support of materialism' !o8ever one must not let the hopes of certain early psychical researchers obscure the fact that they 8ere committed to investigating the phenomena K8ithout preDudice or prepossession+ and in a scientific spirit'F $thers 8ho Doined the enterprise 8ere dedicated to demolishing the evidence for survival and for the miraculous in general' &hat 8e have to consider here is the validity of <C< data and of arguments+ not the religious and philosophical vie8s of those 8ho profferred them' &ithout doubt the SP ans8ered a contemporary need' Some of the ablest people of the period devoted a great deal of time+ energy and money to running it+ and to carrying out the very e;tensive investigations reported in its early publications' .hey included !enry Sidg8ic9 >(262G(-))?+ professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge+ and first president of the SP I his 8ife Eleanor >(25LG(-6C?+ second principal of "e8nham College+ CambridgeI 4' &' !' Myers >(256G(-)(?+ a poet and classical scholar+ author of Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily !eath >(-)6?+ a t8o:volume survey of the first t8enty years of the SocietyFs 8or9I Edmund Gurney >(257G(222?+ 8ho 8rote Phantasms of the "iving >t8o volumes+ (22C?+ a 8or9 on apparitions that is still freHuently referred toI Sir $liver #odge >(2L(G(-5)?+ a physicist and pioneer of 8ireless telegraphyI and 4ran9 Podmore >(2LCG (-()?+ the historian of Spiritualism+ 8ho consistently played the role of advocatus dia#oli, e;amining and reDecting all evidence 8hich others had presented as tending to prove human survival of bodily death' Mrs Sidg8ic9 8as the niece of a Prime Minister+ the sister of a Prime Minister+ and the sister:in:la8 of the 8ife of the Archbishop of Canterbury' I mention this not because I thin9 that sharing the genes of prime ministers is a guarantee of intelligence >Mrs Sidg8ic9Fs intelligence 8as in any case manifest?+ but to bring out the point that psychical research 8as thought important by members of the intellectual+ literary and even political KestablishmentsF' Among the early members and honorary members of the SP 8ere .ennyson+ us9in+ Gladstone+ K#e8is CarrollF+ A' /' Balfour+ #ord ayleigh+ Couch Adams+

&illiam /ames+ /' /' .homson+ Sir &illiam Croo9es+ G' 4' &atts and Alfred ussel &allace' .ennyson e;pressed 8hat may have been his thoughts about the enterprise in lines first published in (22-: .he Ghost in Man+ the Ghost that once 8as Man+ But cannot 8holly free itself from Man+ Are calling to each other throF a da8n Stranger than earth has ever seenI the veil Is rending+ and the Eoices of the day Are heard across the Eoices of the dar9' It is probable that several of the early leaders of the SP Jand most especially 4' &' !' MyersJtoo9 a similarly e;alted vie8 of the <7< achievements and potentialities of psychical research' I 8onder 8hat they 8ould ma9e of the present state of the art' Investigations of mediumship+ apparitions+ and other survival:related phenomena have been to a considerable e;tent displaced by laboratory e;periments on telepathy+ clairvoyance and precognition' Problems of statistics and e;perimental design loom large in the literature' Computers and other electronic gadgets are 8idely used in both the running of e;periments and the assessment of the results' .here have been innovations in terminology' .he Continental and American term KparapsychologyF is beginning to replace Kpsychical researchF+ to 8hich it is largely eHuivalent' 4rom America has come the term Ke;trasensory perceptionF >ESP? to cover any instance of the apparent acHuisition of non:inferential 9no8ledge of matters of fact 8ithout the use of the 9no8n sense organs' ESP is usually said to have three varieties: KtelepathyF+ in 8hich the 9no8ledge is of events in another personFs mind+ KclairvoyanceF+ in 8hich the 9no8ledge is of physical obDects or states of affairsI and KprecognitionF >telepathic or clairvoyant?+ 8here the 9no8ledge relates to happenings still in the future' .he 8ord K9no8ledgeF is+ ho8ever+ not entirely appropriate+ for there may be telepathic or clairvoyant KinteractionF+ in 8hich a personFs mental state or actions may be influenced by an e;ternal state of affairs+ though he does not K9no8F or Kcogni@eF it' Another American term is Kpsycho9inesisF >P0?+ the direct influence of mental events on physical events e;ternal to the agentFs body' .he term KpsiF >Gree9 letter O? is sometimes used to cover both ESP and P0' I cannot+ in the space available to me+ underta9e a general revie8 and assessment of the evidence for psi:phenomena' .hat a fairly good case can be made out for ESP 8ill be ta9en for granted in much of the rest of this boo9' >4or a survey of ESP research I recommend Palmer+ ((2a'? #est this be thought a sign of such credulity as to undermine the remainder of my argument+ I should perhaps point out+ 8hat 8ill I trust became clear later on+ that if there 8ere no evidence at all for ESP+ the Kcase for survivalF could 8ell be much stronger than it is$ %espite changes of emphasis the parapsychological enterprise today is recogni@ably continuous 8ith the underta9ing set afoot by those distinguished and earnest Eictorians one hundred years ago' .here has in fact been in the last decade or so something of a revival of interest among parapsychologists in the problem of survival' It is my tas9 in <2< this boo9 to revie8 some of the factual evidence+ old and ne8+ 8hich has been thought to bear one 8ay or another upon this problem' I emphasi@e the KsomeF+ for it is both impossible and undesirable to attempt to be comprehensive' .he Huantity of potentially relevant material is enormous >a

select bibliography 8ill be found in 55e?+ and those 8ho have not ta9en a serious loo9 at complete sets of the Proceedings and Journal of the SP and the ASP have perhaps little idea of its e;tent' Some of this material I can cut out at once+ because it consists mainly of evidence for fraud and self:deception' I omit it 8ith regret+ for much entertainment is to be derived from studying the methods of psychic photographers and fraudulent physical mediums' Another class of material 8hich I shall omit is much harder to define satisfactorily' It consists of evidence+ maybe sound+ maybe not+ for phenomena 8hich+ if genuine+ could 8ith some degree of plausibility be interpreted in terms of the survival hypothesis if that 8ere antecedently established+ but 8hich do not by themselves even begin to constitute evidence for that hypothesis' Phenomena such as the production of Kspirit lightsF at a seance+ or the elongation of the mediumFs body+ or the levitation of the medium into the air+ 8ill perhaps serve as e;amples' Such phenomena have often been attributed to the activities of Kthe spiritsF+ and they may 8ell be very difficult to e;plainI but there is nothing about them+ ta9en Dust in themselves+ to suggest to us that they are manifestations of a personality+ still less of the personality of a deceased human being' #et us go one stage further' Suppose that at a seance or in a haunted house there appears and is photographed a perfect simulacrum of a certain deceased person+ and that there is no sign of tric9eryI or let us suppose that the recogni@able voice of a certain deceased person is tape: recorded+ and that the Kvoice:printF matches up 8ith that of his voice 8hen alive' &ould these astonishing phenomena #y themselves constitute evidence that the person himself has survived the dissolution of his bodyM .hey 8ould not' A simulacrum or shell+ or a hollo8 voice mouthing empty 8ords+ need have KbehindF them no personality+ no surviving sentient mind' 4urther evidence 8ould be reHuired before 8e could begin to ta9e the survivalist e;planation seriously' And it is easy+ up to a point+ to see 8hat such evidence 8ould have to consist in' &e 8ould need evidence of intelligence+ of personality characteristics+ of goals+ purposes and affections+ and of a stream of memory+ that are largely or recogni@ably continuous 8ith those once possessed by a certain formerly incarnate human being' .hat is the sort of evidence <-< 8e are concerned 8ith+ and a materiali@ation+ Kdirect voiceF+ or tape:recorded spirit voice+ 8ould have to provide it in addition to mere physical similarity before 8e could begin to ta9e it seriously as evidence for survival' 4or that reason phenomena of these classes 8ill not often be mentioned in this boo9' I shall instead+ and by the same to9en+ concentrate upon classes of phenomenaJcertain sorts of apparitions+ and some cases of mental mediumship and of ostensible reincarnationJ8hich do sometimes appear to provide evidence for the survival of a personality' $f course the notion of personal identity is a comple; and elusive one+ and some people 8ould say that personal identity is logically as 8ell as factually lin9ed to bodily continuity+ so that it ma9es no sense to tal9 of a person surviving the dissolution of his body' I shall touch briefly on this issue later on' Another possibility to be borne in mindJone 8ith 8hich not a little of the evidence could be sHuaredJis that there is survival+ but survival only of a diminished and truncated something+ capable of manifesting as a Huasi:person in certain circumstances+ but not ordinarily to be thought of as a person at all' .he late professor C' %' Broad discussed this idea under the name of the Kpsychic factorF or Kpsi:componentF hypothesis >(2a+ pp' L6CGLL(I (2c+ pp' 5(-G56)?' I do not+ ho8ever+ 8ant to spend too much time discussing such issues in the abstract before I have given some concrete e;amples of the evidence+ or supposed evidence+ 8ith 8hich 8e have to deal' Most of the material 8hich I shall cite 8ill+ as I have said+ come from the publications of the SP and the ASP ' $ccasionally I shall dra8 upon evidence of comparable Huality from

other sourcesI and 8here I cite cases of more dubious authenticity+ it 8ill be mainly to illustrate possibilities' $f course the Huestion immediately arises of 8hat+ in this conte;t+ 8ould constitute evidence of appropriate Huality' Some 8riters of sceptical tendency are apt to deny not Dust that 8e have+ but that 8e ever could have+ evidence strong enough to establish the genuineness of such paranormal phenomena as telepathy or precognition+ let alone to establish human survival of bodily death' .he position of these e;treme disbelievers 8as discussed by Edmund Gurney in an illuminating essay first published in (227 >L5?' Many of them have implicitly based themselves on principles derived from a celebrated essay on miracles by the eighteenth century Scottish philosopher+ %avid !ume' !umeFs argument >suitably emended? is+ in essence+ this' .he cumulative evidence in favour of certain basic <()< Kla8s of natureF is immensely strong+ so strong+ in fact+ that no evidence in favour of an event contravening one of them+ in favour+ that is+ of a paranormal phenomenon+ could ever out8eigh it' !ence 8henever 8e encounter supposed evidence for a paranormal event+ 8e are al8ays Dustified in dismissing that evidence' .he Kla8s of natureF ta9en by upholders of this doctrine as KbasicF are commonly ones 8hich they thin9 fundamental to a rather crudely materialistic vie8 of the universe' If practising scientists as a body had ever come to ta9e this argument seriously 8e 8ould+ I suppose+ still believe ourselves to inhabit a universe 8hose leading features 8ould be conceived precisely as they 8ere conceived at the moment of mass conversion to !umeFs doctrines' $f course scientists do not ta9e it seriously+ and 8e no longer believe that the earth is flat' .he argument errs in the first place by eHuating KparanormalF events 8ith events 8hich violate currently accepted la8s of nature' If+ at a seance+ an obDect >or a personP? suddenly floats up into the air+ this does not necessarily constitute a violation of the la8 of gravity' .he first reaction of an observing scientist >or say his second reaction+ because his first reaction 8ould certainly be astonishment? 8ould be to loo9 for the un9no8n force or the un9no8n structure >a force or a structure perhaps in no conflict 8ith the accepted principles of mechanics or physics? 8hich had raised it up' But in any case there can be no la8 of nature that is so solidly established as to be immune from revision' Consider the follo8ing possibility' A la8 of nature changes overnight' 4ollo8ing !umeFs argument 8e refuse to accept any evidence 8hatever that it has changed' &e say Kthat canFt be rightPF+ Kthat canFt be rightPF+ and so on' ConseHuently all our predictions and calculations continue to be hopelessly 8rong' &here did 8e errM .he ans8er is obvious' 4irst of all 8e assumed that the evidence in favour of the old la8 gre8 stronger by a constant amount 8ith each successive verificationI hence 8e could hardly e;pect it to be overthro8n in any period of time shorter than that already ta9en to build up this massive accumulation of evidence' It is+ ho8ever+ clear that 8hat+ as a matter of psychological fact+ each one of us acts upon is not some conspectus of the accumulated 8isdom of the ages+ but a 9ind of running average of the more recent observations' "or >though I cannot go into this further? is it irrational to act upon such a basis' Secondly+ 8e did not allo8 this evidence in favour of the ne8 la8 to accumulate' &e dismissed each piece of evidence separately on the grounds that since it conflicted 8ith an established la8 it cannot really %&&% have #een sound evidence$ And this is 8holly irrational' Evidence is good if it fulfils certain criteria appropriate to evidence >e'g' the 8itness or e;perimenter is of good repute+ he made recordings 8ith instruments generally agreed to be reliable+ and so on?' It does not become bad evidence Dust because the phenomenon it is evidence for is regarded as antecedently improbable' It has+ in fact+ been peculiarly characteristic of those hostile to the claims of parapsychology to adopt the second of the above:mentioned stratagems' .hey say in effect >I am Huoting Gurney here?+ K.he fact is so improbable that e;tremely good evidence is needed to ma9e us

believe itI and this evidence is not good+ for ho8 can you trust people 8ho believe such absurditiesMF >L5+ p' 3C5?' Comment 8ould be superfluous' It is not superfluous+ ho8ever+ to point out that though e;treme sceptics have pushed their arguments to the verge of paranoia+ it is none the less vital 8hen e;amining the alleged evidence for novel and debatable phenomena to maintain a strict 8atch for certain recurrent sources of error' .hese sources of error can arise in all the areas 8hich I propose to discuss+ so it 8ill be as 8ell to say something no8 about each of them in turn' If they can be eliminated from the evidence under revie8+ 8e shall be able to present that evidence+ at least provisionally+ as being of a Huality 8hich merits serious attention' .hey may be ta9en under t8o headings: hoa;ing and fraudI and mista9en testimony' 1. Hoaxing and Fraud !oa;ing and fraud could vitiate the evidence 8e have to deal 8ith in one of t8o 8ays: >a? the supposed 8itnesses of apparitions+ and other e;perients in cases of KspontaneousF ESP or P0+ might have concocted their stories for amusement+ notoriety+ or even for 8hat they conceive to be the good of humanityI >b? mediums 8ho stand to profit financially from successful sittings might ta9e steps to deceive their clients' .he first of these possibilities does not stri9e me as a very serious one+ at least so far as the cases investigated by the SP are concerned' It is true that several hoa;es have come to light after the publication of the case reports' But in the great maDority of cases the 8itnesses have been persons of unblemished reputation+ 8ith no apparent motive for deceit' .hey have as a matter of routine given signed statements to the SocietyFs representatives+ they have submitted to Huestioning+ their <(3< friends have given corroborative testimony+ all relevant supporting documents+ e'g' death certificates+ have been obtained and put on fileI and so forth' I do not thin9 that under these circumstances it is reasonable to postulate 8holesale hoa;ing as a general e;planation of the inflo8 of case reports' .he matter stands some8hat differently 8ith regard to possible fraud by mediums' Many physical mediums+ and some mental mediums+ have been caught in the most egregious tric9ery' Still+ I shall not in this boo9 be dealing 8ith physical mediumship to any e;tent+ and the mental mediums 8hom I shall principally discussJmost notably Mrs Piper and Mrs #eonardJ8ere never caught in fraud despite some rigorous precautions' In the case of Mrs Piper these precautions included opening her mail and having her shado8ed by detectives to ascertain 8hether or not she employed agents' Mrs #eonard 8as also at one time shado8ed by detectives' I do not thin9 that the fraud hypothesis 8ill help us here' 2. istaken !estimon"

.hat eye8itness testimony+ especially as to unusual or bi@arre happenings+ cannot be relied upon+ is a commonplace of sceptical assaults upon the credibility of evidence for the sorts of phenomena 8e are consideringI and it is a commonplace 8hich can be substantiated by an appeal to a large body of psychological findings' .hese findings+ ho8ever+ bear some8hat uneHually upon different parts of our subDect:matter' .estimony concerning the phenomena of physical mediumship+ 8hich are commonly e;hibited under conditions of near dar9ness and of emotional stress+ is notoriously unreliable' !o8ever I shall present very little of such

testimony' &hen it comes to mental mediumship the case is different' &e usually have complete contemporary records of 8hat such mediums say or 8rite+ so that the Huestion of mista9en testimony rarely arises' It is over stories of apparitions and related phenomena that the problem impinges most directly upon the subDect:matter of this boo9' Some 8riters >see+ e'g'+ (C-a? appear to 8ant to dismiss almost all testimony concerning apparitions on the follo8ing grounds: >a? In only a fe8 cases did the percipients immediately 8rite do8n a full account of their e;perience' Stories told months or even years after the event are li9ely to be seriously in error+ for memory is notoriously fallible+ and tall stories tend to gro8 8ith retelling' In one celebrated case+ the principal 8itness+ Sir Edmund !ornby+ claimed that he sa8 <(6< an apparition 8hilst he 8as in bed 8ith his 8ife+ 8ho also confirmed the story' !o8ever it 8as later established that at the date of the supposed apparition Sir Edmund 8as not yet married' >b? "umerous e;perimental investigations have cast doubt on the reliability of eye8itness testimony even 8hen that testimony has been given immediately after the event' I do not thin9 that these obDectives are very po8erful' &ith regard to >a? 8e do have the 8itnessesF contemporary statements in a modest number of cases' 4urthermore there is no reason to believe that percipients of apparitions have a general tendency to8ards retrospective e;aggeration' Stevenson >(L6b? gives a number of instances in 8hich 8itnesses have 8ritten a second account many years after the first 8ithout introducing substantial changes or e;aggerations' .his finding receives support from e;perimental studies' ecent fresh evidence concerning the !ornby case rather suggests that Sir Edmund !ornby and his 8ife had simply forgotten that they 8ere not yet married at the time 8hen the apparition 8as seen >55a?' >b? .hese investigations sho8 that eye8itnesses are liable to be mista9en over details important for forensic purposes+ e'g' 8ho fired first+ or 8hat colour Dac9et the accused 8as 8earing' .hey do not sho8 that 8itnesses are li9ely to be mista9en upon points crucial to the assessment of apparition stories+ e'g' 8hether the figure 8hich stood before one 8as that of oneFs maternal grandfather' Suppose+ then+ that 8e accept+ provisionally and for the purposes of argument+ that 8e do possess some Huantities of evidence+ not so inferior in Huality as to be instantly dismissible+ 8hich seems prima facie to suggest that certain formerly incarnate human beings have survived the dissolution of their carnal bodies+ and continue to e;hibit some at least of the memories and personal characteristics 8hich they possessed in life' !o8 are 8e to interpret this evidenceM %iscussions of the pros and cons of the KsurvivalF hypothesis 8ill occupy much of the rest of the boo9' .here are+ ho8ever+ t8o recurrent counter:hypotheses 8hich merit a mention at this point'

#hance #oincidence
.he first+ and less important+ is 8hat may be called the chance coincidence hypothesis' It is seen at its simplest in connection 8ith allegedly precognitive dreams' .here are in print Huite a number of cases in 8hich a dreamer has apparently dreamed+ 8ith considerable <(5< correspondence of detail+ of an event 8hich+ at the time of the dream+ had not yet happened' Is this proof of precognitionM .he follo8ing counter:e;planation might be offered' .here are in the 8orld+ or even in that limited part of the 8orld 8here the publications of the SP and the ASP circulate+ many millions of persons+ each of 8hom probably dreams several dreams a night' A yearFs total of dreams 8ill add up to thousands of millions' Given so many dreams+

surely 8e 8ould e;pect that no8 and again+ and simply #y chance, one or t8o of them 8ill correspond+ to a mar9ed e;tent+ 8ith some immediately subseHuent eventM .hese dreams 8ill be remembered and tal9ed about+ 8hile the othersJ8hich 8e may call the Kforgotten also ransFJ8ill simply pass into oblivion' .hus it comes about that the publications of certain learned societies are s8elled 8ith a gro8ing number of accounts of dreams falsely thought to have been precognitive' A very similar argument can be applied to certain stories of apparitions' .8o sorts of apparition case that figure prominently in the literature are cases of apparitions coinciding 8ith the death of the person seen+ and cases of apparitions simultaneously seen by more than one person' "o8 suppose 8e ma9e the assumption that some people have hallucinations of a certain type >i'e' see apparitions? more freHuently than they let on' .hey 9eep Huiet about it for fear of being thought unbalanced' .hen 8e might e;pect that no8 and again one of these hallucinations 8ould+ Dust by chance+ coincide 8ith a death+ or coincide spatially and temporally 8ith someone elseFs hallucination' .he percipients 8ill be prepared to tal9 about these hallucinations+ because they 8ill not thin9 such tal9 8ill endanger their reputations for sanity' !ence stories of KcrisisF apparitions and of collectively perceived apparitions 8ill get into circulation' .he Kforgotten also ransF 8ill not be heard of again' .his issue 8ill recur later' !ere I shall simply remar9 that a number of surveys+ old and ne8+ suggest Huite strongly that 8hat may be called the Kspontaneous hallucination rateF in the population at large is not nearly high enough to support the argument >see L7I L2I 26I ((2bI (5CI (C-b?' A variant of the chance coincidence hypothesis is often applied to e;plain a8ay the KhitsF so often scored by mental mediums' Many mediums+ it is held+ deal to a considerable e;tent in banalities' .hey deliver KmessagesF from the beyond 8hich 8ould probably be appropriate for a high percentage of li9ely sitters+ especially sitters of the se;+ age and class group of the current client' "aturally the messages appear KevidentialF to the sitterI but they are not' .he medium has <(L< succeeded by a mi;ture of chance and s9ill' .he problem touched on here can be a very real one+ and attempts have been made to devise statistical methods of assessment to circumvent it' I do not+ ho8ever+ thin9 that the problem is an important one for our immediate purposes+ for I do not believe that in the maDority of e;amples of apparently successful mental mediumship 8hich I shall actually cite anyone 8ould seriously raise the chance coincidence hypothesis'

$%u&er'E%()
.he second commonly preferred counter:hypothesis to the survivalistic one is 8hat !art >C)b? has called the Ksuper:ESPF hypothesis' It is that all the phenomena 8hich 8e are tempted to ta9e as indicating the survival of the memories and personalities of certain deceased persons can be more simply and satisfactorily e;plained in terms of ESP by living personsJby the mediums 8ho deliver the messages+ the percipients 8ho see the apparitions+ and so on' .his hypothesis+ pushed to its limits+ lands us in the follo8ing dilemma' If a piece of putative evidence for survival is to be of use+ it must be verifiableJ8e must be able to chec9 by consulting records or surviving friends that the information given by the ostensible communicator 8as correct' But if the sources for chec9ing it are e;tant+ they might in theory be telepathicallv or clairvoyantly accessible to the medium or percipient' Since 8e do not 9no8 the limits of ESP 8e can never say for certain that ESP of the e;traordinary e;tent that

8ould often be necessaryJKsuper:ESPFJis actually impossible' .his is the central dilemma in the interpretation of ostensible evidence for survival+ and it 8ill crop up again and again throughout the rest of this boo9' I have no convenient s8ord 8ith 8hich to cut this Gordian 9not' But as a guiding principle in approaching it I propose the follo8ing' $ne should+ 8henever possible+ avoid maintaining any hypothesis by engaging in speculations 8hich do not+ so far as 8e can at the moment see+ commit one to propositions 8hich can be tested against the facts' It is+ for e;ample+ Huite unprofitable+ because barren of further conseHuences+ to maintain the super:ESP hypothesis by postulating telepathy bet8een the unconscious mind of the medium and the unconscious mind of some distant person+ for this is a process unobservable in principle+ and nothing further can be done to chec9 up on itI and it is eHually barren to e;plain a8ay mista9es and inconsistencies by a purported mediumistic communicator by suggesting that the error came not from the supposed communicator but from lying and malicious impersonating spirits' <(C< 4inally+ I must emphasi@e that this boo9 is only a brief introduction to some e;ceedingly difficult and comple; problems' #arge volumes could beJindeed have beenJ8ritten upon topics or cases to 8hich I have been able to devote only a chapter+ or a paragraph+ or a sentence' .hough I try to develop certain lines of argument+ and to reach certain conclusions Jthe boo9 8ould be very flat if I did notJI am more concerned to present the data and the issues than to promote a particular set of vie8s' .he conclusions that I in fact offer are fairly modest' I profess no over8helming certainty as to the true e;planations of the phenomena under revie8' I am+ ho8ever+ certain of t8o things' .he first is that 8e are here confronted 8ith a great range of unsolved problems and une;plained phenomena+ all of 8hich are potentially of great psychological and philosophical interest' .he second is that these issues are not of merely academic concern' .hey are important to anyone 8ho thin9s and feels about the human situation' I have heard many people of a bluff and fiddlestic9s turn of mind tal9 some8hat as follo8s' K$f course 8e all perish utterly at our deaths' But one life+ lived to the full+ should be enough for anyone'F Such people have+ I thin9+ commonly had comfortable and prosperous lives' .hoseJthe maDorityJ8ho have been less fortunate+ often through no fault of their o8n+ might e;press other feelings' <(7<

ediumshi&* +eneral

&ith the phenomena of mediumship+ 8hich 8ill occupy the ne;t seven chapters+ 8e at once reach the very heart of the debate concerning the alleged evidence for survival' I gave in the first chapter a brief account of modern Spiritualist mediumship and its origins 8ithin the animal magnetic movement of the early nineteenth century' But these forms of mediumshipJ 9no8n at least by hearsay to most members of contemporary &estern societyJare only local and culturally shaped versions of phenomena 8hich have+ and have had+ their eHuivalents in many societies+ past and present' .his point 8ill be forcefully brought home to anyone 8ho glances at some of the Huite numerous field studies of possession and 9indred phenomena published by social anthropologists >e'g' 7I 3LI 62I CLI (35I (C2?' I am tal9ing here about KpossessionF in a strong senseJthe ostensible controlling of someoneFs speech and behaviour by a discarnate entity capable of intelligent communication' In some societies all 9inds of diseases and ailments are attributed to possession by malevolent spiritsI but 8ith KpossessionF in this sense 8e are not concerned'

Possessed persons may be divided into t8o broad categories: those 8ho are the victims of possession+ 8ho are involuntarily ta9en over and manipulated by discarnate entities >usually hostile?I and those 8ho invite and indeed cultivate possession by better:disposed beings through 8hose agency good 8or9s of one 9ind or another may be performed' Among the latter class of persons are the shamans+ 8itchdoctors+ cunning men+ seers and spirit mediums 8ho fulfil similar roles in so many 8idely different and 8idely separated societies' .he discarnate entities 8hich possess persons of these t8o categories include in many cultures not Dust deceased human beings >as in &estern Spiritualism?+ but all sorts of gods+ godlings+ demons+ devils+ and animal spirits' .hese last+ I thin9+ are usually not the spirits of individual deceased animals+ but are either the spirits of tiger:in:general+ crocodile:in:general+ and so forth+ or superhuman entities <(2< 8hich assume the form of animals+ as in the numerous oriental tales of fo; spirits+ mon9ey spirits+ etc' Anthropologists of an earlier generation 8ere prone to 8rite off shamans and 8itchdoctors as impostors or hysterics or some amalgam of the t8o' Sir /ames 4ra@er+ for e;ample+ 8rote in (-(6 >53+ p' (L?: Q these persons more or less cra@ed in their 8its+ and particularly hysterical or epileptic patients+ are for that very reason thought to be peculiarly favoured by the spirits+ and are therefore consulted as oracles+ their 8ild and 8hirling 8ords passing for the revelations of a higher po8er+ 8hether a god or a ghost+ 8ho considerately screens his too da@@ling light under a thic9 veil of dar9 sayings and mysterious eDaculations' I need hardly point out the very serious dangers 8hich menace any society 8here such theories are commonly held and acted upon' %espite 4ra@erFs prognostications of doom+ many societies in 8hich shamans and 8itchdoctors play a leading role have survived very 8ell+ and loo9 li9e continuing to do so' .his suggests that+ 8hatever appearances there may be to the contrary+ such persons possess a far greater degree of 8orldly efficiency than Eictorian anthropologists allo8ed' Modern anthropologists recogni@e this+ and tend to regard shamanism not as a form of mental alienation+ dangerous to the sufferer and to his society+ but as a phenomenon 8ith many facets+ reHuiring+ perhaps+ e;planation on a number of different levels' $ne level of e;planation may+ indeed+ in some cases be the psychopathological' .he KclassicalF Es9imo or Siberian shaman often undergoes during his training or initiation a period of emotional instability and mental disturbanceI but from this he may emerge a stronger and more integrated person than he 8as before >67+ pp' 36G63?' !e has been cured through suffering+ or rather has cured himself through suffering' 4or novice shamans in other parts of the 8orld even this period of suffering and disturbance may not be necessary' After conducting in:depth intervie8s 8ith ten Shona ngangas+ Michael Gelfand concluded that all 8ere Kphysically and mentally normalF >57+ p' (66?+ 8hilst the editors of a standard anthropological 8or9 on spirit mediumship in Africa+ state >7+ p' ;;iv? that in Africa mediums are by no means cra@ed in their 8its' K$n the contrary they are usually shre8d+ intelligent+ and accepted members of their communities'F Although being KpossessedF by discarnate entities+ and the converse phenomenon+ namely Huitting the physical body to visit the spirit 8orld and tal9 and negotiate 8ith its inhabitants+ are the most spectacular of the shamanFs s9ills+ they form only a part of his <(-< repertoire' .he shaman >I am using the 8ord no8 in an e;tended sense to include not Dust Es9imo and Siberian shamans but all 9inds of 8itchdoctors+ mediums+ and so forth? is in many societies first and foremost a repository of cosmological and theological doctrines' !e 9no8s his

tribeFs comer of the universe+ the unseen po8ers 8hich occupy and rule it+ and the proper means for approaching and propitiating them' .his 9no8ledge may be thought vital to the management of 8eather+ crops+ and game' .he shaman can communicate 8ith and obtain information from the ancestral spirits of his tribe' !e plays a leading part in all sorts of religious ceremonies and rites de passage+ 8hich may have in turn not Dust inner symbolic meanings+ but recreational aspects+ so that his dramatic and artistic s9ills may be of great importance to the community' Above all the shaman is a healer' !e diagnoses+ perhaps clairvoyantly+ the nature and causes of afflictions+ drives out the evil spirit responsible+ prescribes herbs to cure the residual physical damage' !e may be especially successful 8ith 8hat 8e should regard as mental illnesses+ and if these ta9e the form of ostensible possession+ 8e may have the curious spectacle of a possessed shaman treating a possessed patient' !is clairvoyant capacities and his ability to dream dreams may be in demand for locating lost property and detecting thieves' !e may thus come to be involved in the maintenance of social order' A good shaman obviously reHuires many gifts other than Dust that of entering trance and uttering 8ild and 8hirling 8ords 8hile KpossessedF' !e reHuires 9no8ledge+ intelligence+ dramatic flair+ tact+ social s9ills+ and a thorough understanding of the individuals 8ith 8hom he has to deal' .he successful e;ercise of these gifts may bring a shaman commensurate re8ards in the shape of 8ealth and social status' .his fact has led some 8riters >see especially -3? to lay emphasis upon the possibilities for advancement 8hich a career as a shaman may open up to persons from normally underprivileged sections of a societyJfor instance 8omen+ homose;uals+ the very poor+ and members of minority groups' "o doubt there is an element of truth in this vie8+ as in many other vie8s of this comple; phenomenon' $ne must+ ho8ever+ be8are of supposing that shamans from underprivileged bac9grounds have in all+ or even most+ cases adopted this course of life from conscious policy' Behaviour li9e that of an entranced or possessed shaman+ 8hich from a certain point of vie8 may appear irrational and arbitrary+ may conceal a deeper rationality and a strategy 8hich is not fully comprehended even by the agent himself' <3)< A Huestion of particular interest to parapsychologists is of course that of 8hether shamans >using the 8ord still in an e;tended sense? may sometimes include among their other gifts the KparanormalF ones of ESP and P0' .his is a difficult issue' It is only Huite recently that a fe8 anthropologists have given serious consideration to the possibility that there may be elements of the paranormal in the performances of shamans+ but adeHuate investigations remain largely to be carried out >see+ for instance+ 5 and -5I and for older material 27a and ((6?' Mean8hile 8e have a fair number of travellersF tales of varying credibility+ and a much smaller number of footnotes and incidental observations by anthropologists' I 8ish that I had the space to revie8 this highly entertaining literature' My personal impression of it is that there is some evidence that certain shamans occasionally e;hibit ESP and perhaps also P0I and that there is rather more evidence that certain shamans >sometimes the same ones? may 8or9 8onders by adroit conDuringJnot necessarily+ it should be added+ 8ith any criminal intent+ but simply as part of a dramatic performance designed+ for instance+ to manipulate a patientFs mind in directions favourable to a cure' .here are very fe8 studies from an anthropological perspective of spirit mediumship in &estern society' .his might seem surprising+ since the phenomenon is relatively common' Most accounts of mediumship come either from dedicated believers+ or else from parapsychologists chiefly interested in assessing the ostensible evidence for ESP' It may be that anthropologists are afraid of being tarred 8ith these brushes' I thin9+ ho8ever+ that most

people 8ho have any substantial acHuaintance 8ith &estern Spiritualism 8ill recogni@e that many of the above observations about shamans and shamanism apply eHually to Spiritualist mediums in our o8n society' It is true+ of course+ that the discarnate entities 8hich are alleged to KpossessF or other8ise communicate through Spiritualist mediums usually >though not al8ays? claim to be Dust the spirits of deceased humans rather than of the gods+ demons+ animal spirits and other beings 8hich additionally manifest through shamans' But the out8ard forms of the phenomena present many analogies 8hich it 8ould be superfluous to pursue in detail' In fact there are fe8 mediumistic phenomena for 8hich the literature of shamanism cannot provide parallels+ and fe8 shamanistic performances to 8hich Spiritualism provides no counterpart' I have not heard of any shaman 8ho has allegedly produced full:form materiali@ations clad in flo8ing 8hite ectoplasmic <3(< draperyI nor+ to my regret+ do I 9no8 a contemporary Spiritualist church in 8hich the officiating medium dances 8ildly 8hen under spirit control' But these+ and a fe8 others+ are the e;ceptions 8hich prove the rule' /ust as Eictorian anthropologists 8ere apt to thin9 shamans merely cra@y+ so some psychiatrists and clergymen have dramatically or unreflectingly asserted that many mediums are mentally disturbed and probably certifiable' Such assertions are as mista9en in the latter case as in the former' Most mediums e;hibit in their ordinary lives no symptoms of hysteria+ epilepsy or mental disturbance' .here are+ of course+ e;ceptions+ but I should hesitate to say that these are more numerous than in the ordinary run of the population' In fact several mediums are among the most practical people I 9no8' "one the less some mediums claim to have gone through a period of suffering and emotional disturbance due to early psychic e;periences 8hich they did not understand and 8hich led them to fear they 8ere going mad' As 8ith shamans+ these initial problems disappeared after contact 8ith and training by other and more developed mediums' Again it is Huite clear that although communication 8ith the dead is the principal function 8hich a medium performs+ he or she >usually the latter? may fulfil many other functions too' #i9e shamans+ mediums are repositories of+ or vehicles for+ assorted theological and cosmological teachings+ though the importance of this role is some8hat diluted in our society by the e;istence of a large body of readily accessible Spiritualist literature' Mediums 8ho are the ministers of Spiritualist churches may+ li9e shamans+ officiate at such rites de passage as 8eddings and funerals >arguably the most significant rite de passage of allP?' !ealing and mediumship go hand in hand almost as much as do shamanism and the treatment of disease' Physical diseases are treated in healing sessions by dedicated spiritual healers+ many of 8hom believe that spirits channel healing forces through their hands' Most mediums are apt to suggest homely >often herbal? remedies for minor ailments' Many in effect function as psychotherapists and general counsellors+ and it 8ould not surprise me to learn that 8ith a clientele possessing appropriate bac9ground beliefs they achieve a success rate Huite as high as that of Hualified professionals' A reputable medium+ li9e a reputable shaman+ is apt to be shre8d+ balanced and 8ell:meaning+ to have perhaps a touch of vanity and a li9ing for the dramatic+ but to do overall much more good than harm' It has+ as I pointed out+ not infreHuently been suggested that <33< shamanism offers a road to status for talented persons 8ho might other8ise find themselves condemned to remain in underprivileged or even despised obscurity' Similar arguments might be put for8ard in connection 8ith Spiritualist mediumship' 4emale mediums greatly outnumber male >8hich is not the case 8ith shamans+ but shamanism is a careerJalmost the only careerJopen to 8omen?' In fact it must be easier for a 8oman to become a minister or church leader 8ithin the Spiritualist movement than 8ithin almost any other religious organi@ation' 4urthermore

these ladies often come from relatively poor and uneducated bac9grounds' "ot a fe8 male mediums are >li9e certain shamans? reputedly homose;ual+ 8hich might be construed as further evidence for the thesis under discussion' It is not a thesis 8hich I personally 8ould attempt to push very far+ but 8hatever can be said in its favour so far as shamanism is concerned+ can probably also be said in connection 8ith Spiritualist mediumship' I e;pressed above a fairly Hualified belief that some shamans may in the e;ercise of their craft at times e;hibit ESP or P0' My belief that certain mediums sometimes e;hibit paranormal abilities is much less HualifiedJI 8as almost rash enough to 8rite that it is unHualifiedJbut since most of the ne;t five chapters 8ill be devoted to the sort of evidence on 8hich my belief is based+ I shall not further discuss the matter at this point' I have tried+ in this brief and inadeHuate account of the relevant anthropological material to sho8 that Spiritualist mediumship+ as 8e 9no8 it in Europe and America+ has such clear affinities 8ith 8hat I have some8hat loosely chosen to call shamanism that it can only be regarded as a culturally conditioned variety of the latter' It is+ if you li9e+ the local variant of a general human potential' .his conclusion can no8 be shelved and temporarily forgotten' It 8ill be brought out again 8hen I come to attempt a general assessment of the nature of mediumship' .o a more detailed account of mediumistic phenomena 8e must no8 turn' As I pointed out in the first chapter+ Spiritualists themselves commonly distinguish t8o categories of mediumship+ physical mediumship and mental mediumship' In physical mediumship+ the spirits of deceased persons communicate through ostensibly paranormal physical happenings in the mediumFs neighbourhood' .he Kpo8erF for these happenings >raps+ obDect movements+ materiali@ations+ etc'? is supposedly obtained from the mediumFs o8n+ peculiarly endo8ed+ <36< organism' In mental mediumship+ the spirits either impress pictures and sound:images upon the mediumFs psychic perceptivity >KclairvoyantF mediumship?+ or else use her hand or vocal apparatus to communicate by speech or 8riting' Both 9inds of mediumship have many varieties+ and are carried on in many different settings' Some mediums function as ministers of Spiritualist churches+ and regularly enliven church services 8ith a demonstration of clairvoyant mediumshipI others see individual clients by appointmentI others lead small groups of enHuirers in so:called Khome circlesFI some do all of these things' .he initial aim is al8ays the same' Sitters are to be convinced by the force of evidence that the communicating personalities are indeed the surviving spirits of particular formerly incarnate human beings' .hereafter the pronouncements of these spirits concerning the status and prospects of the post:mortem individual+ and upon religious matters in general+ 8ill be accorded the 8eight due to genuine inside information' It is this emphasis upon evidence and proof that underlies SpiritualismFs freHuent claim to be a KscientificF religion'

(h"sical

ediumshi&

By far the greater part of the ostensible evidence for survival comes from the phenomena of mental mediumship' .his is+ as I pointed out in the first chapter+ because it is the content of 8hat is communicated+ rather than the means by 8hich it is communicated+ that yields >if anything does yield? evidence for the survival of personality' If paranormal raps resound in the vicinity of a medium+ and hammer out intelligent sentences by means of a simple code >a phenomenon+ incidentally+ 8hich I have several times 8itnessed myself in good light?+ this is no doubt very curious and interesting+ but it does not per se constitute evidence for human survival of bodily death' !o8ever the raps might convey an KevidentialF message' In fact 8e

have firsthand accounts of a number of cases in 8hich they have apparently done so' Several of these concern %' %' !ome >(266G(22C?+ perhaps the most remar9able of all physical mediums' .hus+ in a seance held at Edinburgh in (27)+ and recorded by Mr P' P' Ale;ander >(+ pp' 6LGC?+ raps spelled out the name KPophy SophyF' It transpired that this 8as the pet name of a child 8hose mother and aunt 8ere present' .he aunt burst into tears' .he raps then spelled out+ KAou 8ere not to blame+ and I am happy'F .he aunt had blamed herself for supposed carelessness in allo8ing the child to catch scarlet fever' <35< .he only form of physical mediumship of 8hich I shall subseHuently cite e;amples is the so:called Kdirect voiceF' .he Spiritualist theory of the direct voice is that spirits construct for themselves vocal organs out of KectoplasmF supplied by the medium' &ith these vocal organs they are able to spea9 to the sitters+ often directing their remar9s into a spea9ing trumpet provided for the purpose' If the sitting is held in the dar9+ the trumpet+ usually mar9ed 8ith luminous paint+ may move around the circle+ so that the voices spea9 from different positions' .he possibilities for fraud here are limitlessJone medium 9no8n to me used to conceal the reaching rods 8ith 8hich he manipulated his trumpets in the hollo8 legs of a small bamboo tableJbut some curious observations have none the less been made' 4or instance in the early part of this century an American direct voice medium+ Mrs Etta &riedt >(2L-G(-53?+ of %etroit+ greatly intrigued several leading members of the SP ' Sir &illiam Barrett >(25LG (-3L?+ one of the founders of that Society gives >()6+ pp' 26G25? the follo8ing account of a sitting 8ith Mrs &riedt: &hen after my e;amination of the room Mrs &riedt and Miss amsden entered+ the door 8as loc9ed+ and one of the electric lights over our head 8as left on to illuminate the room' &e sat on chairs adDoining each otherI I sat ne;t to Mrs &riedt and held her hand' Miss amsden sat on my left' &e as9ed Mrs &riedt to let us try in the light first+ and at her suggestion Miss ' held the small end of a large aluminium trumpet to her earI the larger end I supported 8ith my left hand' My body therefore came bet8een the trumpet and the medium' I had previously loo9ed into the trumpet+ 8hich 8as perfectly bare and smooth' Presently Miss amsden said she heard a voice spea9ing to her+ and entered into conversation 8ith the voice' I only heard a faint 8hispering sound+ but no articulate 8ords' .o avoid the possibility of Mrs &riedt being the source of the 8hispering+ I engaged her in tal9+ and 8hile she 8as spea9ing Miss amsden still heard the faint voice in the trumpet+ but begged us to stop spea9ing+ as it prevented her hearing distinctly 8hat the voice said' Miss amsden assured me after8ards that there could be no doubt 8hatever that the voice in the trumpet 8as independent of Mrs &riedt+ and I can testify that I 8atched the medium and sa8 nothing suspicious in the movement of her lips' She did not move from her place+ and no accomplice or concealed arrangement could possibly have produced the voice' Miss amdsen adds a note concerning the >evidential? message 8hich she received' She says further+ K&hile holding the trumpet I could feel the vibration of the little voice inside'F <3L<

ental

ediumshi&

$f mental mediumship there are numerous 9inds+ and I can mention only the more important' .he most freHuently seen+ both in private consultations+ and on the public platform+ is that of KclairvoyantF mediumship+ 8hich I mentioned above' .he medium or sensitive may be in a slightly dissociated state+ but is usually not entranced' She claims to KseeF or KhearF deceased

friends and relatives of persons present+ and to transmit messages from them' $ccasionally the KseeingF and KhearingF seem to reach an hallucinatory vividness+ and the e;perience resembles that of seeing an apparition >see Chapter 4ourteen?' Sometimes the mediumFs guides >spirits 8ho are alleged to direct her activities from the Kother sideF? may present the information in the form of symbolic visions 8hich she must learn to interpret' Something of the flavour of such demonstrations may be gleaned from the follo8ing verbatim transcript >C5a+ pp' (C6G (C5?: Medium ' See+ a boy comes in your surroundings' !e loo9s to me to be about (7 or (2+ and I thin9 there 8ill have been a good deal of sorro8 over the passing a8ay of this boy' A lady brings this boy+ and she 8ants the parents to 9no8 about him' &hether he passed a8ay in 8ea9ness or not+ I donFt 9no8' !e is a very beautiful boyI she is telling me that it is !erbert Ernest' .here is somebody belonging to him called Seth' I cannot get along 8ith it' %o you 9no8 anybody called Seth and Mary that had a boy called !erbert Ernest !obsonM (ns)er$ Aou are right+ friend' Medium$ .hey 8ant you to 9no8' ight in the corner there RpointingS+ I donFt 9no8 8hat to ma9e of this at all' It is a youth' I should ta9e him to be about (2' .here is a gentleman 8ith this youthI and I have a very curious feeling' I rather thin9 this youth 8ill have been 9illed from shoc9' "o8 he comes and sho8s me' !e is 8ithout Dac9et+ and his clothes are covered 8ith colour' !e is holding out his hands and there is a reddish dye on them' !e may have 8or9ed in a dye 8or9s' I feel I 8ould fall over' !e may have met 8ith his death in a dye 8or9s' It is Mrs MillerFs boy+ &illiam !enry MillerI lived in Ealley Place+ and I thin9 he 8ould be 9illed in a dye 8or9s' "ot more than four or five years ago+ as far as I can see in the surroundings' .his gentleman comes 8ith him' !e is !enry Mitchell+ and he used to belong to Aeadon' !e is helping the boy for8ard' *(ll correct, e+cept that Henry Mitchell is unrecogni,ed$ Mr Holden, my informant, -ne) .illiam Henry Miller$ "eg hurt at dye )or-s, #lood poisoning, died a#out &/&&$ 0alley !ye .or-s$1 (ns)er$ I 9no8 this man' Clairvoyant mediumship has been less e;tensively studied by psychical researchers than it perhaps deserves' I shall give 8hat are in effect some <3C< e;amples of it in Chapter Eleven' More attention has been focused on the 9inds of mental mediumship that manifest through 8hat 4' &' !' Myers christened Kmotor automatismsF' Motor automatisms are actions of an intelligent+ purposive and even symbolic 9ind 8hich go on outside the automatistFs conscious control' .hey may include speech and 8riting+ and then communication can sometimes be established 8ith a Huasi:personality ostensibly different from that of the automatist' In our society such Huasi:personalties very readily ta9e on the guise of deceased persons+ and then+ of course+ automatism passes into ostensible mental mediumship' A simple and 8ell:9no8n form of such mediumship is that of 8riting 8ith an ouiDa or planchette board' Several persons sit round a table 8ith the fingers lightly resting on an upturned glass or other pointer+ or on a small+ heart:shaped piece of 8ood+ into the ape; of 8hich a do8n8ard:pointing pencil is inserted' .he glass may then move so as to spell out 8ords on letters of the alphabet encircling it >KouiDaF?+ or the board 8rites 8ith its pencil on an

underlying piece of paper >KplanchetteF?' In neither case need the outcome be deliberately brought about by one of the operators' It is as though each sitter+ 9no8ing that others are also involved+ no longer feels tempted to analyse the situation and as9+ KAm doing thisMF *nder these conditions oneFs hand may Krun by itself+ under the control of systems outside the main stream of consciousness' Sometimes the sitters simply rest their hands on top of a small table+ 8hich then KtipsF to spell out 8ords and sentences by means of a simple code' In Eictorian times upturned top:hats often served instead of tablesJyet another use for this versatile but no8+ alas+ outmoded form of headgear' .o the participants in such seances+ the mere fact that the devices move often seems surprising+ indeed uncanny+ and should coherent sentences be 8ritten they may be accorded the respect due to the deliverances of an oracle' I have myself come across a number of cases in 8hich an ouiDa board 8rote copiously and fluently and produced material 8hich 8as Huite alien to the conscious minds of the persons operating it' In each case+ ho8ever+ it appeared highly li9ely that the material 8as coming from some hidden level of the mind of a particular sitter' .hus I 8as once a sitter in a circle 8hich received pungent communications from Goering and Goebbels and other deceased "a@i leaders' .hey favoured us 8ith such interesting pieces of information as that !itler 8as alive and 8ell and operating a petrol pump in the to8n of Clifton+ Ar9ansas+ and that Martin Bormann 8as <37< in Gothenburg disguised as a priest by the name of 4ather $do' .hey favoured us also 8ith various apologias for "a@ism' After several sessions it became apparent that this little band of unrepentant sinners only communicated 8hen the finger of one particular person 8as on the glass' Eery reluctantly he admitted that many years before he had gone through a phase of admiration for certain features of !itlerFs Germany+ and had Doined an e;treme right:8ing political organi@ation' "o8 he repudiated+ indeed abhorred+ his former paltering 8ith "a@ism' "one the less these vie8s 8ere clearly still alive in him some8here+ and slipped out 8hen his conscious censorship 8as circumvented by the ouiDa board' I am absolutely certain that he 8as not deliberately manipulating the glassJhis embarrassment 8as too great+ and he refused to participate further' I have also come across a number of instances of ouiDa and planchette 8ritings in 8hich correct information 8as given 8hich 8as prima facie un9no8n to any person present' Some e;amples 8ill be given in a later chapter' A rarer form of motor automatism is that of automatic 8riting by a single individual >see C6I ()7?' Such 8riting may develop as a symptom of mental disturbance+ or it may be encouraged by a psychologist or psychotherapist as a means of reaching memories or emotions 8hich have become dissociated from consciousness' Eery often+ ho8ever+ it has been deliberately cultivated by normal persons bent upon Kpsychical developmentF' .he state of mind of an automatist during the production of automatic 8riting may be anything from normal 8a9efulness+ 8ith full 9no8ledge of 8hat is being 8ritten+ to profound trance+ 8ith subseHuent loss of memory for the events of the trance' In most cases automatic 8riting does not progress beyond the production of crude and repetitive sHuiggles' Sometimes+ ho8ever+ the automatist may come in time to 8rite more fluently and to e;hibit s9ill or 9no8ledge beyond her ordinary capacities' Automatic 8riting has been 9no8n to report events forgotten or unnoticed by the 8a9ing self+ and to e;hibit 8hat loo9 li9e flashes of ESP' .he 8riting may profess beliefs and opinions differing from those of the automatistI may display literary fluency greatly e;ceeding hersI may compose long romances or religio:cosmological treatises >concerning the merits of 8hich opinions

differ considerably?I and may claim to come not from the automatist but from a deceased person or supernatural being 8ho has gained control over her neuromuscular apparatus' Claims to have a discarnate origin are+ of course+ in most cases not to be ta9en seriouslyI <32< they simply reflect the dramati@ing tendencies+ and the responsiveness to suggestion and to cultural influences+ characteristic of automatic 8riting in general' Some e;amples of automatic 8ritings 8hich have ostensibly been the vehicles of ESP 8ill be given in later chapters' .8o important ideas crop up again and again in discussions of automatic 8riting and 9indred motor automatisms' >a? Automatic 8riting+ or at any rate automatic 8riting 8hich e;hibits literary and artistic abilities+ the capacity to converse rationally+ etc'+ is clearly the product of an intelligence' .he intelligence+ ho8ever+ is not that of the automatistFs 8a9ing mind+ for the automatist does not consciously control 8hat is 8ritten+ and she may be as surprised as anyone else 8hen she reads it' &e must therefore suppose that 8hatever psychoneural system underlies+ underpins or constitutes this intelligence must be of a nature not fundamentally different from that of the system 8hich underlies the conscious activities of the ordinary 8a9ing intelligence' &e are driven+ in short+ to postulate the e;istence of 8hat may perhaps best be called dissociated or su#liminal streams of consciousness' >b? Automatic 8riting is sometimes the vehicle for ostensible ESP+ and it is so to an e;tent 8hich ma9es it plausible to allege that ESP is more li9ely to manifest itself through a motor automatism than through the normal channels of 8a9ing activity' .he former of these proposals is hard to reDect+ though one might perhaps accept it only 8ith some Hualifications' .he latter is very difficult to assess' 4' &' !' Myers supports it simply by advancing numerous apparent e;amples of ESP manifested in automatic 8riting >(()a+ II+ pp' 2(G(22?' .he problem+ ho8ever+ is that even if his e;amples are individually acceptable+ this does not prove that the mental state >8hatever it may be? 8hich accompanies automatic 8riting is more favourable to the occurrence of ESP than is any other mental state' .he necessary controlled e;periments to discover 8hether or not this is so have still not been carried out' !o8ever+ if 8e accept that Myers has made a preliminary case+ 8e may proceed to some further considerations' Parapsychologists 8ho have collected and studied large numbers of cases of spontaneous ESP Jcases in 8hich the ESP has manifested itself in dreams+ intuitions+ hallucinations+ visions+ etc'Jhave often been driven to the conclusion that the information concerned is generally <3-< received >if that is the right 8ord? and initially analysed+ at a level beneath the threshold of ordinary consciousness' 4urthermore it has trouble in forcing its 8ay into the main stream of consciousness' It may only be able to do so 8hen the latter is rela;ed or idle+ or in one of those Kaltered statesF >such as dreams? 8hich seem to permit a freer passage of hitherto e;cluded material into consciousness' 4rom this point of vie8 motor automatisms+ and especially automatic 8riting+ represent a path by 8hich dissociated or subliminal material+ including information ac2uired #y 3SP+ can find direct e;pression 8ithout having to crash 8hatever barrier it is that hinders its transition into consciousness' Motor automatisms are thus outpourings of the same levels of the personality 8hich produce the dreams+ visions+ etc'+ by 8hich spontaneous ESP is commonly manifested' Indeed 4' &' !' Myers labelled the dreams+ visions+ etc'+ sensory automatisms$ /ust as the bodily movements in motor

automatisms are made 8ithout the initiation+ and generally 8ithout the concurrence+ of conscious thought and 8ill+ so do these dreams+ visions+ etc'+ arise 8ithout itI and Myers regarded both motor and sensory automatisms as means by 8hich subliminal streams of consciousness+ often possessing enhanced dramatic abilities and po8ers of memory+ and in receipt of e;trasensory information+ can ma9e their deliverances available to the ordinary 8or9aday mind' It is impossible adeHuately to assess these comple;+ plausible+ but controversial notions here' I introduce them mainly because they constitute a pervasive bac9ground to much parapsychological thin9ing in this area' .o return no8 to my e;position of the various 9inds of mental mediumship' .he most KadvancedF form of mental mediumship is 8ithout doubt 8hat is generally termed KtranceF mediumship' !ere the normal personality is+ as it 8ere+ completely dispossessed by the intruding intelligence+ 8hich achieves a varying degree of control over the mediumFs speech+ 8riting+ and entire neuromuscular apparatus' .he medium herself retains little or no recollection of 8hat has been said or done in her KabsenceF+ though sometimes she may on a8a9ening seem to remember scenes and persons from some other sphere of e;istence' .his 9ind of trance mediumship >trance in the sense of unconsciousness of surroundings may accompany other forms of mediumship+ including physical mediumship? tends to develop not+ as it 8ere+ by the piecemeal advance of sensory automatism+ so that no8 <6)< one hand is under e;ternal control+ no8 both hands+ and so on' *sually it evolves out of the KclairvoyantF mediumship 8hich I touched on earlier' .he clairvoyant may feel herself to be overshado8ed+ influenced+ gradually Kta9en overF by another personality+ 8hile her o8n a8areness of her surroundings progressively diminishes' &ith repetition+ the passage to full trance becomes Huic9er and easier' Sometimes a sensitive discovers her gift 8hen she is suddenly and completely entranced during a casual visit to a seance' *sually there 8ill be only a fe8 deceased persons 8ho can ostensibly control the mediumFs hand or vocal apparatus directly' .hey are generally referred to as KcontrolsF' Controls 8ill often relay messages from other deceased persons+ spo9en of as KcommunicatorsF+ 8ith 8hom they purport to be in touch' .he term KcommunicatorF is also used generically+ to cover both controls and communicators' *se of these terms must not be held to imply a belief that the KcontrolsF and KcommunicatorsF are anything other than aspects of the mediumFs o8n personalityI I shall therefore hold myself e;cused from too freHuent a use of such phrases as Kostensible communicatorF+ Kalleged controlF+ etc' .rance mediumship 8ill figure some8hat prominently in the chapters that follo8I more prominently than its actual freHuency 8ould indicate' .his is because the fullest manifestations of the personalities of ostensibly deceased persons have often been obtained through trance mediums+ and because psychical researchers have sho8n a corresponding interest in collecting detailed records of this 9ind of mediumship' Among prominent trance mediums 8ho have been subDected to e;tensive and careful study are: Mrs #' E' Piper+ Mrs KSmeadF >Mrs &' #' Cleaveland?+ Mrs KCheno8ethF >Mrs M' M' Soule?+ Mrs ' .hompson+ Mrs E' /' Garrett and Mrs G' $' #eonard' Several of these ladies 8ill be discussed in more detail later on' I tal9ed Dust no8 of the manifestation through mediums of the personalities of deceased personsI and the Huestion inevitably arises of 8hat these manifestations could possibly consist

in' .his problem 8as in effect raised in the first chapter+ 8here I pointed out that some philosophers 8ould say that oneFs personal identity is logically lin9ed to the continuity of oneFs physical organism+ so that to tal9 of the manifestation of the personality of a deceased human being is nonsense' .his issue 8ill be mentioned again later on' !ere I can only point out that if+ for instance+ one had to identify a person+ 8hose body one could not see+ by conversing 8ith him over a some8hat noisy telephone line+ one could not identify him unless his conversation <6(< e;hibited certain distinctive featuresJunless+ for e;ample+ he could remember certain things that he ought to be able to remember if he is the person he purports to be >oneFs individual memories must be far more specific even than oneFs fingerprints?I and unless he e;hibited certain motives and purposes+ s9ills and personality characteristics 9no8n to be hisI and so forth' ather similarly+ evidence of Dust these 9inds is at least evidence )ithout )hich one 8ould have no grounds at all for supposing that some human beings may in some sense survive the dissolution of their bodies' Accordingly I shall for the moment defer philosophical 8orries+ and shall in the ne;t fe8 chapters present in turn evidence from communications through mediums for the ostensible survival of memory+ of purpose+ of intellectual s9ills and of individual personality characteristics' <63<

, !he

ediumshi& of

rs (i&er

Mrs #eonora E' Piper >(2L7G(-L)? is important in the history of psychical research for at least three reasons' $f the mental mediums subDected to study by members of the SP and the ASP she 8as the first to provide substantial evidence for the possession of some paranormal facultyI the records of her case are still unsurpassed in Huantity and detailJif the papers on her published in the Proceedings of the British and American SP s 8ere collected together they 8ould fill a good fe8 volumesI and she is one of the very fe8 mediums 8hose trance speech and 8ritings have been subDected to a serious and e;tensive psychological analysis' .he most comprehensive general account of her mediumship is that contained in !olt >C7?I see also Sage >(6C? and Piper >(3(?' Mrs Piper lived in Boston+ Massachusetts+ 8here her husband 8as employed in a large store' !er career as a medium began more or less accidentally' In (225 she consulted a blind healing medium named /' ' Coc9e' At her second visit to him she passed into a trance+ and 8rote do8n a message for another of the sitters+ /udge 4rost+ of Cambridge+ Massachusetts' .he message purported to come from /udge 4rostFs deceased son+ and it impressed him more than any other 8hich he had received during an e;tensive investigation into Spiritualism' Mrs Piper then set up a Khome circleF' !er first spirit guide is said to have been a red indian girl named KChlorineF' Among other communicators 8ere Bach+ Mrs Siddons+ #ongfello8 and Commodore Eanderbilt' .hese less than convincing dramatis personae retired from the scene the follo8ing year 8ith the arrival of a ne8 control 8ho rapidly became predominant' .his 8as a soi:disant 4rench doctor 8ho gave the name of K%r PhinuitF' In some 8ays Phinuit 8as Huite as implausible as his predecessors' "o trace of him could be found in 4rench medical records+ and his 9no8ledge of the 4rench language 8as scanty indeed' In fact it seemed li9ely that he 8as an unconscious plagiarism from Coc9e+ 8ho possessed an Irish guide named K4inneyF' <66< But 8hatever his ultimate status+ he 8as a KcharacterF+ and more important he 8as+ as 8e shall see+ a success'

*nder PhinuitFs regime the general procedure at a sitting 8ould be this' Mrs Piper 8ould pass into a trance' .he onset of the trance 8as in these early days often accompanied by unpleasant spasmodic movements+ grinding of the teeth+ etc' .here 8as never the least doubt that the trance:state 8as in some sense+ KgenuineFJin it Mrs Piper could be cut+ blistered+ pric9ed and even have a bottle of strong ammonia held under her nose 8ithout being disturbed' After a fe8 minutes' Mrs Piper 8ould begin to spea9 8ith the voice of Phinuit+ 8hich 8as gruff and male and made use of 4renchisms+ and also of slang and s8ear8ords+ in a manner Huite unli9e that of the 8a9ing Mrs Piper' Phinuit 8ould give sitters accounts of the appearances and activities of deceased >and sometimes also of living? friends and relations+ and 8ould transmit messages from them+ often 8ith appropriate gestures' Mrs Piper 8as KdiscoveredF for psychical research by &illiam /ames+ of !arvard *niversity+ arguably the greatest psychologist of that+ perhaps of any+ time' /ames 8as sufficiently impressed by his sittings to send some t8enty:five other persons to her under pseudonyms' In the spring of (22C he 8rote an account of the results in 8hich he stated >(((+ p' CL6?+ KI am persuaded of the mediumFs honesty+ and of the genuineness of her tranceI and although at first disposed to thin9 that the KhitsF she made 8ere either luc9y coincidence+ or the result of 9no8ledge on her part of 8ho the sitter 8as+ and of his or her family affairs+ I no8 believe her to be in possession of a po8er as yet une;plained'F K#uc9y coincidenceF 8as not+ I thin9+ an e;planation ever seriously considered by anyone 8ho had e;tensive firsthand acHuaintance 8ith Mrs PiperFs performances' It 8as true that on an off:day+ Phinuit 8ould ramble and flounder hopelessly+ 8ould fish for information+ and if given any+ 8ould blatantly serve it up again as though it had been his o8n discovery' But 8hen he 8as on form he could+ 8ith hardly any hesitation or fishing+ relay copious communications from the deceased friends and relatives of sitters+ communications 8hich 8ould turn out to be very accurate even in tiny details+ and far too accurate for the hypothesis of chance or of guess8or9 from the appearance of the sitters to seem in the remotest degree plausible' As a result of /amesFs report+ a leading member of the British SP + ichard !odgson >(2LLG (-)L?+ came out to Boston in (227 and <65< assumed charge of the investigation >CCa?' !e 8as loo9ed upon as an e;pert in the unmas9ing of fraud' !e arranged for the careful recording of all sittings+ and too9 the most e;tensive precautions against tric9ery' Sitters 8ere introduced anonymously or pseudonymously+ and 8ere dra8n from as 8ide a range of persons as possible' Especial notice 8as ta9en of first sittings' 4or some 8ee9s Mrs Piper 8as shado8ed by detectives to ascertain 8hether she made enHuiries into the affairs of possible sitters+ or employed agents so to do' She 8as brought to England 8here she 9ne8 no one and could have had no established agents' %uring her stay there in the 8inter of (22-G-)+ all her sittings 8ere arranged and supervised by leading members of the SP ' Sitters 8ere for the most part introduced anonymously+ and comprehensive records 8ere 9ept >(((?' And still Mrs Piper continued to get results' %r Phinuit remained Mrs PiperFs chief control until the spring of (2-3' .hereafter he 8as gradually superseded by a control 8ho+ 8hatever his ultimate nature+ 8as at least not fictitious' .his 8as George Pelle8 >KGPF?+ a young man of literary and philosophical interests 8ho had been 9illed in "e8 Aor9 a fe8 8ee9s previously' !e 8as 9no8n to !odgson+ and five years previously had had+ under a pseudonym+ one and only one sitting 8ith Mrs Piper' !e first manifested at a sitting to 8hich !odgson brought a close friend of his >Pelle8Fs?' .hen and thereafter the GP communicator sho8ed a most detailed acHuaintance 8ith the

affairs of the living Pelle8' $ut of (L) sitters 8ho 8ere introduced to him+ GP recogni@ed t8enty:nine of the thirty 8ho had been 9no8n to the living Pelle8 >the thirtieth+ 8hom he recogni@ed after an initial failure+ 8as a person 8ho had Kgro8n upF in the interval?' !e conversed 8ith each of them in an appropriate manner+ and sho8ed an intimate 9no8ledge of their concerns+ and of his o8n supposed past relationships 8ith them' $nly rarely did GP slip up badly+ as he sometimes did 8hen discussing+ for instance+ the philosophical Huestions 8hich had so much interested Pelle8 in life' %uring the period of GPFs ascendency+ !odgson became convinced >he had not previously been so? that Mrs PiperFs controls and communicators 8ere+ at least in many cases+ 8hat they claimed to be+ namely the surviving spirits of formerly incarnate human beings >CCb?' GP+ li9e Phinuit+ 8ould pass on messages from other deceased persons 8ho 8ished to communicateI but no8 it apparently became easier for other deceased persons to KcommunicateF directly by spea9ing or 8riting through Mrs PiperFs organism' &riting in trance <6L< became much commoner+ and ultimately predominant+ and sometimes t8o different spirits 8ould communicate simultaneously+ one by the hand and one by the voice' .he later history of Mrs PiperFs mediumship reHuires only a brief account' GP remained the principal communicator until early in (2-7 >during this period !odgson had almost complete charge of her sittings+ and very full records 8ere 9ept?' .hereafter for some years her principal controls 8ere a band of spirits of the mighty dead 8ho disguised their illustrious identities under such appropriately solemn sobriHuets as KImperatorF+ K%octorF+ K ectorF+ KPrudensF+ etc' Evidence figured some8hat less in the proceedings+ and elevated teachings some8hat more+ than they had previously done' In (-)L !odgson died+ and+ predictably+ became himself one of Mrs PiperFs controls' .he purported communications from him 8ere discussed in an interesting paper by &illiam /ames >75?' #ater on Mrs Piper played a part in the famous Kcross:correspondencesF >8hich are discussed later?' !er trance mediumship ended in (-((+ perhaps in conseHuence of the harsh treatment 8hich she received at the hands of t8o American psychologists+ Professor G' Stanley !all+ and %r Amy .anner >(LC?' !o8ever she continued to do automatic 8riting' As I implied a moment ago+ I am prepared 8holly to dismiss chance hitting as an e;planation of Mrs PiperFs achievements' Although on his off days+ PhinuitFs ramblings+ fishings and platitudes 8ere such as to provide invaluable ammunition for hostile critics+ he 8as capable even at his most banal of springing a surprise' .hus at a sitting on 6 /une (22- >CCa+ p' (6)?+ Mr /' ogers ich gave Phinuit a dogFs collar' After a 8hile Phinuit said he sa8 the dog coming+ and then 8ent on: K!ere he comesP $h+ ho8 he DumpsP .here he is no8+ Dumping upon and around you' So glad to see youP overP overP "oJG:rover+ GroverP .hatFs his namePF' .he dog 8as once called over+ but his name 8as changed to Grover in (225+ in honour of the election to the American Presidency of Grover Cleveland' &ith Phinuit at his best+ chance hitting is an impossible e;planation' Another general e;planation 8hich I am prepared to dismiss is that of fraud' I have already indicated some of the considerations 8hich tell against it' .he thought of fraud 8as never far from Mrs PiperFs early investigators' .he case against it 8as po8erfully summari@ed in (22- by 4ran9 Podmore >(33b?+ a highly sceptical 8riter' Podmore points out that despite careful overseeing <6C< amounting at times to invasion of privacy+ Mrs Piper had never once been detected in dishonesty or found to have employed agents' She could not in any case have afforded to employ agents' 4urthermore arrangements had commonly been made to preserve the anonymity of sittersI these arrangements 8ere made not Dust by !odgson+ but at various times

by a number of other responsible people' "or 8as the information communicated through Mrs Piper generally of the sort 8hich could have been obtained from public records+ cemeteries+ or tal9ative servants' "ames and dates 8ere very difficult to Kput throughF' %espite the fact that she had given sittings to hundreds of people+ material relating to different individuals 8as hardly ever mi;ed up' In delineation of character Mrs Piper far outreached anything 8hich could have been constructed from an accumulation of such facts as might have been unearthed by snooping or by bribery' Successful communicators 8ould often address sitters in e;actly the right tone+ and might unmista9ably refer to trivialities of a 8holly private significance' .he charge of credulity+ said Podmore+ rested 8ith those 8ho+ 8ithout consideration and 8ithout enHuiry+ could lightly attribute all the results to imposture' Some of these considerations also tell against another KnaturalisticF e;planation that is sometimes propounded' It may be called the KgrapevineF theory and goes li9e this' Mrs Piper before long became Huite 8ell 9no8n in Boston+ and built up a net8or9 of clients each of 8hom 8as in turn li9ely to recommend her to friends' By this means+ and 8ithout any Huestion of deliberate tric9ery or the employment of agents+ she could have built up a store of information about numerous interlin9ed Boston families+ and could often have made a good guess at the identities even of sitters introduced anonymously' Add to these suppositions the possibility that she possessed a KflypaperF memory for personal details+ and 8e can begin to see a 8ay of accounting for her remar9able successes' At least one thing may be said in favour of these ideas' .here 8as not a little evidence to suggest that 8hen in trance Mrs Piper possessed a remar9ably good memory for 8hat had been said during previous trances' And this fact could clearly have a bearing upon the interpretation of certain cases' 4or e;ample in May and /une (-)L+ shortly after !odgsonFs death+ Mrs PiperFs !odgson:control made some references to correspondence bet8een !odgson and a certain Miss %ensmore >K!uldahF? of Chicago+ and stated that !odgson had < 67< proposed marriage to her' "one even of !odgsonFs closest Boston friends had any in9ling of this+ but it turned out to be true' *nfortunately it also transpired that !odgson had mentioned the matter to Mrs PiperFs controls ten years previously 8hen he 8as hoping that the lady 8ould accept him >75+ pp' 3)G3C?' So this apparently stri9ing case must be dismissed as evidence for the paranormal: or almost dismissed+ since it must be added that a living person >a "e8 Aor9 lady? to 8hom !odgson had confided his disappointmentJcertainly not at a Piper sittingJ8as located through information given by the !odgson:control' In general+ ho8ever+ I thin9 that this theory may be safely reDected' .he chief investigators of the Piper case 8ere 8ell a8are of the dangers in Huestion+ and made every effort to avert them by anonymously bringing to her a substantial sprin9ling of sitters from as far afield as possible+ and by ta9ing her on several e;tended trips to England' It 8as abundantly clear that 8hatever part the local grapevine may have played in marginally improving Mrs PiperFs results+ it 8as not her chief source of inspiration' $n the face of it the Kgrapevine plus stic9y memoryF theory should have been on its strongest ground 8ith the alleged post:mortem communications from ichard !odgson himself' 4or not merely had Mrs Piper 9no8n !odgson for eighteen yearsI she could also have learned a good deal about those friends of his 8ho 8ere most li9ely to attempt to ma9e contact 8ith him after his death' She 8ould therefore >it might be said? have been able to produce those !odgson:reminiscences 8hich had a particular appropriateness for each sitter'

In his report on Mrs PiperFs !odgson:control+ &illiam /ames considers and reDects this hypothesis+ saying of !odgson >75+ p' C?: KGifted 8ith great po8ers of reserve by nature+ he 8as professionally schooled to secretivenessI and a decidedly incommunicative habit in the 8ay of personal gossip had become a second nature 8ith him+Jespecially to8ards Mrs Piper'F In fact one has only to consider a fe8 of the incidents described in /amesFs report to see Dust ho8 implausible is the grapevine hypothesis as a general e;planation of Mrs PiperFs successes' I shall give three e;amples: 1. !he (ecuniar" essages

!odgsonFs salary as secretary of the American branch of the SP + though small+ 8as often irregularly paid' .he result 8as that he 8as <62< sometimes left in circumstances of great financial embarrassment' $n one occasion he 8as rescued by a 8holly une;pected remittance from a friend' .o this remittance+ says /ames >75+ p' 3C?+ Q he replied by a letter 8hich Q cited the story of a starving couple 8ho 8ere overheard by an atheist 8ho 8as passing the house+ to pray aloud to God for food' .he atheist climbed the roof and dropped some bread do8n the chimney+ and heard them than9 God for the miracle' !e then 8ent to the door and revealed himself as its author' .he old 8oman replied to him: K&ell+ the #ord sent it+ even if the devil brought it'F At this friendFs sitting of 6) /anuary+ R!odgsonS suddenly says: %o you remember a story I told you and ho8 you laughed+ about the man and 8oman praying' SI..E : $h+ and the devil 8as in it' $f course I do' !$%GS$": Aes+ the devil+ they told him it 8as the #ord 8ho sent it even if the devil brought it Q About the food that 8as given to them Q I 8ant you to 9no8 8ho is spea9ing' .he sitter feels Huite certain that no one but himself 9ne8 of the correspondence Q #ater another friend agreed to ma9e up any deficit in !odgsonFs salary+ provided this action should remain anonymous+ and !odgson should as9 no Huestions' $n the first sitting 8hich this friend had after !odgsonFs death+ the KspiritF of !odgson immediately referred to the matter and than9ed the sitter' K.he donor is of opinion+F says /ames >75+ p' 37?+ Kas I am also+ that !odgson may have suspected the source of the aid 8hile receiving it+ and this his TspiritU may therefore naturally have than9ed the right person' .hat Mrs PiperFs 8a9ing consciousness should have been acHuainted 8ith any part of this transaction is incredible'F 2. !he $Fist'%haking) E&isode I Huote /amesFs o8n account of this episode >75+ p' ()-?: .he follo8ing incident belongs to my 8ifeFs and Miss PutnamFs sitting of (3 /une (-)C:J Mrs /' said: K%o you remember 8hat happened in our library one night 8hen you 8ere arguing 8ith Margie RMrs /'Fs sisterSMJKI had hardly said TrememberU+F she notes+ Kin as9ing this Huestion+ 8hen the mediumFs arm 8as stretched out and the fist sha9en threateningly+F then these 8ords came:

' !' Aes+ I did this in her face' I couldnFt help it' She 8as so impossible to move' It 8as 8rong of me+ but I couldnFt help it' RI myself 8ell remember this fist:sha9ing incident+ and ho8 8e others laughed over it after !odgson had ta9en his leave' &hat had made him so angry 8as my sister:in:la8Fs defence of some slate:8riting she had seen in California'J&' /'S <6-< ,. $-u"ing -ill") Again I Huote /amesFs o8n account >75+ p' ((3?: $n 6) /anuary (-)C+ Mrs M' had a sitting' Mrs M said: %o you remember our last tal9 together+ at "'+ and ho8+ in coming home 8e tal9ed about the 8or9M > ' !'? Aes+ yes' Mrs' M' And I said if 8e had a hundred thousand dollarsJ Buying BillyP P Mrs' M' Aes+ %ic9+ that 8as itJKbuying BillyF' Buying only BillyM Mrs' M' $h noJI 8anted Schiller too' !o8 8ell you rememberP Mrs' M'+ before ' !'Fs death+ had had dreams of e;tending the American BranchFs operations by getting an endo8ment+ and possibly inducing Prof' R&' 'S "e8bold >Billy? and %r R4' C' S'S Schiller to co:operate in 8or9' She naturally regards this veridical recall+ by the control+ of a private conversation she had had 8ith !odgson as very evidential of his survival' If one regards the various KnaturalisticF e;planations of Mrs PiperFs performances as by and large inadeHuate >and personally I do so regard them?+ and is further prepared instead to consider the possibility that she may have possessed abilities of 9inds not yet generally recogni@ed by science+ then the most obvious hypothesis to present itself is undoubtedly that of telepathy bet8een the medium and persons present at the sitting' Clairvoyance 8ill hardly serve+ for most of the evidence >not all? transmitted 8as confirmed by the recollections of living persons rather than by documents+ photographs+ etc'+ 8hich might+ by a great stretch of imagination+ be supposed decipherable by clairvoyance' All the cases so far Huoted in this chapter could in principle be e;plained by telepathy bet8een medium and sittersI and some incidents from the Piper records strongly suggest it' 4or instance+ !odgson had one day been reading 8ith great interest #oc9hartFs "ife of Scott$ "e;t day a ludicrous Sir &alter Scott turned up at a Piper sitting+ and gave a guided tour of the solar system+ stating that there are mon9eys in the sun >(5Lb+ pp' 567G552?' Mr /' .' Clar9e 8as told by Phinuit that he 8as in financial trouble+ 8hich 8as correct' Phinuit further asserted that things 8ould improve 8ithin

four and a half months+ and that K.here are parties that havenFt dealt honourably 8ith you'F !e 8arned Clar9e particularly against a man named !' "one of PhinuitFs further assertions 8as DustifiedI but they accurately reflected Clar9eFs o8n beliefs at the time >(((+ pp' LC2G L7(?' "ot Dust isolated incidents+ but the overall pattern of 8hole series of sittings seemed sometimes to favour the hypothesis of telepathy <5)< bet8een medium and sitters' 4or instance+ Sir $liver #odge gave %r Phinuit a chain+ entrusted to him by a gentleman abroad+ 8hich had belonged to that gentlemanFs father' Phinuit produced a large number of facts and purported facts concerning the father+ 8hich #odge transmitted to the son' .he sonFs reply+ according to #odge >(((+ p' 5C(?+ 8as Q Important and distinct' It recogni@es the correctness of those things 8hich I 9ne8+ and it asserts the total incorrectness of those things of 8hich I 8as ignorant' So far as this series of facts goes+ therefore+ the hypothesis of a direct thought:transferential means of obtaining information is immensely strengthened' I can indeed hardly resist the conclusion that the series of facts purporting to be related by the elder Mr &ilson have no more substantiality than a dream of my o8nI that I 8as+ so to spea9+ dreaming by pro;y+ and imposing upon myself through the mouth of the medium+ a number of statements such as it is not difficult to imagine reported to one in a dream' .he theory of telepathy bet8een medium and sitters has thus in certain cases a good deal of plausibility+ 8hich is more than can be said for the other theories 8e have so far considered' But Dust ho8 far can 8e push this theoryM I shall give no8 an e;tract from the first of t8o sittings 8ith Mrs Piper had by the ev and Mrs S' &' Sutton+ of Athol Center+ Massachusetts >CCb+ pp' 52LG52C?' .he sitting 8as held on 2 %ecember (2-6' It 8as boo9ed by !odgson+ and the sitters 8ere introduced under the pseudonym of KSmithF' A practised note:ta9er acted as recorder' It must be understood that throughout Phinuit spea9s >and sometimes gesticulates? on #ehalf of the child communicatorI she does not KcontrolF herself' .he annotations in sHuare brac9ets are by Mrs Sutton' Phinuit said Q A little child is coming to you Q !e reaches out his hands as to a child+ and says coa;inglyI Come here+ dear' %onFt be afraid' Come+ darling+ here is your mother' !e describes the child and her Klovely curlsF' &here is PapaM &ant Papa' R!e >i'e' Phinuit? ta9es from the table a silver medal S I 8ant thisJ8ant to bite it' RShe used to bite it'S R eaches for a string of buttons'S Vuic9P I 8ant to put them in my mouth' R.he buttons also' .o bite the buttons 8as forbidden' !e e;actly imitated her arch manner'S Q &ho is %odoM R!er name for her brother+ George'S Q I 8ant you to call %odo' .ell %odo I am happy' Cry for me no more' RPuts hands to throat'S "o sore throat any more' RShe had pain and distress of the throat and tongue'S Papa+ spea9 to me' Can you not see meM I am not dead+ I am living' I am happy 8ith Grandma' RMy mother had been dead many years'S Phinuit says: !ere are t8o more' $ne+ t8o+ three here+Jone older and one younger than 0a9ie' RCorrect'S Q <5(< &as this little oneFs tongue very dryM She 9eeps sho8ing me her tongue' R!er tongue 8as paralysed+ and she suffered much 8ith it to the end'S !er name is 0atherine' RCorrect'S She calls herself 0a9ie' She passed out last' RCorrect'S &here is horseyM RI gave him a little horse'S Big horsey+ not this little one' RProbably refers to a toy cart:horse she used to li9e'S Papa+ 8ant to go 8ide RrideS horsey' RShe plead this all through her illness'S Q

RI as9ed if she remembered anything after she 8as brought do8nstairs'S I 8as so hot+ my head 8as so hot' RCorrectS Q %o not cry for meJthat ma9es me sad' Eleanor' I 8ant Eleanor' R!er little sister' She called her much during her last illness'S I 8ant my buttons' o8+ ro8+Jmy song+Jsing it no8' I sing 8ith you' R&e sing+ and a soft child voice sings 8ith us'S #ightly ro8+ lightly ro8+ $Fer the merry 8aves 8e go+ Smoothly glide+ smoothly glide+ &ith the ebbing tide' RPhinuit hushes us+ and 0a9ie finishes alone'S #et the 8ind and 8aters be Mingled 8ith our melody+ Sing and float+ sing and float+ In our little boat' Q 0a9ie sings: Bye+ bye+ ba bye+ bye+ bye+ $ baby bye' Sing that 8ith me' Papa' RPapa and 0a9ie sing' .hese t8o 8ere the songs she used to sing'S &here is %inahM I 8ant %inah' R%inah 8as an old blac9 rag:doll+ not 8ith us'S I 8ant Bagie R!er name for her sister Margaret'S I 8ant Bagie to bring me my %inah Q .ell %odo 8hen you see him that I love him' %ear %odo' !e used to march 8ith me+ he put me 8ay up' RCorrect'S emar9able though this e;cerpt is >not more remar9able+ ho8ever+ than the full transcripts of the t8o sittings+ 8hich are+ incidentally+ documents of social as 8ell as psychical interest?+ no information 8as communicated 8hich lay outside the 9no8ledge of the sitters' %oes this mean+ then+ that 8e can comfortably attribute all Mrs PiperFs KhitsF here to telepathy 8ith the sittersM Such a conclusion 8ould be too hasty' I 9no8 of no instance of undeniable telepathy bet8een living persons+ or for that matter of any other variety of ESP+ in 8hich the flo8 of paranormally acHuired information has been so Huic9+ so copious+ and so free from error' >I may say that these features are understated by the brief e;tract 8hich is all I have been able to Huote'? .hen again there is the Huestion of the point of vie8 from 8hich the information is presented' It appears that Mrs Piper must have obtained parentsF:eye information about 0a9ie from the sitters+ and <53< then 8ith a fair degree of dramatic s9ill have constructed on the basis of this information a 0a9ieFs:eye vie8 of the same facts' 4urthermore >and this is e;ceedingly odd?+ incidents at both sittings apparently sho8ed associations that seemed to be in the mind of the child+ and 8hich did not a8a9en the corresponding associations in the minds of the sitters' 4or instance 8hen 0a9ie as9ed for KhorseyF+ and 8as given a little toy horse+ she said Kbig+ horsey+ not this little one'F Mrs Sutton surmised that she referred to another toy horse that she used to li9e' At the second sitting 0a9ie reHuested the horse again+ but 8hen given the little horse+ said >CCb+ p' 627? K"o+ that is not the one' .he big horseJso big' RPhinuit sho8s ho8 large'S EleanorFs horse' Eleanor used to put it in 0a9ieFs lap' She loved that horsey'F .hese additional particulars made it clear to Mrs Sutton 8hat horse 8as meantJone 8hich 8as pac9ed a8ay and forgotten in another city' In a later passage+ not given above+ from the first sitting 0a9ie as9ed for Kthe little boo9F' !er mother supposed that she meant a linen picture boo9' At the second sitting it became clear that 8hat 8as intended 8as a little prayer boo9 8hich had been read to 0a9ie Dust before her death+ and then put in her hands' If 8e are to say that Mrs Piper could select from the sittersF minds associations conflicting 8ith the ones consciously present and utili@e them in order to create the impression that the

communicatorFs thoughts moved along lines distinctively different from the sitterFs+ 8e are beginning to attribute to her not Dust super:ESP but super:artistry as 8ell' .he theory of telepathy from the sitters is+ of course+ manifestly ruled out 8hen correct information is given 8hich is not at the time 9no8n to any sitter' Incidents of this 9ind are sprin9led throughout the Piper records >and throughout the records of various other mediums tooJsee 55e+ p' L27?' I shall end this chapter 8ith summary accounts of t8o such cases >the original records are too long to be Huoted in full?' 1. %ir .li/er Lodge)s 0ncle 1err" .his case too9 place during Mrs PiperFs visit to England in the 8inter of (22-G-)' Sir $liver #odgeFs summary of it >(((+ pp' 5L2G5L-? is as follo8s: It happens that an uncle of mine in #ondon R*ncle obertS+ no8 Huite an old man+ had a t8in brother 8ho died some t8enty or more years ago' I interested him generally in the subDect+ and 8rote to as9 if he 8ould lend me some relic of his brother' By morning post on a certain day I received a <56< curious old gold 8atch+ 8hich his brother had 8orn Q I handed it to Mrs Piper 8hen in a state of trance' I 8as told almost immediately that it had belonged to one of my uncles Q After some difficulty Q %r Phinuit caught the name /erry Q and said Q K.his is my 8atch+ and obert is my brother+ and I am here' *ncle /erry+ my 8atch'F Q I pointed out to him that to ma9e *ncle obert a8are of his presence it 8ould be 8ell to recall trivial details of their boyhood Q K*ncle /erryF recalled episodes such as s8imming the cree9 8hen they 8ere boys together+ and running some ris9 of getting dro8nedI 9illing a cat in SmithFs fieldI the possession of a small rifle+ and of a long peculiar s9in+ li9e a sna9e:s9in+ 8hich he thought 8as no8 in the possession of *ncle obert' All these facts have been more or less completely verified' But the interesting thing is that his t8in brother+ from 8hom I got the 8atch+ and 8ith 8hom I 8as thus in a sort of communication+ could not remember them all' !e recollected something about s8imming the cree9+ though he himself had merely loo9ed on' !e had a distinct recollection of having had the sna9e:s9in+ and of the bo; in 8hich it 8as 9ept+ though he does not 9no8 8here it is no8' But he altogether denied 9illing the cat+ and could not recall SmithFs field' !is memory+ ho8ever+ is decidedly failing him+ and he 8as good enough to 8rite to another brother+ 4ran9+ living in Corn8all+ an old sea captain+ and as9 if he had any better remembrance of certain factsJof course not giving any ine;plicable reason for as9ing' .he result of this enHuiry 8as triumphantly to vindicate the e;istence of SmithFs field Q + and the 9illing of a cat by another brother 8as also recollectedI 8hile of the s8imming of the cree9+ near a mill:race+ full details 8ere given+ 4ran9 and /erry being the heroes of that foolhardy episode' It should be noted that *ncle 4ran9 could not remember the sna9e:s9inI so that if Mrs Piper got all this information by telepathy+ she must have ransac9ed the memory stores of t8o separate individuals and collated the results'

2. !he Dog $2ounder) .he follo8ing is a summary >(C5a+ p' 6L5? by Miss !elen Eerrall >Mrs &' !' Salter? of a case from a long paper in 8hich she describes and analyses some remar9able communications from a recently deceased young man+ Bennie /unot+ to surviving members of his family: $n (( 4ebruary (-)3+ Mr /unot RseniorS sent a message through his son Bennie to a former coachman of his+ !ugh Irving+ 8ho had been dead some months+ as9ing 8here Kthe dog ounderF 8as' !ugh Irving had left Mr /unotFs service about t8o months before his death and ta9en the dog 8ith <55< him' In the 8a9ing stage Ri'e'+ 8hen Mrs Piper 8as beginning to Kcome toFS on 3 April (-)3+ it is stated that K/ohn &elsh has ounderF' Mr /unot succeeded after some difficulty in tracing K/ohn &elshF+ but unfortunately it proved impossible to discover 8hether he had ever had the dog in his possession' It is certain+ ho8ever+ that he 8as closely associated 8ith the coachman+ 8ho too9 the dog a8ay+ and it 8as through his attempts to find /ohn &elsh that Mr /unot recovered the dog' Moreover+ there seems good reason for thin9ing that /ohn &elsh+ even if he never had the dog himself+ 9ne8 something of his 8hereabouts+ and could have helped Mr /unot to recover him' "either Mr /unot nor any of his family had ever to their 9no8ledge heard of /ohn &elsh >at any rate under that name?+ still less of his connection 8ith !ugh Irving and possible connection 8ith the dog' %oubtless people could have been found to 8hom all these facts 8ere 9no8n+ but they 8ere not people 8ith 8hom Mrs Piper had ever been brought into contact' *ntil 8e 9no8 to 8hat limitations+ if any+ telepathy bet8een living minds is subDect+ 8e cannot determine 8hether it is a sufficient e;planation of such phenomena as this' &e are+ alas+ today no nearer 9no8ing the limitations+ if any+ of telepathy than 8e 8ere in (-()+ 8hen Miss Eerrall 8rote the above passage' &hat bearing cases such as these+ 8hich go so far beyond telepathy from the sitters+ may have upon the survival hypothesis is a Huestion 8hich must be ta9en up after 8e have considered some further 9inds of case' Miss Eerrall goes on to remar9: Q if 8e suppose+ as the controls themselves declare+ that the source of the information is the minds of the dead+ such incidents present no difficulty+ and therefore+ though they cannot be said to prove their hypothesis+ they 8ould+ if freHuently repeated+ render it more probable' .his is+ I fear+ an oversimplification+ but it is an oversimplification of a standpoint that may perhaps be defensible' .o Mrs Piper I shall return again in various places' 4or the moment I should li9e to emphasi@e that the Piper cases 8hich I have presented in this chapter constitute only a tiny proportion of the mass of KevidentialF materials supplied by the records of her mediumship' <5L<

3 !he

ediumshi& of

rs Leonard

At the end of the last chapter I briefly described and discussed several e;amples of mediumistic communications in 8hich the correct information given 8as ostensibly not 9no8n by normal means to any person present at the sitting' Such cases+ in sufficient number+ and 8ith sufficient assurances that no sitter had a buried memory of the relevant details+

8ould seriously undermine the theory that mediumsF KhitsF+ 8hen not fortunate flu9es+ are due to telepathy 8ith the sitters' In this chapter I shall tal9 about a remar9able medium 8ho made+ one might almost say+ a speciality of producing evidence of this 9ind' I refer to the British medium+ Mrs Gladys $sborne #eonard >(223G(-C2?' As a child Mrs #eonard+ li9e so many other mediums+ used to have beautiful visions+ of 8hich her conventional parents disapproved >2-?' Much later+ 8hen she 8as already married+ she discovered her mediumistic gifts as a result of e;perimenting in table:tipping 8ith some friends' She passed into a trance+ and 8as after8ards told that her mother+ and a young girl named 4eda+ had spo9en through her' 4eda became her chief control' She purported to be the spirit of an Indian girl 8hom an ancestor of Mrs #eonard had married in the early nineteenth century' .hese statements 8ere naturally unverifiable+ though there 8as a family tradition of such a girl >she had died in childbirth at an early age?' 4eda spo9e in a high:pitched voice+ 8ith occasional grammatical errors and misunderstandings of 8ord:meanings+ and had sometimes a touch of the archness and childish 8ays 8hich+ in a more e;treme form+ have endeared numerous child:communicators to middle:aged lady sitters' >KI believe 8e are going to have a .opsyF+ such a sitter once e;claimed at a home circle 8hich I used to attend+ clasping her hands together in anticipation'? 4eda regarded Mrs #eonard 8ith something bet8een tolerance and amused contempt+ and 8ould sometimes cause her embarrassment+ for e;ample by soliciting small presents+ 8hich she thereafter fiercely insisted 8ere her o8n and not Mrs #eonardFs' <5C< As the 4irst &orld &ar approached+ 4eda began to spea9 of a coming catastrophe+ and urged upon Mrs #eonard that it 8ould be her duty to help as many people as possible by her mediumship' Mrs #eonard shortly thereafter became a professional medium+ and devoted herself to helping the bereaved' At the same time she 8as Huite prepared to submit herself to critical investigation by members of the SP + some of 8hom >as 8ith Mrs Piper? had her shado8ed by detectives to ensure that she did not ma9e enHuiries about sitters or employ agents so to do' .he first parapsychologist to study her in detail 8as Sir $liver #odge+ 8hose boo9 Raymond >(-(C?+ describing communications from a son 9illed in the 8ar+ made her famous' She continued to be regularly studied by SP investigators from then until the early years after the Second &orld &ar' .hroughout that time 4eda remained as her principal guide' Most communications 8ere given by speech+ 8ith 4eda acting as intermediaryI sometimes other deceased persons 8ould control the vocal apparatusI and very occasionally communications 8ere made by 8riting' A most odd feature of Mrs #eonardFs mediumship in later years 8as this' At times+ 8hen 4eda 8as in control+ and 8as transmitting messages from another communicator purportedly in touch 8ith her on the Kother sideF+ she 8ould be interrupted by a 8hisper coming apparently from the empty air a foot or t8o in front of the medium' .his Kdirect voiceF >ostensibly that of the communicator 8hose remar9s 4eda 8as relaying? 8ould correct and clarify the statements 8hich 4eda 8as ma9ing through Mrs #eonard' .ests made 8ith the acoustic instruments then available did not suffice to determine 8hether or not this voice 8as truly independent of Mrs #eonardFs vocal apparatus >((?' In brief recordings to 8hich I have listened it never overlaps 8ith the voice of 4eda' In many 8ays the mediumship of Mrs #eonard resembled that of Mrs Piper+ and I do not 8ant to go over similar ground t8ice' I shall therefore concentrate upon those singular aspects of it 8hich+ as I mentioned a moment ago+ seem irreconcilable 8ith the hypothesis of telepathy from the sitters' Indeed they are not easy to reconcile 8ith anything much less than a form of

the super:ESP hypothesis 8hich allo8s the medium potential e;trasensory access to any identifying detail 8hatsoever relating to any living or recently dead person in the 8hole of the &estern 8orld' .he aspects of Mrs #eonardFs mediumship concerned are+ first+ her remar9able successes >or 4edaFs <57< remar9able successes? 8ith Kboo9 testsF+ and+ second+ her Huite numerous apparently successful Kpro;y sittingsF' .he origin of the #eonard boo9 tests is a little obscure+ and it seems Huite li9ely that they 8ere first proposed by 4eda' If so+ they share 8ith the Kcross:correspondencesF >to be discussed later? the remar9able feature of being Ktests of survivalF ostensibly suggested by deceased persons' .here are+ ho8ever+ analogies for them from earlier literature' .he principle of boo9 tests is 8ell summari@ed by Sir $liver #odge >L)+ p' ;vi?' A communicator+ usually passing the message through 4eda+ has to specify the number of a page in a boo9+ itself indicated only by its numbered place on a given shelf in a boo9:case 8hose position is described+ in a house to 8hich the medium need have no access+ though a house presumably+ or usually+ 8ell:9no8n to the ostensible communicator' .he idea is that a sentence shall subseHuently be found on that page+ by any one 8ho follo8s the instructions and identifies the boo9+ 8hich sentence shall sufficiently convey an intended message+ or shall sho8 a similarity in thought to 8hat has other8ise been said+ or shall be appropriate to the actual circumstances or past connection of communicator and intended recipient' Since the boo9 chosen need not be one 9no8n to the sitter+ or indeed 9no8n in the reHuisite detail to anyone living+ it is plain+ as #odge says+ that Kno simple 9ind of mind:reading can be appealed to or regarded as a rational e;planation'F I 8ill ta9e as an e;ample a short but some8hat remar9able case in 8hich the communicator is Ed8ard &yndham .ennant >KBimF?+ a young officer 9illed on the Somme in (-(C' .he sitting >L)+ p' C)? 8as held on (7 %ecember (-(7' Feda$ KBim no8 8ants to send a message to his 4ather' This #oo- is particularly for his FatherI underline that+ he says' It is the ninth boo9 on the third shelf counting from left to right in the boo9case on the right of the door in the dra8ing:room as you enterI ta9e the title+ and loo9 at page 67'F &e found the ninth boo9 in the shelf indicated 8as: Trees Rby /' !arvey 0elmanS' And on page 6C+ Huite at the bottom and leading on to page 67+ 8e read: 4Sometimes you )ill see curious mar-s in the )ood5 these are caused #y a tunnelling #eetle, very in6urious to the trees '7 >Signatures of t8o testificators to the finding and verifying of this Boo9:Message?' G#E"C$""E %AEI% .E""A". <52<

BimFs father 8as intensely interested in 4orestryI and his obsession 8ith Kthe beetleF 8as a family Do9e' .hus the message 8as particularly appropriate+ and the boo9shelf from 8hich it had been culled 8as one 9no8n to the alleged communicator' %uring the period immediately before and after the end of the 4irst &orld &ar many successful boo9 tests 8ere carried out >(5Lc+ (L7a?' In a lengthy paper published in (-3( >(5Lc?+ Mrs E' M' Sidg8ic9 analysed the results of L63 such tests' She classified -3 >(7W? as successful+ ()) >(-W? as appro;imately successful' -C as dubious+ 5) as nearly complete failures and 3)5 as complete failures' In a control e;periment >(62aI cf' ()? (2)) KshamF boo9 tests 8ere subDected to a similar analysis' .here 8ere 65 successes >under 3W? and L( partial successes >under 6W?' Some of the individual successes in these tests 8ere very remar9able' In one case >(5Lc+ pp' 3L6G3C)? an anonymous sitter >Mrs .albot? received through 4eda a message from her late husband advising her to loo9 for a relevant message on page t8elve or thirteen of a boo9 on her boo9case at home' 4eda said the boo9 8as not printed+ but had 8riting in itI 8as dar9 in colourI and contained a table of Indo:European+ Aryan+ Semitic and Arabian languages+ 8hose relationships 8ere sho8n by a diagram of radiating lines' Mrs .albot 9ne8 of no such boo9+ and ridiculed the message' !o8ever 8hen she eventually loo9ed+ she found at the bac9 of a top shelf a shabby blac9 leather noteboo9 of her husbandFs' Pasted into this boo9 8as a folded table of all the languages mentionedI 8hilst on page (6 8as an e;tract from a boo9 entitled Post Mortem$ In this case the message related to a boo9 un9no8n to medium and sitter >indeed+ so far as could be told+ to any living person?+ but undoubtedly 9no8n to the communicator' .he t8o boo9 tests 8hich I have Dust described might be thought to constitute rather stri9ing evidence for survival' Mind:reading does not seem a li9ely e;planation+ for it 8as highly unli9ely that the reHuisite information 8as possessed in sufficient detail by any living person' $n the other hand the e;istence of the boo9s+ and of the relevant passages+ could have been+ and in the second case certainly 8as+ 9no8n to the alleged communicator' *nfortunately the results of many other boo9 tests serve only to confuse the issueI not because they 8ere unsuccessful+ but because they 8ere too successful' 4or the communicators proved eHually able to transmit information relating to the contents of boo9s deliberately placed on shelves in houses un9no8n to them+ boo9s+ furthermore+ having for them no special significance' $n the face of it <5-< this 8ould imply that the communicators got their 9no8ledge of the contents of these boo9s by clairvoyance >the boo9s+ of course+ being all closed?' 4eda certainly tal9s as though the communicators 8ere independent entities 8ho homed in on the test boo9shelves+ scanned the boo9s for appropriate passages+ and then returned to relay the results through her' But if these communicators can e;ercise clairvoyance of such remar9able degree+ 8hy should not 4edaM &hy should not Mrs #eonard herselfM .he information given is no longer such as the alleged communicators are specially Hualified to supply' In some cases >(5Lc+ pp' 6))G 6(6?+ indeed+ correct information 8as apparently given about the contents of boo9s in classical Gree9I yet neither Mrs #eonard+ nor the sitter+ nor the alleged communicator 9ne8 classical Gree9+ 8hile the person 8ho lent the boo9s >Mrs Salter?+ though she 9ne8 Gree9+ had not properly studied several of the volumes' "either telepathy 8ith the living+ nor communication 8ith the dead+ nor yet clairvoyance+ 8ould seem to supply us 8ith an adeHuate e;planation here' I thin9 it 8ould be fair to say this of the boo9 tests:

>a? .he fact that in certain cases meaningful reference 8as made to passages from boo9s to 8hich the communicators had in life had special access cannot be ta9en as evidence that the surviving memory stores of those communicators 8ere someho8 active in the matter' 4or+ as 8e have Dust seen+ communicators 8ere also able to refer unmista9ably to passages in boo9s 8hich it 8as highly unli9ely they had read 8hen alive' >b? Still+ if 8e grant for the sa9e of argument that the boo9s 8ere in some sense open to clairvoyant inspection by an agency other than that of the communicator+ there remains the problem of ho8+ from this mass of potentially available material+ Dust those passages 8ere so often selected 8hich 8ere particularly appropriate as messages from the communicator to the particular living recipient' .ho selected for BimFs father the passage about the beetle damaging treesM .o select a passage as appropriate as this+ the medium 8ould have had e'g' to tap BimFs fatherFs mind+ and then in the light of information telepathically gained from it+ select that one of the very numerous boo9 passages clairvoyantly accessible to her 8hich 8ould be most li9ely to impress BimFs family as a message of a 9ind he might plausibly address to his father' .his problem of selection 8ill arise againI as 8ill that of the apparent synthesis of information e;trasensorially acHuired from more than one source' <L)< .he term Kpro;y sittingF is almost self:e;planatory' A sitter ta9es a sitting on behalf of a third party+ about 8hom both he and the medium 9no8 as little as possible' If KevidentialF communications are then received+ the e;planation can hardly be laid at the door of telepathy 8ith persons present' *sually the third party+ or absent principal+ desires communications from a particular deceased person 8ho has in some 8ay or another to be contacted' .o achieve this the pro;y sitter may give the medium carefully circumscribed details >e'g' name+ identifying phrase? of the desired communicator+ or may bring some relic of him to serve as a Kto9en obDectFI or he may privately appeal to him+ or concentrate upon him+ before the sittingI or he may reHuest his o8n Kspirit guidesF to act as intermediaries' .he best:9no8n of all pro;y sittings are 8ithout doubt the numerous sittings 8ith Mrs #eonard at 8hich Miss "ea &al9er and the ev C' %rayton .homas acted as pro;ies >(L7dI (L7eI (L7fI (C7a+ (C7bI cf' (L2?' .hese sittings 8ere usually+ although not al8ays+ the outcome of letters from bereaved+ sometimes despairing+ parents+ spouses+ etc' Many pro;y cases 8ent on for several sittings+ and it is hard to convey the KfeelF of them adeHuately in a brief summary' 4or instance one of %rayton .homasFs most remar9able cases+ the KBobbie "e8loveF case >(L7e?+ e;tended over eleven sittings' Bobbie 8as a boy of ten 8ho had died of diphtheria' !e proved a fluent communicator+ and through 4eda made unmista9able references to such matters as a dog:shaped salt:cellar he had o8ned+ a K/ac9 of !eartsF costume he had once 8orn+ visits to a chemical laboratory 8ith his grandfather+ gymnastic apparatus 8hich he had set up in his room and e;ercises carried out there8ith+ a girl s9ater of 8hom he 8as fond+ an inDury to his nose+ and the topography of his home to8n >including place:names?' Most curious of all+ he repeatedly insisted that some 8ee9s before his death his constitution had been undermined by contact 8ith poisonous KpipesF+ and that this had lo8ered his resistance to the diphtheria' In connection 8ith the pipes he tal9ed of cattle+ a sort of barn+ and running 8ater' .his meant nothing to his family+ but upon investigation some 8ater pipes round 8hich he had played 8ith a friend 8ere discovered' .he locality ans8ered the description given and it is possible that Bobbie had drun9 bad 8ater there' In another case+ %rayton .homas 8as as9ed by Professor E' ' %odds+ 8ell:9no8n as a critic of the evidence for survival+ to attempt to contact a certain 4rederic &illiam Macaulay on

behalf of the latterFs daughter+ Mrs #e8is' .homas had five sittings 8ith Mrs #eonard' <L(< %istinctive references 8ere made to MacaulayFs 8or9 as an hydraulic engineer' .he follo8ing passages >(L7f+ pp' 3CLG3C-? refer to more personal matters' Mrs #e8isFs annotations are in sHuare brac9ets' 4E%A: .here is a /ohn and !arry+ both 8ith him' And ace Q ice Q iss Q it might be eece but sounds li9e iss+ and 4rancis' .hese are all names of people 8ho are connected 8ith him or lin9ed up 8ith him in the past+ connected 8ith happy times' I get the feeling of an active and busy home in 8hich he 8as rather happy' R.his is a very curious passage Q Probably the happiest time of my fatherFs life 8as in the four or five years before the 8ar+ 8hen 8e+ his five children+ 8ere all at school+ and the home 8as pac9ed 8ith our friends during the holidays' /ohn+ !arry and 4rancis could be three of these ' ' But the most interesting passage is KIt might be eece but it sounds li9e issF Q My elder brother 8as at school at Shre8sbury and there conceived a 9ind of hero:8orship for one of the K.8ea9sF >si;th form boys? 8hose name 8as ees' !e 8rote home about him several times and al8ays dre8 attention to the fact that the name 8as spelt K eesF and not K eeceF' In the holidays my sister and I used to tease him by singing K"ot eece but issF until my father stopped us QS 4E%A: I get a funny 8ord no8 Q could he be interested in Q baths of some 9indM Ah+ he says I have got the right 8ord+ baths' !e spells it+ BA.!S' !is daughter 8ill understand+ he says' It is not something Huite ordinary+ but feels something special' R.his is+ to me+ the most interesting thing that has yet emerged' Baths 8ere al8ays a matter of Do9e in our familyJmy father being very emphatic that 8ater must not be 8asted by our having too big baths or by leaving taps dripping' It is difficult to e;plain ho8 intimate a detail this seemsQ.he mention of baths here also seems to me an indication of my fatherFs Huaint humour+ a characteristic 8hich has hitherto been missing Q S 4E%A: Q GodfreyI 8ill you as9 the daughter if she remembers someone called Godfrey' .hat name is a great lin9 8ith old times' RMy fatherFs most trusted cler9+ one 8ho specially helped in the hydraulic research+ 8as called &illiam Godfrey' !e 8as 8ith my father for years and I remember him from almost my earliest childhood Q S 4E%A: &hat is thatM Q Peggy Q Peggy Q Puggy Q he is giving me a little name li9e Puggy or Peggy' Sounds li9e a special name+ a little special nic9name+ and I thin9 it is something his daughter 8ould 9no8 Q RMy father sometimes called me Kpug:noseF or KPuggyF'S Altogether+ (35 items of information 8ere given+ of 8hich L( 8ere classified as right+ (3 as good+ 63 as fair+ 3 as poor+ 33 as doubtful+ and L as 8rong' %odds+ the instigator of this e;periment+ remar9s: KIt appears to me that the hypotheses of fraud+ rational influence from disclosed facts+ telepathy from the actual sitter+ and coincidence cannot either singly or in combination account for the results obtained'F

<L3< $f the more impressive pro;y cases+ most are+ li9e the Bobbie "e8love and Macaulay cases+ too long to be done Dustice to in a brief summary' .he ne;t case >(L7g? has some very unusual >though not unprecedented? features+ the essentials of 8hich can be set forth fairly briefly' &e may call it the KAit9enF case+ after the family involved' At a #eonard sitting on 32 $ctober (-62+ %rayton .homasFs regular communicators >his father and his sister? enHuired if he had recently received from a middle:aged man a letter about his son' !e had not yet received such a letter+ and the communicators proceeded to give some further particulars of its contents' .he letter 8ould concern an accident to do 8ith a motor car' In this accident the young man 8as 9illed outright+ or nearly so' .here 8as a connection 8ith KMortonF or a li9e:sounding name' .he father once lived near 8here %rayton .homas lived' 4inally another name+ sounding li9e KCharF+ 8as given' .he anticipated letter duly arrived' It 8as dated eleven days after the sitting+ and 8as from Mr #ionel G' Ait9en+ a member of the SP ' Mr Ait9en told %rayton .homas that he first thought of 8riting after hearing him spea9 at a VueenFs !all meeting on - $ctober+ i'e' three 8ee9s before the sitting and nearer five before he actually 8rote' A sentence of the letter reads+ K"ot very long ago I lost my son+ a splendid young man+ full of the Doy of life and success'F After reference to certain #ondon mediums+ it continues+ KI thin9 on the 8hole that 8e have been most fortunate in the evidential nature of the messages received'F 4inally .homasFs advice 8as as9ed about other mediums+ but there 8as no 8ord to suggest that he might possibly obtain a message for him through Mrs #eonard' %rayton .homas entered into correspondence 8ith Mr Ait9en' 4rom this correspondence certain facts emerged concerning the statements made at the sitting of 32 $ctober' In this Huotation >(L7g+ pp' ()6G()5? %rayton .homas places these facts for comparison beside the items given at the sitting' (' am to e+pect a letter from a father a#out his son ' $n my enHuiring 8hen Mr Ait9en had first thought of 8riting he replied+ KI donFt thin9 I had thought of mentioning my case to you and as9ing for advice until I actually 8rote the letter' I merely intended to than9 you for your address' It appears that you had ne8s of something I 8as going to 8rite before I 8rote it or had consciously thought of it'F 3' The father is middle aged$ .his is correct' 6' (n accident case$ .his is also correct' 5' Connected )ith a motorcar$ Mr Ait9en 8rites+ K"ot a motorcar accident e;actly'F <L6< L' The young man )as -illed outright or very nearly so$ !e 8as 9illed outright' C' Morton or a li-e8sounding name5 this father once lived near )here you lived$ In correspondence about this statement I learnt that Mr Ait9en had resided at the village of "orton and that his son 8as born there and had been familiar 8ith all the neighbourhood' "orton is but one and a half miles from Baldoc9 8here I lived 8ith my parents in (27CG2' Is it too much to suppose that 4edaFs KMortonF 8as misheard by her for "ortonM

7' (nother name li-e Char9is given$ .his 8as unsatisfactory+ Dust possibly an attempt for Charles+ the Christian name of Mr Ait9enFs friend 9illed at Gallipoli' %rayton .homas 8as entirely convinced that something more than chance 8as at 8or9 here' Several of the items+ ho8ever+ are either commonplace or 8rong' .he case rests largely on: >a? the coincidence in time bet8een the prediction of a letter that a man 8ould 8rite about his son+ and the fulfilment of that prediction+ and >b? the fairly clear indication of a particular locality' .he former is some8hat hard to assess in the absence of detailed 9no8ledge about the sort of letters %rayton .homas habitually receivedI >b? is+ ho8ever+ not easy to discount' .homas uses the apparent precognition displayed by his communicators to 9noc9 the super: ESP hypothesis' !e says >p' ()5?: .hose 8ho incline to the universal telepathy hypothesis 8ill suggest that the messages originated 8ith Mr Ait9en' But this 8ould imply that the medium tapped the Ait9en memory before either she or I 8ere a8are of his e;istence and+ more incredibly still+ that she divined a purpose of 8hich he remained entirely una8are until he 8as in the act of 8riting to than9 me for remar9s he heard me ma9e in public' %rayton .homasFs criticism of the Kuniversal telepathy hypothesisF is no doubt entirely Dustified' $ne suspects+ ho8ever+ that he 8ishes to pass from the shortcomings of that hypothesis directly to the validity of the survivalist position' .he principle seems to beJand it is+ unfortunately+ a principle enthusiastically applied in this field by partisans of all persuasionsJthat if your chief competitors are ban9rupt+ your o8n business must be on a sound footing' Many hopeful theorists have tried to persuade themselves of the latter by proving the former to their o8n satisfaction' But of course the present problemJthat of the apparent precognition of Mr Ait9enFs letterJis not solved simply by attributing the precognition to discarnate spirits' Such a move 8ould be entirely regressive' <L5< .he most remar9able aspect of this case+ ho8ever+ still remains to be told' At four later #eonard sittings+ for 8hich %rayton .homas 8as sitter+ and at 8hich Mr Ait9en 8as not present+ a good deal of material ostensibly relating to Mr Ait9enFs son 8as received' Mr Ait9en regarded much of this matter as highly evidential' .here 8ere ho8ever some passages 8hich he could ma9e little of+ but 8hich his other son recogni@ed at once as a message concerning a common friend of his and his brotherFs+ a friend of 8hom Mr Ait9en had never heard' It transpired that the living son had >in thought? deliberately as9ed his dead brother to try to send a message concerning this friend through some medium' I give no8 Mr Ait9enFs o8n corroborations of 4edaFs statements >(L7g+ pp' (33G(36?: In Mr %rayton .homasFs sitting of 3) /anuary (-6-+ 4eda says: K.here 8as somebody else he 8as very interested in+ that perhaps you donFt 9no8 Q a name that starts 8ith the letter B+ and I thin9 there is an in it Q itFs not a long nameJvery much lin9ed 8ith him Q it might be a Mr B IC0 Q I feel this is something you could use for building+ and is a name much connected 8ith this boy and his interests'F

In Mr %rayton .homasFs sitting of 6 4ebruary (-6-+ 4eda says: KA name starting 8ith B J rather an important name 8ith him Q Somebody he 8as lin9ed up 8ith shortly before his passing Q there is a lin9 bet8een this B Q and the boyFs passing' I also 8ant to 9no8 if there is anything to do 8ith him li9e a little ship Q or a little model of a shipJsomething he had on earth and 8as very fond of' !e is sho8ing me something li9e a toy shipJa fancy ship+ not a plain oneJFlaborate+ rather FlaborateJ8ith a good deal of detail sho8n in itJit seemed to be connected 8ith his earth lifeJbut some time before he passed over+ rather early in his earth life+ but I thin9 it is something that his people have still got QF A name beginning 8ith B Jli9e the name 4eda says Kmight be Mr B IC0FJhad been mentioned by other mediums+ but 8e had been unable to place it+ nor 8as the reference to a Kmodel shipF understoodI but my son+ on seeing the #eonard script+ recognised its meaning' !e and his deceased brother had been friends at an A4 Station 8ith a young officer called B I%GE"J8hom 8e had not heard ofJand 8ho had been 9illed about a year after my son' .his young man+ before Doining the A4+ had 8or9ed for a firm 8hich made scale models of ships for shipping companies+ and he had sho8n my son a photograph of one of these models 8hich he had made himself and 8hich he said his people still had at home' My son had felt sure that this matter of the model ship 8ould be given as a sign if they 8ere unable to get the name through correctly' .hese corroborations 8ere accompanied by the follo8ing letter from Mr Ait9enFs surviving son: <LL< The 3ditor, Journal of the Society for Psychical Research$ %ear Sir+ I have read my fatherFs account of the K#eonard:Ait9enF pro;y sittings+ and I testify to its correctness' I 8as the only living member of the family 8ho 9ne8 of KBridgenF+ and I had never had any communication 8ith Mr %rayton .homas or Mrs #eonard' My Kthought:messageF 8as not directed to Mr %rayton .homas or to Mrs #eonardJbut to my KdeadF brotherJand to me+ the reply 8as unmista9able' Aours sincerely+ #I$"E# AI.0E"+ 4lying:$fficer+ A4 &: ;ovem#er &/</

I shall not at this point attempt to 8or9 out the full implications 8hich successful pro;y sittings may have for the problem of survival' But the follo8ing points are 8orth bearing in mind for future discussion: (' It seems rather unli9ely that all or even most of the information transmitted at these sittings could have come in a large part from clairvoyance by the medium' Many of the details given could be verified only by consulting the memories of friends and relatives of the deceased personsI there 8ere+ so far as 8e 9no8+ no pictures+ no records+ 8ritten or printed+ and no other physical state of affairs 8hich+ clairvoyantly perceived+ might have yielded such pieces of information as that Bobbie "e8love had an affection for a girl s9ater a little older than him+ that 4' &' Macaulay had an obsession about baths+ and that he used unfeelingly to call his daughter Kpug:noseF+ and so on' And even if there had been such clairvoyantly accessible sources of information+ the sources for each case 8ould almost certainly have been scattered+ so that the medium 8ould have had to locate them+ read them and synthesi@e them into a coherent and plausible story' .elepathy 8ith some living person possessed of all the relevant scraps of information sounds a far more hopeful proposition' 3' !o8ever it appears that in at any rate t8o of the pro;y cases cited in this chapter there 8as no one living person 8ho possessed all the information' .his is most obvious in the Ait9en case Dust described+ in 8hich 4eda produced some distinctive pieces of information not 9no8n to Mrs #eonard+ to %rayton .homas+ or to Mr Ait9en+ but only to the latterFs still living son' In the Bobbie "e8love case some of the <LC< relevant information >about the pipes and their location? 8as not 9no8n to any member of the communicatorFs family' &e are forced to attribute its production either to telepathy bet8een Mrs #eonard and one of BobbieFs friends >the one 8ho played 8ith him around the pipes?+ or to clairvoyant scanning of the neighbourhood plus s9ilful guessing about BobbieFs li9ely habits+ or to a clairvoyant monitoring prior to Bo##ie7s death of his pastimes and activities+ and a subseHuent storing up of a record of them in the mediumFs unconscious mind' >.his last possibility+ implying as it does continual monitoring of the lives of an indefinitely large number of potential communicators 8ho are as yet still living+ seems to me more fantastic than any version of the survival hypothesis'? 4or both of these cases+ therefore+ 8e 8ould on the ESP >or super:ESP? hypothesis have to postulate that Mrs #eonard located >telepathically or clairvoyantly? t8o separate sources of information+ tapped them+ and collated and synthesi@ed the results' In the remaining case cited+ the Macaulay case+ %rayton .homas listed three correct items given by 4eda 8hich 8ere not 9no8n to Mrs #e8is+ the presumed principal source of telepathically obtained information' !o8ever %odds found these items too vague and general to be convincingI and I agree 8ith %oddsFs estimate of them' 6' An obvious underlying problem 8hich successful pro;y sittings present for the ESP hypothesis is of course that of ho8 the medium manages to locate >telepathically or clairvoyantly? sources of information appropriate to the case in hand' .hese sources are+ in a number of different senses+ remote from the sitting and the sitter+ to 8hom the very e;istence of some of them is li9ely to be un9no8n' &e might propose that the medium learns from the sitterFs mind the identity of his principal >i'e' of the person for 8hom he is acting as pro;y?+ and that this someho8 enables her to home in on the mind of the principalI from the mind of the principal further clues to other sources of information may be obtainedI and soon' $ne has only to as9 oneself in detail 8hat 8ould be involved here to see that the proposed process is grotesHuely implausible' Proper names+ addresses+ dates+ and so forthJdetails 8hich identify a person uni2uely9 are notoriously among the most difficult of all items for sensitives to

obtainI and yet such uniHuely identifying details >or their eHuivalents? 8ould have to be obtained in a pro;y case before the medium could pinpoint the right source of information to tapI and in some cases they 8ould have to be obtained from several sources as the mediumFs mind so to spea9 moved along the chain of clues' <L7< It must be added+ of course+ that the survivalist theory too must cope 8ith the problem of ho8 4eda managed to locate Bobbie "e8love+ 4' &' Macaulay+ etc'+ on the Kother sideF in order to e;tract evidential messages from them' %id she do it by ESPM Certainly she often spea9s as though her a8areness of communicators 8ere of a fluctuating and uncertain 9ind' !o8ever+ if there is Kanother 8orldF to 8hich our spirits pass at death+ it is perhaps reasonable to suppose that it contains some form of established communication net8or9 or heavenly post office directory' 5' 4inally it should be noted that in some pro;y cases the principals have felt the messages received contained not Dust correct information+ but hints of the personal characteristics >humour+ interests+ turns of phrase+ and so forth? of the ostensible communicators' If they are correct in this+ 8e have additionally to attribute to the medium the po8er to glean the relevant facts and then+ instead of presenting them in statement form >Khe had a dry sense of humourF?+ so to spea9 to enact them in dramatic form by reproducing the communicatorFs characteristic dry humour >or 8hatever it may be?' Certainly+ the more numerous the unusual gifts 8e have to attribute to mediums in order to support the super:ESP hypothesis+ the more cumbersome that hypothesis becomes' <L2<

4 $Dro&'In) #ommunicators
In successful pro;y sittings+ such as those described in the last chapter+ there is still+ it is often+ ho8ever implausibly+ argued+ some 9ind of lin9 bet8een the medium and some absent person or persons possessing the relevant information' If necessary an upholder of the super:ESP hypothesis 8ill propose a series of such lin9s+ ending up+ naturally+ 8ith someone 8ho 9no8s 8hatever it 8as that the medium came out 8ith' In the class of cases 8hich I shall no8 discuss even those tenuous and e;ceedingly ill:defined lin9s are absent' .he class concerned is that labelled by Professor Ian Stevenson >(L6d? Kdrop:inF communicators' K%rop:inF communicators are+ as the name implies+ communicators 8ho arrive uninvited+ and are ostensibly un9no8n to medium and sitters' &e have on record a number of cases in 8hich Kdrop:inF communicators have made statements about themselves and their careers 8hich it has subseHuently proved possible to verify' Such cases are of obvious theoretical interest and+ before proceeding to some actual e;amples+ I shall briefly e;plore their potential theoretical implications' .hese implications are+ in general+ hostile to the super:ESP hypothesis+ and favourable to some form of survival theory' .he difficulties for the super:ESP hypothesis may be spelled out under t8o headings+ vi@' selection of communicator and locating of materials' .he first of these sets of problems becomes apparent if one as9s 8hy+ in any verified drop:in case+ the mediumFs supposed ESP should have lit upon facts about that particular deceased person' .he facts about the great maDority of Kdrop:inF communicators are not in any 8ay especially eye:catching' .hey 8ould not+ for instance+ be enshrined in unusually stri9ing obituary notices or letters of condolence such as might be supposed to attract the mediumFs clairvoyance more than 8ould other such notices or letters' "or+ so far as one can tell+ 8ould

they stand out 8ith such prominence in the minds of grief:stric9en relatives as particularly to arrest her telepathic attention' "or have medium and sitters any special motive for desiring information about <L-< that particular deceased person' Some very broad constraints do seem to be imposed on the selection of Kdrop:inF communicators+ in that most of them >that is most of the ones 8hose statements about themselves have been verified? come from the mediumFs o8n country and spea9 her o8n language' But these constraints aside+ 8e seem reduced+ on the super:ESP hypothesis+ to supposing that selection of communicator depends upon the random operation of 8holly un9no8n factors' .he second set of difficulties 8hich verified Kdrop:inF cases may raise for the super:ESP hypothesis+ that to do 8ith the location of materials+ is much more comple; and difficult' In most Kdrop:inF cases there is+ no doubt+ some single possible source+ such as a printed record+ or the organi@ed memory system of a living person+ from 8hich the medium could through her supposed e;trasensory po8ers have obtained the 8hole of her information' But 8hat if >and some cases may at least appro;imate to this type? the reHuisite information could have been assembled only through the tapping of a number of discrete sources+ e'g' the memory systems of several different living persons or a variety of different printed recordsM !o8 is the medium+ having selected the deceased person she 8ill present to her sitters+ to discriminate from amongst all the innumerable items of information telepathically and clairvoyantly available to her+ those and only those 8hich are relevant to that personM I do not thin9 that it is possible to give an account of this matter that is even remotely plausible' Consider first the case 8here the different items are loc9ed in the memories of a number of different people' .he most obvious hypothesis is probably that the various relevant memory: sets in different peoplesF minds are all flagged or mar9ed out by similar Huasi:perceptible features+ for instance recognisably similar images of the deceased communicator' But even if 8e set aside for the moment the logical difficulties involved in the suggestion that one person can inspect another personFs images by a 9ind of Huasi:perception+ the image:theory remains grossly implausible' It 8ould force one to predict that mediums should be prone to confuse 8ith each other persons 8ho simply happened in life to loo9 ali9e+ and even perhaps confuse real people 8ith fictional characters' It 8ould force one further to maintain that each personFs memory:images are+ 8hen not in use+ stored a8ay in some internal filing cabinet accessible to the mediumFs telepathic rummagings' .his is a remar9ably implausible idea' Aet if one replaces it 8ith the notion that memories are stored up in the form of subtle structural or functional changes in the brain+ one must <C)< attribute to the medium the ability to read the neural code in 8hich the memories are represented+ a s9ill 8hich no neurophysiologist is currently any8here near attaining >or+ as I shall later argue+ ever could attain?' 4inally+ it is in any case Huite clear that it is not any Huasi:perceptible features of an image 8hich ma9e that image an image of some particular person+ but the reference or intentionality 8ith 8hich the imager invests it' An image of a round and Dolly faceJthe same faceJcan serve as an image of oneFs late *ncle "at+ as an image of /ohn Bull+ as an image of Mr Pic98ic9+ as an image of a brand of brea9fast cereal+ as an image of /upiter+ the bringer of Dollity+ as an image of Dollity in general+ and so forth' Psychological processes outside the image determine 8hat the image is an image of' It might seem as though the case 8here the different items of information e;ist in the form of 8ritten or other records presents less difficulty than the case Dust discussed' 4or obituary notices+ letters of condolence+ and so forth+ commonly carry distinctive headings or addresses 8hich+ clairvoyantly perceived+ 8ould at once indicate that the same person 8as involved' Perhaps this does simplify the problemI but it is far from ma9ing it simple' Consider the case

8here a number of ne8spaper notices have to be clairvoyantly collated' #et us assume that >as is commonly the case? the ne8spapers concerned are old ones+ and not current issues lying on brea9fast tables throughout the country' .hen it has to be supposed that the medium+ in the course of her incessant clairvoyant but presumably unconscious bro8sings among the files of old ne8spapers+ pic9s out from the enormous number of obituary notices thus accessible to her those and only those relating to a certain person+ and then Du;taposes and synthesi@es them' In other 8ords she must discriminate these obituaries from all obituaries of persons of the same or similar name+ from all obituaries of persons 8ho had similar careers+ from all obituaries of persons 8ho had the same dates+ and so on and so forth' Anyone 8ho has had >as I have had? occasion to study ne8spaper obituary notices e;tensively 8ill reali@e that this is an e;ceedingly tall order+ and a fe8 e;amples of obvious confusion bet8een ne8spaper obituaries 8ould greatly strengthen the clairvoyant e;planationJespecially in vie8 of the fact that so far as I am a8are 8e do not have+ from outside the mediumistic situation+ a single properly authenticated e;ample of a clairvoyant managing to read a concealed passage of prose in anything li9e the necessary detail' It is thus possible to construct an ideali@ed Kdrop:inF case 8hich <C(< pushes the super:ESP hypothesis to the verge of unintelligibilityI indeed beyond that verge' Such a case 8ould have the follo8ing features: >a? .he Kdrop:inF communicator in Huestion 8ould have a strong and comprehensible reason for 8ishing to communicateI a reason clearly stronger than any 8hich the medium might have for 8ishing to contact him' >b? .he information 8hich he communicates 8ould be such that the medium could not have obtained it all by e;trasensory contact 8ith a single living person+ obituary notice+ etc' >c? &e can be tolerably certain that the medium could not have obtained the information by ordinary means >this is a point to 8hich I shall shortly return?' It is hardly necessary to spell out ho8 great are the advantages of the survivalist theory in respect of cases 8here the super:ESP hypothesis 8ould have to suppose that the medium had used her e;traordinary po8ers of ESP to locate several disparate sources of information about the communicator and had then put together the information thus gleaned' It also has obvious advantages 8hen it comes to e;plaining 8hy the medium selects one un9no8n deceased person rather than another un9no8n deceased person as the subDect for her e;trasensory researches' .he deceased person selects himself' As Stevenson remar9s >(L6d+ p' C6?+ KSome Tdrop:inU communicators have e;plained their presence very 8ell and their motivation to communicate is an important part of the 8hole case 8hich has to be e;plained as 8ell as the provenance of any information communicated'F K%rop:inF communicators may represent themselves as 8ishing to assuage the grief of living friends+ as brought along by persons in the ne;t 8orld 8ho have previously communicated through the same medium+ as lost in a 9ind of limbo 8here the medium is their only means of contact 8ith others+ as lin9ed through common interest to persons present+ as altruistically trying to help+ as simply Kdropping inF for a chat' It is difficult indeed to decide ho8 seriously communicatorsF o8n e;planations of their presences ought to be ta9enI but sometimes at least the professed e;planations are Kin characterF'

So much for the theoretical implications of drop:inF communicators and for the ideal >and hence imaginary? case' &e must no8 get to grips 8ith some actual cases and see to 8hat e;tent >if at all? they measure up to the ideal' <C3< Cases of verified Kdrop:inF communicators are fairly scarce in the KreputableF literature of psychical research >for e;amples see 52I C5b+ pp' -7G()3I (()a+ II+ pp' 57(G577I (L6dI (L6eI (C3aI (75?' !o8 far this reflects an overall scarcity it is hard to say' K%rop:inF communicators seem to be much more characteristic of the Khome circleF+ the ouiDa and planchette boards+ and the automatist e;perimenting out of curiosity and interest+ than they are of the professional medium' .here could be various reasons for this+ one of them being+ of course+ that there are often pressures on mediums 8ho regularly give sittings to individual clients to e;clude communicators other than those 8ith 8hom the sitter 8ishes to spea9' Since a high proportion of the investigations of mediumship published by the SP and the ASP have concerned mediums of this latter sort+ cases of Kdrop:inF communicators have not often figured >for some cases of this 9ind 8ith Mrs Piper see CCa+ pp' 67G53?' Also+ of course+ the verification of Kdrop:inF cases reHuires a good deal of time+ and also+ very often+ a 8or9ing 9no8ledge of the countryFs public records system together 8ith access to a large library' K%rop:inF communicators of the utmost veridicality could march into and out of the average home circle 8ithout its occurring to anyone that it 8ould be feasible to chec9 up on them' And 8here such chec9s have been underta9en+ they have often fallen far short of the reHuired standard of thoroughness' I shall illustrate this last point 8ith an e;ample ta9en from Sir #a8rence /onesFs Presidential Address to the SP >7C?' In the year (-)) Sir #a8rence had for some time at his house in the South of 4rance a home circle centring around the 8ell:9no8n amateur medium+ Miss 0ate &ingfield >she is referred to as KMiss A'F in 4' &' !' MyersFs Human Personality1$ Communications 8ere received both by raps and by automatic 8riting' $n 2 September (-)) a certain Sarah &illett+ of 7 Sydney Street+ #ondon+ 8rote through Miss &ingfield that she had been shot and 9illed by one /ac9 Parr+ of Green Street+ a polisher' $n 6) September+ Miss &ingfield had a vision of this girl+ and on the evening of 3 $ctober sa8 an ominous Kfigure 8ith a blac9 thing li9e a sac9 tied over his head and shouldersF' aps spelled out K/ohn Parr hanged todayF' Miss &illett+ 8hose dallyings 8ith another man had precipitated the murder+ e;pressed terror at the revenge 8hich /ac9 Parr might e;act upon his premature transition to the other side' Shortly after8ards /ohn Parr began to communicate regularly+ at first breathing vengeance against the doubly persecuted Sarah' #ater on+ <C6< ho8ever+ he calmed do8n and dictated a recipe for furniture polish 8hich proved highly serviceable' /ohn ParrFs e;ecution on 3 $ctober 8as not mentioned in British ne8spapers until the follo8ing day' !o8ever its date could probably have been predicted by any 9no8ledgeable person 8ho had read accounts of the murder and inHuest >Morning Post 3- August and ( September? and of /ohn ParrFs trial >The Times+ (5 September?' .he details given in the KcommunicationsF corresponded closely to the ne8spaper reports' Sir #a8rence /ones+ by all accounts a man of the greatest charm+ 8as happy to accept the assurance of the medium+ and of her mother >8ho 8as also staying 8ith him?+ that they had not read these ne8spaper accounts+ and normally did not loo9 at The Times and The Morning Post$ But a cynic 8ould certainly say that Miss &ingfield had fraudulently Kgot upF the ne8spaper accounts and regurgitated them in her automatic 8riting' A less serious supposition 8ould be that of cryptomnesiaI the supposition+ that is+ that she loo9ed at the reports+ forgot them+ but retained a latent or hidden memory of them 8hich subseHuently found e;pression in her automatic 8riting' $ne or other of these hypotheses 8ould certainly have been suggested if+ for instance+

the ne8spaper accounts had proved to contain errors 8hich 8ere reproduced in the communications' Sir #a8rence did not even attempt to discover 8hether the recipe for furniture polish had been lifted from (unt =ate7s Home Treasury or some similar compilation' "or on the other hand did he enHuire 8hether the t8o addresses given >Sidney Street and Green Street?+ 8hich do not appear in the Times report of the trial 8hich he Huotes+ 8ere correct' If they had proved correct+ the case for paranormality 8ould have been correspondingly strengthened' .o rule out the fraud and cryptomnesia e;planations one 8ould need+ not charitably to accept the mediumFs say:so that she had never come across the relevant information+ but to give reasons for supposing that she could not have come across it' And this involves proving a negative+ a notoriously difficult underta9ing' .he negative cannot+ I thin9+ be proved in the case Dust discussedI certainly it 8as not proved' But there are other cases in 8hich it may be not proved e;actly+ for KproofF is a 8ord some8hat strong for any non:mathematical demonstration+ but at any rate po8erfully supported' I shall no8 proceed to outline and comment upon three such cases' .he first of these cases 8as received through a 8ell:9no8n Icelandic <C5< trance medium+ !afsteinn BDornsson' !afsteinn 8as not a professional medium in the sense of earning his living through his mediumship+ but he did accept fees from sitters' !e had a regular control named K4innaF+ 8ho 8ould relay messages from other communicatorsI but sometimes the latter 8ould themselves control' .he original communications 8ere obtained in (-5(+ and 8ere investigated shortly after8ards >22?' .he case 8as further studied in (-7(G3 by !araldsson and Stevenson+ 8ho published their report in (-7L >L-b?' $n 3L /anuary (-5(+ !Dalmar GudDonsson+ a visitor from eastern Iceland+ had a sitting 8ith !afsteinn BDornsson in ey9Davi9+ 8hich is in the e;treme south:8est' >It is perhaps 8orth noting that at that time communications bet8een ey9Davi9 and eastern Iceland 8ere poor and mainly by boat'? .he sitting 8as held at the home of Gudrun /onsdottir+ an e;perienced sitter+ 8ho 8as also present+ along 8ith another lady+ !ansina !ansdottir' !Dalmar GudDonsson 8as an;ious to contact various persons he had 9no8n+ but to his annoyance an intruding communicator+ 8ho gave the name Gudni Magnusson+ monopoli@ed the sitting' Gudni+ 8ho 8as not 9no8n to medium or sitters+ stated that he had ties 8ith Es9ifDordur+ in !DalmarFs part of the 8orld+ and addressed himself to !Dalmar for that reason' !e said that he had died follo8ing internal inDuries received 8hile attempting to repair his truc9I and he gave various other details about himself 8hich 8e 8ill come to' Most unfortunately no contemporary notes 8ere made of 8hat 8as said' .8o days later+ !DalmarFs hostess at the sitting+ Gudrun /onsdottir+ told a friend+ Asmundur Gestsson+ about this intrusive communicator' Asmundur had a cousin+ Gudrun Gudmundsdottir+ 8ho 8as the 8ife of a physician practising in Es9ifDordur+ the place 8ith 8hich Gudni Magnusson had claimed to be lin9ed' !e accordingly 8rote to this cousin+ as9ing if she 9ne8 of anyone corresponding to the supposed communicator' !is letter+ dated 3C 4ebruary (-5(+ survivesJit 8as unearthed by Erlundur !araldssonJand is the earliest document 8hich gives details of the communications' It antedates+ and in fact led to+ verification of the communicatorFs statements' Asmundur GestssonFs cousin replied on (5 March (-5( confirming that a Gudni Magnusson ans8ering the description given had lived in Es9ifDordur and had died in circumstances

resembling those given' .his letter+ 8hich is Huite detailed+ 8ill be referred to belo8 as the KGudmundsdottir letterF' At this point Asmundur Gestsson reali@ed that he had an interesting <CL< case on his hands and got !Dalmar GudDonsson and Gudrun /onsdottir to 8rite out independently their recollections of the sitting and sign them' !DalmarFs account is dated 6) March (-5(+ and GudrunFs+ 8hich is fairly full+ C /une (-5(' .he third sitter+ !ansina !ansdottir+ signed GudrunFs statement' .here do not seem to be any serious discrepancies bet8een these statements+ or bet8een them and our earliest document+ Asmundur GestssonFs letter of 3C 4ebruary (-5(' I thin9 that+ despite the absence of contemporary notes+ 8e may safely accept the statements as accurately reflecting 8hat passed at the sitting+ especially since they are confirmed by the Asmundur Gestsson letter 8ritten before the verifications 8ere received' In his investigations of (-7(G3+ Erlundur !araldsson found further sources of verification for some of the statements made' !e intervie8ed !Dalmar GudDonsson+ and Gudni MagnussonFs brother and sister+ $tto Magnusson and osa MagnusdottirI he obtained a copy of GudniFs death certificate >such certificates are not obtainable by the general public in Iceland?I he found an obituary notice of Gudni in the issue of Morgun#ladid for 7 "ovember (-5)I and he intervie8ed the author of this obituary notice' Putting together all the information thus obtained 8e can+ follo8ing !araldsson and Stevenson+ tabulate the communicatorFs statements and the verifications as follo8s: Communicator7s Statement (' !is name 8as Gudni or Gudni Magnusson' 3' !e 8as bet8een 3) and 6) years old 8hen he died' 6' !e 8as of average height' 5' !e had blond hair' L' !is hair 8as thin on top' C' !e had died about four or five months before the seance' 7' !e had been a truc9 driver' 2' !e had a connection 8ith !erad >a district?' -' !is parents 8ere living' ()' !e 8as crossing a mountain pass 8hen his truc9 bro9e do8n' ((' !e 8as alone in his truc9 prior to his death' (3' !e had been repairing his truc9 and had cra8led under it' (6' !e had torn or ruptured something inside himself' (5' !e had not died immediately+ but managed to get home' (L' !e had been brought by boat 0erification from Gudmundsdottir letter GudniFs death certificateI obituary $tto Magnusson $bituary noticeI $tto Magnusson $tto Magnusson %eath certificateI obituary Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson *nverifiedI but there 8ere reasons for thin9ing Gudni might have 9no8n !erad Gudmundsdottir letterI osa Magnusdottir Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson <CC< Gudmundsdottir letter Eerification not satisfactory %eath certificateI Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson' >!e died of peritonitis almost certainly due to the stated cause? Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson

bet8een fDords to medical care' (C' !e had died on the 8ay' (7' !e 8as brought to a doctor (2' !e had Es9ifDordur Kon his mindF' (-' .here 8as a connection also 8ith eydarfDordur' 3)' !e had 9no8n some relatives of !Dalmar GudDonsson'

Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson Gudmundsdottir letter' >!e 8as 8ith t8o doctors 8hen he died+ but 8as on his 8ay to hospital? Gudmundsdottir letterI $tto Magnusson' >!e 8as on his 8ay home to Es9ifDordur? Gudmundsdottir letter' >!e 8as driving from eydarfDordur to Es9ifDordur? Incorrect so far as !Dalmar GudDonsson could ascertain

&e no8 come to the Huestion of 8hether this material could have been 9no8n to the medium or sitters through ordinary channels' In their article on the case !araldsson and Stevenson give much attention to this issue' .hey summari@e their conclusions about it as follo8s >L-b+ pp' 3C)G3C(?: .he communicator came from a part of Iceland 8hich the medium had never even visited' .he sitters+ even including the one person present >!Dalmar GudDonsson? 8ho 8as from eastern Iceland+ had no connection 8hatever 8ith Gudni or his family' .he ne8spaper obituary could not have furnished the medium 8ith all the correctly communicated details+ nor could the 8riter of the obituary+ 8ho then lived in eastern Iceland+ 8hich the medium had never visited' .he communicator had an uncle in ey9Davi9+ but as far as 8e can learn+ he had no connection 8ith the medium' .hus despite e;tensive enHuiries 8e have not been able to find any channel for <C7< normal communication to the medium of the correct information he had about Gudni Magnusson and e;pressed at the seance under consideration' !araldsson and Stevenson are here considering+ and reDecting+ primarily the cryptomnesia hypothesis+ that is+ that !afsteinn BDornsson might have some8here come across the relevant information+ and have retained a latent memory of it 8hich came to the fore only in his trance state' .hey do not ta9e seriously the hypothesis of outright fraud by !afsteinn+ and there do indeed seem to be Huite strong reasons for dismissing it' !afsteinnFs reputation throughout some forty years of mediumship 8as generally goodI he had no 9no8n connection 8ith Es9ifDordur+ yet to have obtained all the information about Gudni he 8ould have needed not Dust an agent in Es9ifDordur >a remote and sparsely populated place?+ but an agent 8ho 9ne8 Gudni personallyI and it 8as certainly not !afsteinn 8ho pushed or promoted the investigation of the Gudni communicatorJit 8as in fact a person >Asmundur Gestsson? 8ho 8as not even present at the sitting' I agree+ therefore+ 8ith the cautious assessment of !araldsson and Stevenson: K&e conclude Q that despite its obvious 8ea9nesses Rthe absence of seance notesS+ the case Dustifies an interpretation that includes some paranormal process'F But 8hat 9ind of paranormal processM &e can rule out clairvoyance at once+ because the only relevant record of events 8hich might be supposed to have been clairvoyantly accessible >the obituary notice? contained by no means all of the items given+ and 8ould in any case have had to be cogni@ed precognitively$ >$ne cannot+ I thin9+ ta9e seriously the idea that by some sort of unconscious clairvoyance !afsteinn monitored the events at the time 8hen they occurred+ and stored up a record of them for future regurgitationI ho8 many other such sets of events must he have been simultaneously monitoringM? .he hypothesis of telepathy from the living is more plausible+ provided+ at least+ that one is prepared to believe >despite lac9 of substantial evidence? that telepathy of such a range and e;tent can occurI there must at the time of the sitting have been several persons alive 8ho possessed all the reHuisite information' .hus the

case of Gudni Magnusson is not one 8hich strains the super:ESP hypothesis in the 8ay that I indicated 8hen constructing my KidealF drop:in case earlier in the chapter' It does not reHuire one to suppose that the medium e;trasensorially located and then collated relevant information from several different sources' Gudni does+ ho8ever+ offer an intelligible motive for communicatingJthe desire to tal9 to someone <C2< from his o8n part of the 8orldJ 8hereas neither medium nor sitters had+ so far as can be ascertained+ any reason at all for pic9ing out that particular deceased person as a target for super:ESP' I shall ne;t give a case from a series 8hich I investigated myself >55c?' .hey occurred in the conte;t of a ouiDa board circle operated by a small group of people in Cambridge during and after the Second &orld &ar' Altogether more than t8o hundred deceased persons >and one living one? communicated through this circle' Most 8ere friends and relations of the sitters' .here 8ere+ ho8ever+ eleven instances of verified Kdrop:inF communicators+ plus a rather larger number of unverified ones' Most of the verified cases 8ere first verified by me+ from thirteen to t8enty:eight years after the original communications' .his constitutes+ I thin9+ a strong argument against the li9elihood of deliberate fraud' "o one+ ho8ever devious+ 8ould be li9ely to cast so much bread upon the 8aters+ 8ithout eventually dropping some hints 8hich might facilitate a return' .he sitters+ it should be noticed+ made no attempts to promote the cases+ or to obtain publicity+ and had themselves not much idea of ho8 one might set about chec9ing them' I shall briefly summari@e one of the more interesting cases' At a number of sittings bet8een (-L) and (-L3 a communicator calling himself K!arry Stoc9bridgeF >not the real name? spelled out the follo8ing items of information about himself: Second #oot attached "orthumberland 4usiliers' %ied 4ourteen /uly si;teen' .yneside Scottish' .all+ dar9+ thin' Special features large bro8n eyes' I hung out in #eicester Q #eicester holdRsS a record' RAs9ed 8hat 8ere his li9es and disli9esS Problems any' Pepys reading' &ater colouring' RAs9ed if he 9ne8 a KPo8is StreetF about 8hich t8o sitters had dreamedS I 9no8 it 8ell' My association too9 my memory there' RAs9ed if his mother 8as 8ith himS Aes' .he sitters made oneJunsuccessfulJattempt to chec9 up on these statements' .he matter then rested until (-CL+ 8hen I began to investigate the Stoc9bridge case' In an !MS$ publication entitled >fficers died in the ?reat .ar of &/&:@&/ I found it stated that a Second #ieutenant !' Stoc9bridge of the "orthumberland 4usiliers 8as 9illed on (- >not (5? /uly (-(C' I then sent for Stoc9bridgeFs death certificate' .his gives his date of death as (5 /uly (-(C >as in the scripts? and not (- <C-< /uly >as in the official list?' .o resolve the issue+ I 8rote to the Army ecords Centre+ and received official confirmation that the death 8as (5 /uly' Stoc9bridgeFs death certificate sho8s that he 8as born in #eicester in (2-C' .his information is also contained in /oseph 0eatingFs Tyneside rish Brigade >#ondon+ (2-C?+ the only

military history I have found 8hich mentions Stoc9bridge >it does not+ ho8ever+ give the date of his death?' .his boo9 states that Stoc9bridge 8as in one of the .yneside Irish battalions of the "orthumberland 4usiliers' !o8ever a record card in the &ar $ffice #ibrary+ 9indly consulted for me by a friend+ states that before his death he had been transferred to a .yneside Scottish battalion' .hat Stoc9bridge 8as tall+ dar9 and thin+ and had large bro8n eyes+ 8as confirmed by his surviving brothers+ and also by a photograph of him preserved in the archives of his old school' &hether he read Pepys or enDoyed 8ater:colouring no:one could say' &e may presume that he enDoyed Kproblems anyF+ since school records sho8 that he 8on form pri@es in mathematics and physics' !e later enrolled for a university science course' !is mother had died before the period of the communications' .he sitters thought that K#eicester hold a recordF meant that Stoc9bridgeFs name might be on a &ar Memorial in #eicester' .hey as9ed a friend 8ho 8as passing through #eicester to investigate+ but she found nothing' !is name is in fact on a &ar Memorial in his old school in #eicester' .here 8as a KPo8is StreetF near the house in 8hich Stoc9bridge 8as born+ although the family left the district 8ithin a fe8 years' So much+ then+ for the verifications of 8hat the Stoc9bridge communicator said about himself' &e have no8 to as9 8hether all these correct statements could have originated from a latent memory in the mind of one of the operators of the ouiDa board' %uring all the relevant sittings the ouiDa board 8as 8or9ed by a married couple+ 8hom I shall call Mr and Mrs #' G' >it 8as Huite clear that Mrs G' 8as the medium?' $ther persons 8ere present+ but did not operate the board' "either Mr nor Mrs #' G' had any contacts in #eicester or had ever visited it+ and I could trace no li9ely line of contact bet8een either of them and any member of the Stoc9bridge family' Mr #' G' served in the 4irst &orld &ar+ but not in Stoc9bridgeFs regiment' 4urthermore he did not Doin up until after Stoc9bridge had been 9illed >I have seen his pay boo9?' Could the relevant information have been hoarded up <7)< subconsciously >KcryptomnesiaF?+ follo8ing a glance at some obituary notice of Stoc9bridgeM I 8as unable to trace a contemporary death notice of Stoc9bridge in any national ne8spaper+ nor did KIn MemoriamF notices appear in later years' .8o #eicester ne8spapers printed an obituary notice of him on (- /uly (-(C' .his obituary notice >8hich it is highly unli9ely that any of the sitters 8ould have seen? gives the correct date of death+ but the 8rong ran9 >#ieutenant instead of Second #ieutenant?+ and ma9es no reference to the K.yneside ScottishF battalion' It give none of the details about Stoc9bridgeFs appearance and interests >there is no photograph?+ and of course says nothing about Po8is Street' 0eatingFs Tyneside rish Brigade contains several of the items of information 8hich the Stoc9bridge communicator produced' It is+ ho8ever+ a very out:of:the:8ay boo9+ and it gives no death date+ ma9es no reference to K.yneside ScottishF+ and contains no photograph or description of Stoc9bridge' Stoc9bridgeFs appearance+ and his .yneside Scottish connections are+ in fact+ not mentioned+ so far as I can discover+ in any publicly available source' It does not seem to me that the hypothesis of cryptomnesia can possibly suffice to e;plain a8ay the correct statements made by the Stoc9bridge communicator'

If+ as I have argued+ 8e can rule out the fraud and the cryptomnesia e;planations in this case+ 8e seem left to 8eigh up the respective merits of some form of survival hypothesis and of some version of the super:ESP hypothesis' .he Stoc9bridge case does appear to stretch the super:ESP hypothesis in some of the 8ays 8hich I indicated earlier in the chapter 8hen discussing an KidealF Kdrop:inF case' Stoc9bridge advances as his reason for coming that he is to help one of the other sitters >another e;:serviceman?' .his may not be an especially po8erful reason+ but it at any rate gives him a stronger reason for communicating than any of the sitters had for singling out facts about him as targets for super:ESP' If 8e suppose that the medium obtained information about him by clairvoyant apprehension of e;isting records+ 8e must face the fact that she must have located+ and synthesi@ed the contents of+ at least four separate sources+ including the archives of his old school and the &ar $ffice #ibrary' Could there at the time of the communications have been a living person or persons 8hose minds+ telepathically tapped by the medium+ might have provided all the reHuisite itemsM It is e;tremely difficult to say' !is parents 8ere by that time dead' It 8as nearly t8enty years later that I made contact 8ith t8o living brothers+ and through them 8ith a third brother and a sister' .hey had only the vaguest recollections of the brother 8ho had died over fifty years before+ and it <7(< 8as Huite apparent that as a result of follo8ing up the seance data I 9ne8 more details about his life than they did' My o8n guess is that the situation 8ould not have been substantially different at the time of the sittings' But in this slippery field a guess is not good enough' It seems therefore that even the very curious Stoc9bridge case does not fully measure up to the ideal Kdrop:inF case for 8hich I suggested criteria earlier in the chapter' !ad it been investigated in (-L3 it might have done so' .here is in the literature+ ho8ever+ at least one carefully investigated case in 8hich a Kdrop:inF communicator made a series of correct statements+ the totality of 8hich could not have been obtained either clairvoyantly from a single document+ obituary+ etc'+ or telepathically+ from the mind of a single living person' I refer to the case of unolfur unollsson >K un9iF?+ for 8hich the medium 8as once again !afsteinn BDornsson' and the investigators 8ere once again !araldsson and Stevenson >L-a?' .he case is a comple; and singular one+ but it is unfortunately too long to be fully presented here' In outline the story is this' %uring the years (-67G2+ !afsteinn 8as acting as medium for 8hat seems to have been a home circle in ey9Davi9' In this period a highly eccentric communicator began to manifest through the entranced medium' !e sho8ed a yearning for snuff+ coffee and alcohol+ refused to give his name+ and 9ept reiterating that he 8as loo9ing for his leg' As9ed 8here his leg 8as+ he replied Kin the seaF' In short he must have appeared at this time to be one of those comic:relief characters 8ho so freHuently brighten up the other8ise sober proceedings at home circles' In /anuary (-6- the circle 8as Doined by #udvi9 Gudmundsson+ the o8ner of a fish factory in the village of Sandgerdi+ about 6C miles from ey9Davi9' .he un9no8n communicator sho8ed great interest in this ne8 sitter+ and eventually stated that his missing leg 8as in the latterFs house at Sandgerdi' After a good deal of further pressure from the sitters+ he made the follo8ing statement >L-a+ p' 6-?: My name is unolfur unolfsson+ and I 8as L3 years old 8hen I died' I lived 8ith my 8ife at 0olga or 0lappa9ot+ near Sandgerdi' I 8as on a Dourney from 0eflavi9 Rabout si; miles from SandgerdiS in the latter part of the day and I 8as drun9' I stopped at the house of SveinbDorn .hordarson in Sandgerdi and accepted some refreshments there' &hen I 8ent to go+ the 8eather 8as so bad that they did not 8ish me to leave unless accompanied by someone else' I became angry and said I 8ould not go at all if I could not go alone' My house 8as only about

(L minutesF 8al9 a8ay' So I left by myself+ but I 8as 8et and tired' I 8al9ed over the 9ambuin RpebblesS and reached the <73< roc9 9no8n as 4lan9astada9lettur 8hich has almost disappeared no8' .here I sat do8n+ too9 my bottle+ and dran9 some more' .hen I fell asleep' .he tide came in and carried me a8ay' .his happened in $ctober+ (27-' I 8as not found until /anuary+ (22)' I 8as carried in by the tide+ but then dogs and ravens came and tore me to pieces' .he remnants Rof my bodyS 8ere found and buried in *ts9alar graveyard Rabout four miles from SandgerdiS' But then the thigh bone 8as missing' It 8as carried out again to sea+ but 8as later 8ashed up again at Sandgerdi' .here it 8as passed around and no8 it is in #udvi9Fs house' $n another occasion the communicator stated that he had been a very tall man' .o cut a long story short+ un9iFs e;traordinary tale 8as subseHuently verified in considerable detail+ although it did not appear that he had in fact stopped at the house of SveinbDorn .hordarson' #udvi9 Gudmundsson 9ne8 nothing about any thigh bone in his house+ but after enHuiries among older local inhabitants+ he found that sometime in the (-3)s such a bone+ believed to have been 8ashed up by the sea+ had been placed in an interior 8all' It 8as recovered+ and turned out to be the femur of a very tall man' "o one 9ne8 8hose bone it 8as+ and there 8as no record 8hich indicated 8hether or not the thigh bone 8as missing from un9iFs remains' $ne 8onders+ indeed+ 8hy+ even if the deceased un9i 8ere the source of the communications+ and even if the thigh bone 8ere actually his+ he should have had any special 9no8ledge of the matter' .he remaining statements 8ere nearly all verifiable from entries distributed bet8een t8o manuscript sources+ the Church boo9s of *ts9alar >in the "ational Archives at ey9Davi9?+ and the ev Sigidur SevertsenFs (nnals of Sudurnes, 8hich at the time of the sitting rested unpublished and little 9no8n in the "ational #ibrary at ey9Davi9' .hat un9i had been tall 8as confirmed by his grandson+ 8ho+ ho8ever+ had not 9no8n him+ and 8as not a8are of the bone and of other relevant facts' !e could therefore not have been+ either through telepathy or through normal channels+ a source for all the information communicated' It is possible that the ev /on .horarensen+ 8ho in (-L6 edited (nnals of Sudurnes for publication+ 8as even in (-6- a8are of the maDor details of the story+ but he did not 9no8 about the bone' "or did he meet !afsteinn before (-5)' !araldsson and Stevenson consider in great detail the possibility that !afsteinn could have obtained by normal means information from these and other less important sourcesJit seems e;tremely unli9ely that he 8ould have heard of the (nnals of Sudurnes9 and sum up the possibilities as follo8s >L-a+ p' L7?: <76< Q for the medium to have acHuired all the correctly communicated information+ it does not seem feasible to attribute all of this information to any single person or any single 8ritten source' And this 8ould be true+ 8e believe+ 8hether the medium acHuired the information normally or by e;trasensory perception' &e thin9+ therefore+ that some process of integration of details derived from different persons or other sources must be supposed in the interpretation of the case' It may be simplest to e;plain this integration as due to un9iFs survival after his physical death 8ith the retention of many memories and their subseHuent communication through the mediumship of !afsteinn' $n the other hand+ sensitives have been 9no8n to achieve remar9able feats of deriving and integrating information 8ithout the participation of any purported discarnate personality'

.he last remar9 brings us to the cru; of the matter' If sensitives operating in a non: mediumistic conte;t can perform feats of location and integration of detailed information from discrete sources 8hich+ duplicated in the mediumistic sphere+ 8ould permit the construction of such communicators as un9i+ !arry Stoc9bridge+ Mr Ait9enFs son+ or #odgeFs *ncle /erry+ then the super:ESP hypothesis+ fantastic though this is+ 8ill be rendered more plausible' .o this issue I shall return in later chapters' &ith regard to the survivalist hypothesis+ the follo8ing observation may be made' If communication bet8een the living and the dead is possible+ and can be carried on through the agency of mediums+ 8e should e;pect to meet 8ith Kdrop:inF communicators+ for there must be many recently deceased persons 8ho earnestly desire to send messages of comfort+ reassurance and advice to their bereaved relations' !ad there been no records at all of verified Kdrop:inF communicators+ the survivalist position 8ould necessarily have been seriously 8ea9ened' As it is+ the onus is still on the survivalist either to e;plain a8ay+ or else to present reasons for denying+ the supposed fact that such cases are relatively rare' I briefly discussed this matter earlier in the chapter' <75<

anifestations of (ur&ose

.he Kevidence for survivalF discussed in the previous three chapters has been for the most part 8hat might be called evidence for the survival of memories' %eceased persons+ ostensibly communicating through mediums+ have produced about their supposed earthly lives facts+ not easily accessible to others+ 8hich they themselves+ if they are indeed the persons they purport to be+ might be e;pected to remember' It is Huite reasonable to concentrate on this sort of evidenceI for+ as I pointed out in Chapter 4ive above+ nothingJnot even fingerprintsJ differentiates one person from another 8ith greater certainty than his o8n individual set of memories' Still+ the mere survival of memories+ ho8ever detailed and characteristic they 8ere+ 8ould not constitute survival of a person' $ne might imagine+ for instance+ that the magical arts of Cagliostro+ 8ho summoned bac9 from beyond the grave so many of the sages of the Enlightenment+ had created a life:li9e simulacrum of %r /ohnson' Suppose that this simulacrum sat in a coffee:house chair+ e;hibited the sort of range of information that /ohnson had possessed+ and readily gave correct ans8ers to Huestions about /ohnsonFs lifeI the 8hole tallying e;actly 8ith data contained in Bos8ellFs "ife, Mrs .hraleFs (necdotes, and as yet unpublished manuscript sources' "one the less this /ohnson:simulacrum did nothing but sit and inflict a ceaseless flo8 of factual reminiscence upon its hearers' It e;hibited none of /ohnsonFs individual and peculiar goals+ purposes+ intellectual s9ills+ and personality characteristicsI none indeed of any#ody7s purposes and personality characteristics+ etc' It did not+ for e;ample+ engage in intellectual argument upon every occasionI strive energetically for victory in debateI sHuash any Scotsman presentI censure la;ity of e;pressionI support .ory and Anglican principlesI or in any 8ay try to do anything e;cept prose endlessly about its o8n past history' *nder these circumstances 8e should have to say of CagliostroFs creation that 8hatever it 8as it 8as not %r /ohnson+ or at least 8as /ohnson suffering from some advanced and highly selective form of mental decay+ 8hich <7L< had destroyed many of those capacities 8hich made him most truly a human being' .o s8itch to a more modern metaphor Ja memory ban9 is not a person' It is correspondingly important in investigating the problem of survival to loo9 not Dust at the evidence for the survival of memory+ but also at such evidence as 8e have for the survival of these other individual characteristics' In this chapter I shall consider some of the evidence that

certain deceased persons have after their deaths continued to attempt to pursue goals and purposes that 8ere characteristic of them in life+ or have begun to pursue goals that might be thought a natural development of these' >Any totally ne8 goals that they might develop 8ould of course help one to regard them as persons+ but 8ould not constitute evidence for survival'? In the ne;t chapter I shall ta9e up some of the evidence for the survival of personality characteristics+ intellectual s9ills+ and so forth' It is to be observed+ ho8ever+ that none of these 9inds of evidence can be sharply separated from one another' .o carry much 8eight as evidence for survival+ a case of ostensible post:mortem manifestation of purpose 8ould of course have to come in the conte;t of related evidence for surviving memory' .hat said+ ho8ever+ it can readily be seen that such a case might put strain upon the super:ESP hypothesis in t8o respects: (' %ifferent people pursue their purposesJeven the same purposeJin very different 8ays' Butcher Cumberland+ for instance+ might have had a very different idea of ho8 to sHuash a Scotsman from that entertained by /ohnson' A medium 8ho 8ished to 8or9 the pursuit of a certain characteristic purpose into her personation of a particular deceased person >I am not tal9ing here of conscious deception?+ 8ould have to select not Dust an appropriate purpose+ but an appropriate 8ay of carrying it out' .his 8ould involve her >assuming+ of course+ for the sa9e of argument that she has no ordinary access to the relevant information? in discovering by ESP a goal or purpose 8hich the deceased person in Huestion might plausibly be regarded as pursuingI and it 8ould further involve her in rummaging around telepathically in the memories of those persons 8ho 9ne8 him 8ell+ or clairvoyantly in the files of ne8spapers 8hich printed obituary notices of him+ in order to infer from the material thus gathered in 8hat 8ay he 8ould most li9ely have attempted to implement his purpose' .he inference 8ould then have to be 8or9ed up into dramatic form for presentation at the sitting' It is+ I thin9 one may unhesitatingly say' a pretty tall order' <7C< 3' .he purpose in Huestion may very possibly be one 8hich the medium herself has no cause to supportI conceivably+ indeed+ it could be one Huite opposed to her o8n conscious desires and interests' In the latter case the problem of motive becomes an urgent one' &hy on earth should the medium >play:acting the role of a certain deceased person? endeavour to promote events 8hich >8hen her normal sell? she does not 8ish to happenM $ne could+ of course+ reply that unconsciously+ or partly consciously and partly unconsciously+ the medium has so great a desire to achieve fame in her chosen profession that no other consideration can stand in its 8ay' .his is one of those convenient proposals 8hich it is in principle not possible to refute+ and 8hich I suggested in Chapter $ne+ 8e should 8henever possible decline to entertain' Cases in 8hich a deceased person has+ through a medium+ apparently manifested a clear:cut and characteristic purpose are some8hat uncommon >see (6(?' .here are a fe8 Huite dramatic ones+ in 8hich+ for instance+ suicide or starvation have ostensibly been averted by discarnate intervention through a mediumI but these tend not to be among the best:evidenced cases' .he follo8ing+ e;ceedingly odd+ case+ 8as reported in detail by a ussian corresponding member of the SP + Ale;ander A9sa9ov+ an Imperial Councillor to the C@ar' In /anuary (22L+ Mrs A' von &iesler >A9sa9ovFs sister:in:la8?+ and her daughter Sophie+ began to e;periment 8ith a planchette board' .he board 8as soon monopoli@ed by an e;ceptionally forceful communicator+ 8ho claimed to be KSchuraF >Ale;andrine? the deceased daughter of some8hat distant acHuaintances' Schura+ 8ho had adopted revolutionary political

vie8s+ had committed suicide at the age of seventeen+ follo8ing the death 8hile escaping from prison of a li9e:minded male cousin' Schura demanded+ in no hesitant tone+ that another cousin+ "i9olaus+ should be brought to a sitting' According to Schura+ "i9olaus 8as in danger of compromising himself politically' Sophie hesitated for reasons of social propriety' SchuraFs demands became more and more vehement at successive sittings+ until on 3C 4ebruary (22L she 8rote+ KIt is too late Q e;pect his arrest'F .he von &ieslers then contacted "i9olausFs parents+ 8ho 8ere+ ho8ever+ Huite satisfied in respect of his conduct' .8o years later "i9olaus 8as arrested and e;iled because of political assemblies 8hich he had attended in /anuary and 4ebruary (22L' K.he <77< notes 8hich Mrs von &iesler had made 8ere read again and again by the families both of TSchuraU and of "i9olaus' TSchuraFsU identity in all these manifestations 8as recogni@ed as incontestably demonstrated+ in the first place by the main fact in relation to "i9olaus+ by other intimate particulars+ and also by the totality of features 8hich characteri@ed her personalityF >(()a+ II+ p' (2(?' .his case e;hibits to some degree both of the characteristics 8hich I noted above as constituting especial difficulties for the super:ESP hypothesis: KSchuraF pursued her characteristic purpose in the direct and forceful 8ay 8hich had clearly been typical of her in lifeI and this purpose 8as Huite definitely not that of the operators of the planchette board+ to 8hom the thought of contacting "i9olausFs family caused considerable embarrassment' Among the purposes freHuently professed and pursued by mediumistic communicators is that of proving their o8n survival and thus bringing consolation to their bereaved relatives' .his purpose is one 8hich a considerable percentage of deceased persons might+ if they indeed survive+ be thought li9ely to entertain' .hat a particular communicator e;hibits it 8ill therefore hardly constitute part of the ostensible evidence for survival' .here have been+ ho8ever+ some people 8ho+ 8hen alive+ e;hibited an intense+ even a passionate+ interest in the problem of survival itself+ and the methods by 8hich it may be investigated' &e might e;pect that if such persons in some form survive the dissolution of their bodies+ they 8ill ma9e some special+ ingenious+ and above all planned+ attempt to prove that fact to those still on earth' And this brings me straighta8ay to a discussion of 8hat is undoubtedly the most e;tensive+ the most comple;+ and the most pu@@ling of all ostensible attempts by deceased persons to manifest purpose+ and in so doing to fulfil their overriding purpose of proving their survival' I refer to the celebrated Kcross:correspondencesF'

#ross'corres&ondences
A Kcross:correspondenceF occurs 8hen 8hat is 8ritten or spo9en by or through one medium or automatist corresponds to an e;tent that cannot be normally e;plained 8ith 8hat is 8ritten or spo9en by or through another+ and independent+ medium or automatist' The cross: correspondences are the e;tensive and comple;ly interlin9ed series of cross:correspondences 8hich appeared bet8een (-)( and (-63 in the automatic 8ritings >and sometimes speech? of a group of automatists <72< associated 8ith the British SP ' .he automatists 8ere all ladies+ and the principal ones 8ere Mrs M' de G' Eerrall+ 8ife of Professor A' &' Eerrall+ a 8ell: 9no8n classical scholar+ and her daughter !elen >later Mrs &' !' Salter+ the only member of the group 8hom I myself met?I Mrs K&illettF >Mrs &inifred Coombe:.ennant+ of 8hom more 8ill be said in the ne;t chapter?I Mrs K!ollandF >Mrs 4leming+ the sister of udyard 0ipling?+ and Mrs Piper+ the only professional medium among them'

.he communicators ostensibly responsible for the cross:correspondences 8ere at first three early leaders of the SP + 4' &' !' Myers >died (-)(?+ !enry Sidg8ic9 >died (-))? and Edmund Gurney >died (222?+ all three of 8hom had of course been deeply concerned 8ith the problem of survival' $ther deceased persons later appeared as members' .he cross: correspondences 8ere not instigated or as9ed for by the communicatorsF still living colleaguesI they simply began to appear in the scripts+ and 8ere+ indeed+ not noticed for some time' .he idea thus came ostensibly from the Kother sideF' .he scripts and utterances 8ere principally studied and collated on Kthis sideF by five leading members of the SP + Miss Alice /ohnson+ /' G' Piddington+ and G' &' Balfour >later the second Earl Balfour?+ and to a lesser but still note8orthy e;tent by Sir $liver #odge and Mrs E' M' Sidg8ic9' .heir tas9 proved an e;traordinarily difficult one' .his 8as partly because of the sheer Huantity of material they had to scrutini@eJthere 8ere several Huite busy automatists over and above the ones I have already named' Partly also it 8as because of the content of the 8ritings' .hose of Mrs Eerrall and her daughter+ both of 8hom 8ere accomplished classical scholars+ contained many Gree9 and #atin phrases+ and other literary allusions' All the 8ritings tended to be fragmentary+ allusive+ and disDointed+ and to operate at a symbolic rather than a straightfor8ard level' .his may have been because automatisms originate from an unconscious or dissociated level of the mind >the Ksubliminal selfF+ Kprimary process thoughtF? 8hich tends to function in symbolic terms' But it 8as also+ as 8e shall see in a moment+ part of the plan of the supposed communicators that messages should be transmitted in an obscure and disguised fashion+ so that their true significance should not be at first appreciated' Both the communicators and those 8ho attempted to decipher the communications 8ere e;ceptionally 8ell:read and literate persons' .he 8hole enterprise reminds me sometimes of that old radio favourite K.ransatlantic Vui@F+ in 8hich devious and obscure Huestions 8ere put <7-< to particularly 8ell:informed people+ 8ho had often to 8or9 their 8ay to8ards the right ans8ers' In the present case+ the gulf bet8een the teams seems vastly harder to overcome than the Atlantic $cean' .he cross:correspondence materials are e;ceedingly voluminous+ and publication of them mar9s out a 9ind of epoch in the history of the SP ' In his valuable short introduction to the subDect+ !' 4' Saltmarsh >(5)? lists fifty:t8o papers about them >many of them boo9 length? from the Proceedings of the SPR$ Even so a substantial Huantity of material remains unpublished' $bviously I shall not+ in the brief space 8hich I have at my disposal+ be able to do anything li9e Dustice either to the strengths or to the 8ea9nesses of the cross: correspondences considered as evidence for survival' Saltmarsh distinguishes bet8een KsimpleF+ Kcomple;F and KidealF cross:correspondences' Simple cross:correspondences Kare those 8here in the scripts of t8o or more RindependentS automatists there occurs the same 8ord or phrase+ or else t8o phrases so similar as to be clearly interconnected'F An obvious e;planation of simple cross:correspondence 8ould be that one automatist gains e;trasensory 9no8ledge of 8hat the other is 8riting+ and 8rites something similar herself' Comple; cross:correspondences Kare cases 8here the topic or topics are not directly mentioned+ but referred to in an indirect and allusive 8ayF' An KidealF comple; cross:correspondence 8ould be one in 8hich t8o independent automatists each 8rote apparently unconnected meaningless messages' K"o8+ if a third automatist 8ere RindependentlyS to produce a script 8hich+ 8hile meaningless ta9en by itself+ acts as a clue to the other t8o+ so that the 8hole set 8ould be brought together into one 8hole+ and then sho8 a single purpose and meaning+ 8e should have good evidence that they all originated from a single source'F If these conditions 8ere fulfilled one might propound the follo8ing argument' Call the first t8o automatists A and B+ and the third one+ 8ho gives the 9ey that unloc9s the

8hole+ C' B 8ill not be able to discover 8hat he should 8rite by paranormally cogni@ing AFs script+ and AFs mindI nor 8ill C be able to discover the K9eyF by paranormally cogni@ing the scripts or minds of A and BI for in this KidealF case >to 8hich perhaps no actual case has done more than appro;imate? there is nothing in AFs script or BFs script+ or in the minds of A or B+ to indicate 8hat must be 8ritten to complete the cross:correspondence' .here is in my vie8 no doubt that the scripts of the SP automatists do contain numerous cross:correspondences+ for the occurrence of <2)< 8hich no ordinary e;planation 8ill suffice' Conspiracy to deceive by the principal automatists seems e;traordinarily unli9ely' .hey 8ere all persons of e;cellent reputation+ and no indications of fraud ever came to lightI besides+ at important periods one >Mrs !olland? 8as in India+ another >Mrs Piper? 8as in the *nited States+ 8hile the rest 8ere in Great Britain' Chance:coincidence is another e;planation 8hich can+ I thin9+ be very Huic9ly ruled out' It is true that the scripts are full of cryptic literary and other allusions+ so full that one might e;pect occasional coincidences of theme and reference' But Piddington+ 8ho counted such references on a large scale+ found that allusions pertinent to a given cross:correspondence did not 8a; and 8ane hapha@ardly+ but arose during the appropriate period+ and then largely died out again >modern techniHues of computer analysis 8ould have immensely helped him in this arduous tas9?' 4urthermore various attempts to generate artificial cross:correspondences by collating pseudo:scripts 8ritten by outsiders 8ere largely unsuccessful >(65bI (C5b?' $ne can readily imagine in the abstract that some of at any rate the simpler cross: correspondences might have arisen because t8o or more of the automatists had simultaneously been e;posed to the same e;ternal source of stimulation+ e'g' the same issue of a daily ne8spaper' .his seems particularly li9ely in the case of Mrs Eerrall and her daughter !elen+ 8ho at this time lived together+ though they produced their scripts independently' If both these ladies had on a given morning noticed a Huotation from AristotleFs Politics in The Times7s leading article+ or had come across a copy of #empriXreFs Classical %ictionary lying open at a certain entry+ their minds+ and subseHuently their automatic 8ritings+ 8ould+ so this theory goes+ have been set racing off along similar trac9s' $ne has+ ho8ever+ only to read a fe8 pages of the cross:correspondence records to see that this sort of e;planation 8ill not get one very far' In any case+ of course+ the really interesting correspondences are not those bet8een the scripts of Mrs Eerrall and her daughter+ but >say? bet8een the scripts of Mrs Eerrall and those of the very distant and very different Mrs !olland or Mrs Piper' .o e;plain such correspondences as these 8e shall be forced to8ards some very odd hypotheses indeed' I shall no8 give a much abridged outline of a not e;cessively comple; Kcomple;F cross: correspondence' It is the case commonly called the K!ope+ Star and Bro8ningF case >(3)b+ pp' L-G77I 7Ld+ pp' 32G5-?' Some idea of Dust ho8 comple; these cases can be 8ill be given < 2(< if I point out that the K!ope+ Star and Bro8ningF case is in effect a cross:correspondence 8ithin a cross:correspondence' It forms part of the case 9no8n as the K#atin MessageF case' .he !ope+ Star and Bro8ning case 8as triggered off on (C /anuary+ (-)7+ 8hen /' G' Piddington suggested to KMyersF+ 8ho 8as communicating through Mrs Piper+ that he should indicate 8hen a cross:correspondence 8as being attempted by+ for instance+ dra8ing on the script a circle 8ith a triangle inside' .his notion 8as apparently ta9en up by the KMyersF 8ho influenced Mrs EerrallFs automatic 8riting' !e 8rote on 36 /anuary (-)7: Kan anagram 8ould be better' .ell him thatJrats+ star+ tars and so on QK >Myers 8as in life greatly addicted to anagrams?'

Mrs EerrallFs Myers toyed further 8ith the anagram idea in her script of 32 /anuary (-)7' !e 8rote KAsterF >Gree9 for KStarF? and K.erasF >Gree9 for K&onderF?' !e then apparently proceeded to free associate on the themes of 8onder and star+ producing a Dumble of Huotations from the poetry of obert Bro8ning+ together 8ith some related Gree9 phrases+ as follo8s: .he 8orldFs 8onder And all a 8onder and a 8ild desireJ .he very 8ings of her A &I"GE% %ESI E hupopteros eros RGree9 for K8inged loveFS .hen there is Bla9e and moc9ed my loss of liberty But it is all the sameJthe 8inged desire eros potheinos RGree9 for KpassionFS .he earth for the s9yJAbt Eogler for earth too hard that found itself or lost itselfJin the s9y' .hat is 8hat I 8ant $n the earth the bro9en sounds threads In the s9y the perfect arc .he C maDor of this life But your recollection is at fault .here follo8ed dra8ings of a triangle inside a circle and of a triangle 8ithin a semi:circle+ a clear response to the proposal Piddington had made to Mrs PiperFs communicator' $n 6 4ebruary (-)7+ a supposed KMyersF influence upon !elen EerrallFs script dre8 a monogram+ a star and a crescent+ and 8rote+ KA monogram+ the crescent moon+ remember that+ and the star'F .his sho8s a 9no8ledge of 8hat Mrs EerrallFs Myers communicator had < 23< 8ritten+ and perhaps+ in the reference to a monogram+ hints at a 9no8ledge of PiddingtonFs original proposal to the Piper:Myers' $n (( 4ebruary (-)7 Mrs PiperFs Myers communicator sho8ed undoubted 9no8ledge of 8hat Mrs EerrallFs Myers had recently 8ritten' !e 8rote: K%id she RMrs EerrallS receive the 8ord evangelical Rlater corrected to Evelyn !ope+ the title of a poem by Bro8ningSM I referred also to Bro8ning again' I referred to !ope and Bro8ning Q I also said star Q loo9 out for !ope+ Star and Bro8ning'F "e;t the Myers influence on !elen EerrallFs script pic9ed up the Bro8ning theme' $n (7 4ebruary (-)7 he dre8 a star+ and then 8rote: K.hat 8as the sign she 8ill understand 8hen she sees it Q "o arts avail Q and a star above it all rats every8here in !amelin to8n Rreference to Bro8ningFs poem on the Pied Piper of !amelinS'F #astly came three scripts from Mrs PiperFs Myers communicator+ the second of 8hich supplied the supposed K9eyF to the 8hole' $n C March (-)7+ the Piper:Myers told Piddington that he had given Mrs Eerrall a circle and a triangle+ but doubted that the latter had appeared' >In fact it had'?

$n (6 March (-)7 the Piper:Myers claimed that he had dra8n a circle and a triangle for Mrs Eerrall+ and then said+ KBut it suggested a poem to my mind+ hence B!SF >i'e' Bro8ning+ !ope+ Star?' Myers here offers an outright e;planation of the obscure references that had appeared in the scripts of the other t8o automatists' !e says+ in effect+ that PiddingtonFs original proposal about dra8ing a triangle 8ithin a circle suggested certain anagrams >rats+ star+ etc'? to his mind+ and these in turn suggested certain passages of Bro8ning' !e developed all these themes >triangle+ circle+ rats+ star' Bro8ning+ etc'? in the scripts of the other t8o automatists+ and then returned to Mrs Piper to give an e;planation of 8hat he had done' $n 2 April (-)7 the Piper:Myers said he had dra8n a circle+ and added that he had dra8n a star and also a crescent moon' It is at first sight tempting to conclude that the cross:correspondences bet8een these three sets of 8ritings 8ere brought about by a purposive intelligence e;ternal to the conscious minds of the automatists concerned' &hether this intelligence belonged to the deceased 4' &' !' Myers is an issue that one could properly assess only in the light of the numerous other communications allegedly received from him at that time through these and other automatists' It is+ ho8ever+ not difficult to thin9 up possible alternative e;planations' <26< $ne might suppose+ for instance+ that the various automatists 8ere by no8 a8are of each otherFs identities+ and of the principle underlying the attempts at cross:correspondence' $ne might suppose further that Mrs Eerrall+ the central figure in the !ope+ Star and Bro8ning case+ maintained an unconscious+ e;trasensory scrutiny of the scripts and related mental processes of the other automatists' By this means she learned of PiddingtonFs suggestion to the Piper: Myers that he should indicate a cross:correspondence by dra8ing a triangle 8ithin a circle' She too9 up the idea in her o8n scripts+ introduced the alternative proposal of anagrams >being an old friend of MyersFs+ she 9ne8 his fondness for anagrams?+ and in her subseHuent scripts unconsciously gave free rein to her o8n associations relating to rats+ stars+ etc' .he result 8as a series of Bro8ning Huotations interspersed 8ith Gree9 phrases' .he other automatists e;ercised their ESP upon Mrs EerrallFs scripts+ Ksa8F the dra8ings and references to KstarF+ pic9ed up the not very obscure Bro8ning Huotations+ and began to elaborate these themes in their o8n 8ritings' After the ball had been thro8n to and fro for a fe8 8ee9s+ Mrs Piper brought the game to an artistic conclusion by ma9ing her Myers communicator state that the Bro8ning Huotations and other material represented his o8n associations to PiddingtonFs original proposal' Mrs Piper 8as+ ho8ever+ a lady of some8hat limited education+ and perhaps did not possess the reHuisite literary 9no8ledge' $ne might therefore instead propose that Mrs Eerrall >or rather her unconscious mind or subliminal self? played a more active role+ and someho8 inDected her o8n associations and Myers:fantasies into the depths of the other automatistsF minds' .hence they found their 8ay out in the scripts' .his is very much the position ta9en by 4ran9 Podmore in his able early critiHue of the cross: correspondences >(33e+ pp' 33LG37C?' Podmore could Ksee no evidence 8hatever to Dustify the assumption+ even provisionally+ of a directing intelligence other than those of the automatists concerned'F !e has t8o sorts of reasons for saying this' .he first >8hich some people 8ould probably dispute? is that although Myers 8as the purported instigator of these cross: correspondences+ the Piper:Myers+ 8ho played a leading role in several of the cases+ 8as never able uneHuivocally to state the principle of the cross:correspondences'

PodmoreFs second line of argument is as follo8s' .here is at least one case+ the KSevensF case >7Lb+ pp' 333G3L2?+ in 8hich it seems li9ely <25< that Mrs Eerrall >or rather some part of Mrs EerrallFs mind? 8as KbehindF a comple; and absolutely characteristic cross:correspondence' Bet8een April and /uly (-)2 the scripts of several automatists+ including Mrs Eerrall+ contained numerous allusions to the number seven' Certain of these allusions 8ere+ additionally+ clear references to passages from %ante' It turned out that Piddington >8ho+ as 8e have seen+ 8as much involved in the study of the cross:correspondences? had deposited 8ith the SP a sealed pac9age+ the contents of 8hich he hoped to communicate after his death' .he pac9age contained a statement referring to his life:long obsession 8ith the number seven' .he statement did not mention %ante' Mrs Eerrall+ ho8ever+ had lately been reading %ante' Podmore puts his case as follo8s: KMr Piddington had for years been repeating Seven for all the 8orldJthat is+ all the 8orld 8ithin the range of his telepathic influenceJto hear' !is is a voice crying in the 8ilderness+ ho8ever+ until it happens that Mrs Eerrall reads the T%ivine ComedyU+ and the idea of Seven, already latent in her mind+ is reinforced by a series of %ante images' Mrs Eerrall then Q s8ells the stream of telepathic influence+ and the effects+ in the five remaining automatists+ rise to the surface of the dream consciousness'F .here are further considerations 8hich might be thought to point to Mrs Eerrall as the probable source of these cross:correspondences' !ints and foreshado8ings of the cross: correspondences appeared first of all in her scriptsI many of the individual cases began thereI she possessed much of the necessary classical and literary 9no8ledge' "o other member of the group of automatists 8ould have filled the bill' "one the less PodmoreFs theory+ according to 8hich Mrs EerrallFs unconscious mind 8as+ un9no8n to her conscious mind+ a telepathic broadcasting station of formidable po8er+ sending out+ furthermore+ signals of 8hose import she 8as freHuently una8are+ faces 8hat appear to be intolerable difficulties' An initial and obvious difficulty is that+ as I have already pointed out+ 8e have not much clear evidence for the sort of active telepathic KsendingF or intrusion into other peoplesF minds 8hich Podmore postulates' .his is an important issue 8hich I shall mention again 8hen tal9ing about communications from the living' Podmore see9s to bolster the notion by invo9ing the KSevensF case >see above?+ but his account of this case is some8hat over: simplified' !e fails to point out that the Eerrall:Myers claimed to have readF PiddingtonFs message at the time 8hen it 8as 8ritten+ and to have spread its theme around the <2L< various automatists' Piddington himself asserted that he 8as Huite unsuccessful as a sender of telepathic messagesI certainly he did not succeed in sending one 8hen he served as an agent for some e;periments in the generation of pseudo:correspondences >(6-b?' A second difficulty for PodmoreFs proposal is this' Mrs Eerrall 8as centrally involved in several cross:correspondences in 8hich the ostensible communicator conveyed literary information apparently possessed neither by Mrs Eerrall nor by any other automatist involved' An e;ample 8hich merits a brief discussion is the autos ouranos a-umon incident >(3)b+ pp' ()7G(73?' At a sitting 8ith Mrs Piper on 3- /anuary (-)7+ Mrs Eerrall+ 8ho had given much previous thought to this test+ spelled out to the Piper:Myers >in PiddingtonFs presence? the Gree9 8ords autos ouranos a-umon and suggested to him that he might either translate them+ or tell her of 8hat they made him thin9' >Myers+ of course+ 8as a considerable classical scholar+ 8hilst Mrs Piper 9ne8 no Gree9'? .hese 8ords may be translated as Kthe very heaven 8avelessF' .hey come from a passage by the neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus+ and form part of a description of the conditions necessary for the attainment of ecstasy or connection 8ith the divine' .his passage states that the soul must be Kfree from deception and every 9ind of beguilement+ and be in a state of peace+ also that the earth must be calm+ the sea

calm+ and the air+ and the very heaven 8aveless'F It should be noted that Myers had used the 8ords autos ouranos a-umon >untranslated? as a motto for his poem on .ennyson+ and that he gives them in translation >8ithout the original Gree9? in his Human Personality >(()a+ II+ p' 3-(?' %uring the ne;t si; 8ee9s Mrs EerrallFs o8n automatic scripts 8ere filled 8ith references to .ennyson+ and especially to passages 8hich concern calm seas+ calm air+ and serene and calm spaces' .he poem 8hich cropped up most freHuently 8as n Memoriam+ and there 8ere also some insistent allusions to Crossing the Bar$ .he constant references to n Memoriam led Mrs Eerrall to suspect a special lin9 bet8een that poem and the 3nneads of Plotinus >the general similarities of thought had of course been commented on before?' After some investigations Mrs Eerrall unearthed certain parallel phrases on 8hich she 8rote a paper in the Modern "anguage Revie) for /uly+ (-)7 >(CL?' It seems Huite li9ely that 4' &' !' Myers >the communicator? had 9no8n of these parallels' !e 8as himself 8ell read in PlotinusI in his essay on K.ennyson as ProphetF he mentions the influence of Plotinus <2C< on .ennysonI and he tells us else8here that he learned this in conversation 8ith .ennyson+ 8hom he 9ne8 8ell' "o8 8e come to Mrs PiperFs side of the cross:correspondence' $n C March+ (-)7+ the Piper: Myers 8rote: KA cloudless s9y beyond the hori@onF' In the 8a9ing stage of her trance Mrs Piper said Kmoaning at the bar 8hen I put out to seaF >a Huotation from Crossing the Bar? $ She also mentioned Arthur !allam >8hose early death inspired .ennyson to 8rite n Memoriam? $ $n 3- April (-)7+ Mrs Eerrall had a sitting 8ith Mrs Piper' .he 8ords KA@ure a blue seaF 8ere spelled out' Mrs Eerrall too9 them to relate to the idea of halcyon days >i'e' days 8hen the sea is especially calm?+ 8hich had been alluded to in her o8n scripts' At the end of the sitting came some incoherent references to S8edenborg+ St Paul and %ante' .he ne;t day+ the Piper:Myers claimed to have ans8ered the Huestion about autos ouranos a-umon+ adding that it reminded him of Socrates and of !omerFs liad$ "either of these references nor the preceding ones made sense at the time' $n ( May (-)7+ Mrs EerrallFs scripts contained the 8ords KEagle soaring over the tomb of PlatoF+ a 8ell:9no8n description of Plotinus 8hich is Huoted in MyersFs Human Personality >(()a+ II+ p' 3C(?' .his led her to delve further into MyersFs boo9' She found that the Epilogue to this boo9+ in 8hich occurs a passage concerning the Kvision of PlotinusF+ is prefi;ed by a Gree9 Huotation from PlatoFs Crito mentioning Socrates and Huoting a line from the liad$ It thus appears that in life Myers could 8ell have associated Plotinus 8ith Socrates and the liad$ $n page 3C( of Eolume II is a list of persons 8ho+ li9e Plotinus+ under8ent moments of mystical ecstasy or union 8ith the divine' .his list includes Plotinus+ .ennyson+ S8edenborg+ %ante and St Paul' .he Piper:MyersFs references on 3- April (-)7 can thus be seen to have reflected MyersFs o8n associations' 4inally+ on C May (-)7+ 8hen Mrs Sidg8ic9 8as sitting 8ith Mrs Piper+ the Piper:Myers 8rote+ K&ill you say to Mrs EerrallJPlotinusF' Mrs Sidg8ic9 said+ K&hat is thatMF .he Piper: Myers replied+ K My ans)er to autos ouranos o-umen RsicS'F

It 8as Huite clear that /' G' Piddington+ the principal sitter 8ith Mrs Piper did not 9no8 enough of Mrs EerrallFs scripts+ and of Plotinus and his relation to .ennyson+ to have been the source of Mrs PiperFs KhitsF' "or 8as Mrs Piper sufficiently 8ell educated to have caught the drift of the allusions in Mrs EerrallFs scripts even had she been able to read <27< these scripts in detail by means of ESP' .he important Huestion is+ did Mrs Eerrall herself possess the reHuisite 9no8ledge to have engineered the 8hole thing+ al8ays supposing that 8e grant to her unconscious mind the some8hat sinister ability to direct the course of Mrs PiperFs automatismsM I thin9 8e may safely assume that she 8as not consciously a8are of the detailed lin9s bet8een Plotinus and n Memoriam until the script intelligence >purportedly Myers? led her to them' But could she have 9no8n of them unconsciouslyM It is hard to 9no8 8hat to ma9e of this proposal' &hat is being suggested is not cryptomnesia >the re:emergence of a latent memory?+ a possibility for 8hich 8e have some evidence' Mrs EerrallFs article on the Plotinus: n Memoriam lin9s 8as considered sufficiently original for publication+ and so presumably could not have been based on a latent memory of a previous similar article' Presumably also Mrs Eerrall could not have noticed the lin9s herself before+ and subseHuently forgotten about themI for she 8ould surely have 8ritten her article 8hen she first thought of them' .he proposal must therefore be that having separately read .ennysonFs n Memoriam and PlotinusFs 3nneads+ and retained fairly detailed+ but perhaps largely latent+ memories of both+ she unconsciously grasped the connection bet8een them' .his unconscious insight then began to 8or9 its 8ay into the light through her o8n automatic 8riting+ and also through that of Mrs Piper+ over 8hich she e;ercised a continual but unconscious influence' Mrs Eerrall claimed+ too+ that she did not discover the relevance of the Socrates+ !omer+ %ante+ S8edenborg+ and St Paul allusions given by the Piper:Myers until her o8n Myers: communicator provided the clue KEagle soaring over the tomb of PlatoF+ 8hich made her turn again to MyersFs Human Personality$ "o8 8e can hardly deny here that Mrs Eerrall+ 8ho had certainly read this boo9+ might have retained a latent memory of the relevant allusions' .he problem+ ho8ever+ is that the allusions 8ere given not through her o8n automatic 8riting+ but by the Piper:Myers' $n the theory 8e are considering Mrs EerrallFs unconscious mind must have reasoned as follo8s: KI remember no8 that MyersFs boo9 contains a series of names close to that phrase about Plotinus' If I produce these names as if from Myers+ it 8ill loo9 as though these are MyersFs associations+ not mine+ 8hich 8ill be very stri9ing' But hang onJI see a snagP I 9ne8 Myers Huite 8ell+ and everyone is a8are that I have read his boo9' .herefore if I produce these names myself it 8ill not ma9e much impression' Suppose+ ho8ever+ I 8ere to infiltrate them into Mrs PiperFs scripts' .hen it 8ill <22< loo9 as though they really are MyersFs associations' GoodP I 8ill do itP I simply do not 9no8 8hat to say about these tortuous and Huite unverifiable hypotheses+ 8hich seem+ it should be noted+ to follo8 inevitably from PodmoreFs proposal that Mrs Eerrall brought about the cross:correspondences through her unconscious ability to direct and infiltrate the 8ritings of the other automatists under a false name' I 9no8 of no independent evidence to suggest that such happenings are possible+ and it is hard to see 8hat evidence there could be+ since the postulated events go on unconsciously and unobserved by anyone' .he only reason for adopting PodmoreFs hypothesis seems to be the antecedent implausibility of its main alternative+ the survival theory+ 8hich+ implausibility apart+ can on the face of it give a much simpler account of the case 8e have Dust been considering' But the implausibility of one theory is never by itself a satisfactory reason for adopting some other theoryI the other theory may be Huite as implausible'

.here are still further reasons for abandoning PodmoreFs proposal' By no means all of the cross:correspondences began in Mrs EerrallFs scriptsI in some she 8as not involved at allI one particularly famous e;ampleJthe KPalm SundayF case >C?Jbegan in her scripts+ but continued for many years after her death in the scripts of other automatistsI some cases 8ere 8holly initiated after her death' It is indeed sometimes stated that the cross:correspondences at any rate declined after Mrs EerrallFs death' I thin9 it is more nearly true to say that the scripts had begun to change character before her death+ 8ith cross:correspondences playing a less prominent part' It seems clear that the cross:correspondences canot be 8holly or even largely laid at Mrs EerrallFs door' At early as (-((+ Alice /ohnson 8as able to 8rite >7Lc+ p' 3-(?: Q 8e have no8 reached a point 8here+ on the supposition that the 8hole of the cross: correspondences are 8or9ed e;clusively by the automatists+ 8e should have to assume that several of them+ besides Mrs Eerrall+ are capable of the tas9' $r else 8e should have to assume a sort of telepathic committee meeting of the subliminal selves of the automatists+ at 8hich they scheme together and settle on their different parts' .he idea of a telepathic committee meeting of subliminal selves is one that 8e shall meet again in Chapter 4ifteen' It is essentially 8hat has been proposed to account for the fact that the different aspects of a collectively perceived apparition seen by the various percipients seem to be in correct perspective' <2-< &e have no independent evidence that telepathy of such detail and comple;ity ever ta9es place' $ne might add+ too+ that 8e have no evidence for unconsciously hatched+ telepathically co:ordinated+ plots or conspiracies' It is+ indeed+ hard to see 8hat such evidence might consist in' Alice /ohnson herself did not believe in the telepathic committee meetings of subliminal selves' #i9e the other principal investigators of the cross:correspondences she ultimately came to believe that Myers and the other deceased SP leaders 8ere behind them' I too find it hard to believe in telepathic committee meetings+ nor can I deny that an intelligence+ or rather intelligences+ seem to have inspired the cross:correspondences' But 8as the intelligence of 4' &' !' Myers among themM .his is an altogether larger Huestion' .o ans8er it one 8ould need to ta9e into account the style and intellectual and personal characteristics of the Myers:scripts+ and any correct information given about Myers 8hich could not have been 9no8n to the automatist in Huestion' .here 8as very little of the latter sort of evidence >several of the more important automatists 9ne8 the living Myers 8ell?+ but the investigators seem in the end to have found the former satisfactory' .hus /' G' Piddington 8rote >(3)b+ pp' 353G356?: $n the problem of the real identity of this directing mindJ8hether it 8as a spirit or group of co:operating spirits+ or the subconsciousness of one of the automatists+ or the consciousness or unconsciousness of some other living personJthe only opinion 8hich I hold 8ith confidence is this: that if it 8as not the mind of 4rederic Myers it 8as one 8hich deliberately and artistically imitated his mental characteristics' I can at this point offer no useful comment on PiddingtonFs vie8sI but in the ne;t chapter I shall ta9e up the Huestion of ho8 far manifestations of ostensibly surviving personal characteristics and ostensibly surviving intellectual s9ills may constitute evidence for survival'

<-)<

anifestations of .ther (ersonal #haracteristics

It is not uncommon for persons 8ho have had successful sittings 8ith mental mediums to say after8ards something li9e this: K!ere is a transcript of the tape recording >or stenographerFs notes?+ 8ith my comments' .here 8ere a good many e;cellent KhitsF' But simply reading the record can give you no idea of Dust ho8 convincing the communicator really 8as' So much of the impression he made 8as due not to 8hat he said+ but to the 8ay he said it+ to his turn of phrase+ tone of voice+ characteristic humour+ to his mannerisms and gestures' .hey 8ere so completely rightPF #est I be thought to e;aggerate+ I shall Huote the comments of a very e;perienced sitter+ *na #ady .roubridge >(C(+ pp' 6C3G6C6?+ on communicators 8ho KcontrolledF Mrs #eonard >i'e' displaced 4eda as the personality spea9ing through Mrs #eonardFs vocal apparatus?: Q on the other hand+ a totally different faculty is demonstrated Rin personal controlS+ sometimes to a startling degree+ that of the reproduction 8ith varying success of intonations+ vocal mannerisms and general characteristics pertaining to deceased persons 8hom the medium had never 9no8n' It is difficult to convey an accurate impression of these personal controls to anyone 8ho has never 8itnessed the production+ through the agency of a really fine medium+ of phenomena of this description' Any assertion regarding these impersonations is naturally open to the suspicion that the imagination and e;pectation of a 8itness may play a very considerable part in the impression received Q nevertheless+ in my o8n e;perience these obDections have been countered to a great e;tent by the fact that the purported personal control 8ith 8hich I am most familiar Q has in the maDority of cases been 8itnessed both by myself and by Miss adclyffe:!all' In the published Piper and #eonard records >I single out these mediums because of their SP affiliations? one finds various controls 8ho achieved remar9able verisimilitude in mannerisms+ turns of speech+ etc' $ne might instance+ in the case of Mrs Piper+ GP and <-(< Bennie /unot+ and+ in that of Mrs #eonard+ KAEBF >a deceased lady to 8hom #ady .roubridge is especially referring in the passage Dust Huoted?+ /ohn and Etta .homas and Ernest &hite >on 8hom see (C7b?' In none of these instances had the mediums any such 9no8ledge of the communicators in life as 8ould account for the accuracy of the dramati@ations' But as #ady .roubridge indicates it is e;ceedingly difficult to pin do8n these Kcharacteristic touchesF in terms that 8ould carry conviction to outsiders' I shall confine myself for the moment to ma9ing one preliminary and obvious point about such cases+ namely that in addition to crediting the medium concerned 8ith 8hatever po8ers of ESP she may have reHuired to collect factual information about the characteristic mannerisms+ turns of phrase+ tone of voice+ etc'+ of the deceased person concerned+ 8e have no8 to credit her 8ith the ability to incorporate this assembly of facts into a convincing dramatic representation of the so:called communicator' And this is to credit her 8ith a further 9ind of unusual gift' Some8hat more amenable to independent assessment are claims that a given communicator can still e;hibit a particular and some8hat distinctive competence or s9ill 8hich he possessed in life' Suppose+ for e;ample+ that a certain deceased person >call him Professor Sharp? 8as in

his life particularly adept at the game of bridge' !e no8 purports to control a medium 8ho 9no8s nothing at all about the game' .he medium proceeds to play several hands of bridge competently+ even 8ell' .his must surely count as evidence of SharpFs survival' 4or not everyone can play bridge+ and only a fe8 can play it really 8ell' .he fact that the mediumFs KSharpF control can play it 8ell+ 8hilst she cannot play it at all+ 8ould seem on the face of it >a? to sho8 that the KSharpF influence cannot be the normal personality of the medium+ and >b? to narro8 do8n the influences it could be to a range including the deceased Sharp' $ther facets of the Sharp control might serve to narro8 this range do8n still further+ perhaps even Dust to Sharp himself' If+ on the other hand+ the KSharpF influence had been Huite ignorant of bridge+ or a hopeless duffer at it+ this 8ould have given us strong grounds for thin9ing that the KcontrolF could not possibly have been the late Professor Sharp' #et us assume ne;t that evidence that the medium 9no8s nothing of bridge is absolutely cast: iron' .hen 8e can as9+ 8hat e;planation is <-3< possible of her sudden access of s9ill at bridge other than the proposal that she is controlled or overshado8ed by the deceased Sharp or one of his deceased fello8 playersM &e could suggest instead that the medium learns the rules of bridge clairvoyantly by cogni@ing the printed rule:boo9+ or telepathically by reading the minds of those 8ho regularly play bridge' She might even loo9 clairvoyantly at a te;t:boo9 on the subDect+ or telepathically glean a handy list of dos and donFts from the mind of an accomplished player' But 8ould all this e;trasensory study enable her to play a competent hand as soon as she 8as KcontrolledF by the soi:disant Professor SharpM Surely notI for there is much more to learning to play bridge competently than merely getting the rules off by heart and mugging up a list of hints for the helpless' .he fundamental reHuisite is hours and hours of intelligent and attentive practice against good opponents' And nobody is going to suggest that that can be obtained by ESP' It seems to me+ therefore+ that even if 8e allo8 that the rules of bridge might be adeHuately learned by ESP >and I do not 9no8 a particle of evidence that ESP of such a degree ever occurs?+ the super:ESP theory 8ould still fall far short of giving any plausible account of the Sharp:controlFs ability to ta9e a hand at bridge' .he e;ample is of course an hypothetical one+ but the point has 8ider applicability' It does not seem li9ely that s9ills and competences+ intellectual+ and for that matter physical+ could be acHuired by ESP' If a mediumistic communicator unmista9ably e;hibits an unusual s9ill or competence 8hich he possessed in life+ and 8hich the medium is 9no8n not to possess+ this fact may in some circumstances be very difficult for the super:ESP theory to digest' It is time to inHuire 8hether any actual case 8ill carry us as far as our hypothetical e;ample' I shall not attempt to deal 8ith cases of the apparent post:mortem manifestation of such s9ills as piano:playing or painting+ because it is in most cases so difficult to decide 8hether or not the medium could have herself reached the level of competence displayed' In a fe8 cases >see+ e'g'+ 5(+ pp' 56(G562I (()a+ II+ pp' 36(G365I (3)a+ pp' 36LG356?+ the hand:8riting of a particular deceased person has been closely imitated: the problem+ ho8ever+ is in most cases to ascertain 8ith certainty 8hether the medium could not at some time or another have seen the hand8riting of the individual concerned' <-6<

Literar" (u77les
I shall begin+ therefore+ by considering certain cases 8hich do not+ perhaps+ e;actly Hualify as e;amples of the apparent post:mortem e;ercise of an intellectual s9ill+ but 8hich 8ithout doubt constitute e;amples of the ostensible post:mortem display of a high level of a rather unusual intellectual attainment >an attainment 8hich had been characteristic of the alleged communicator in life?' I refer to the casesJclosely interlin9ed 8ith the cross:correspondences Jgenerally 9no8n as the Kliterary pu@@lesF' In these cases attempts 8ere ostensibly made by communicators 8ho 8ere in life particularly 8ell:read in classical literature to manifest their 9no8ledge through mediums largely ignorant of classical languages and literature' I shall briefly outline t8o such casesJthe K#etheF case and the KEar of %ionysiusF caseJand shall consider ho8 far each of them may be brought into line 8ith the super:ESP hypothesis' In the K#etheF case >(3)c+ pp' 2CG(55?+ the principal medium 8as Mrs Piper and the sitter 8as Mr G' B' %orr+ a Eice:President of the ASP ' %orr 8as in touch through Mrs Piper 8ith a communicator 8ho claimed to be 4' &' !' Myers' Myers had in life been a profound classical scholar' %orr had dropped #atin and Gree9 at eighteen+ had scarcely loo9ed at any since+ 8hile Ktranslations from the classics I have hardly read at all'F Mrs Piper 9ne8 virtually nothing of classical literature' In order to test the memory of the Myers communicator+ %orr began to obtain and put to him various Huestions on classical subDects' $n 36 March (-)2 he posed the Huestion: K&hat does the 8ord #E.!E suggest to youMF !e clearly e;pected a reply ma9ing reference to forgetfulness and the 8aters of oblivion' Instead he got the follo8ing: MAE S Ri'e' Mrs PiperFs communicatorS: %o you refer to one of my poems+ #etheM R.his is not an inappropriate ans8er+ since #ethe is referred to in one of MyersFs verse translations of Eirgil'S .he Myers communicator+ egged on by Huestions and remar9s from %orr+ then 8rote some disDointed 8ords+ including K&indsF+ KGreeceF+ and K$lympusF+ and 8ent on: Q It is all clear' %o you remember CaveM GB%: I thin9 you are confused about this' It 8as a 8ater+ not a 8ind+ and it 8as in !ades+ 8here the Sty; 8as and the Elysian fields' %o you recall it no8M <-5< MAE S: #ethe' ShoreJof course I do' #ethe !ades beautiful riverJ#ethe' *nderground' Shortly after8ards %orr closed the sitting' As Mrs Piper came out of trance >the K8a9ing: stageF? she spo9e the follo8ing 8ords: Pavia Rlater conDecturally emended by Piddington to papavera+ the #atin for KpoppiesFS' Q #etheJdelightedJsadJlovelyJmateJ Put them all together Q

Ent8ined loveJbeautiful shores Q &armJsunlitJlove' #ime leafJheartJs8ordJarro8 I shot an arro8 through the air And it fell I 9no8 not 8here Mrs Piper then described a vision of someone 8ith a bo8 and arro8' $n 35 March (-)2+ the Myers communicator 8rote as follo8s >the deceased ichard !odgson is+ apparently+ acting as intermediary+ and sometimes refers to Myers as KheF and KhimF?: I 8rote in reply to your last inHuiry CaveJ#ethe GB%: I as9ed him Ri$e$ MyersS 8hether the 8ord #ethe recalled anything to him' MAE S: !e replied CaveJBan9sJShore Q !e dre8 the formJa picture of Iris 8ith an arro8' GB%: But he spo9e of 8ords' MAE S: Aes+ cloudsJarro8JIrisJCaveJMor M$ #atin for sleep Morpheus9Cave$ Stic9s in my mind canFt you help meM GB%: Good' I understand 8hat you are after no8' But canFt you ma9e it clearer 8hat there 8as peculiar about the 8aters of #etheM MAE S: Aes+ I suppose you thin9 I am affected in the same 8ay #ut am not$ After this some of the above 8ords 8ere repeated in conversation 8ith %orr+ and the 8ords KCloudsF and K4lo8er Ban9sF 8ere introduced' As the medium came out of trance she again murmured the 8ord KpaviaF >papaveraM?+ and 8ent on: Mr Myers is 8riting on the 8all Q C Ra pauseS A,' I 8al9ed in the garden of the godsJ entranced I stood along its ban9sJli9e one entranced I sa8 her at last Q Elysian shores' $n 6) March (-)2+ after an erroneous translation of CA, as KchariotF+ <-L< the Piper:Myers spelled out CA",' .hen+ after some confused passages+ he continued: &e 8al9 together+ our loves ent8ined+ along the shores' In beauty beyond comparison 8ith #ethe' Sorry it is all so fragmentary but suppose it cannot all get through' $n 7 April (-)2 the letters SCA, and CSA, 8ere 8ritten+ and in the 8a9ing stage Mrs Piper gave+ KMr Myers says+ T"o poppies ever gre8 on Elysian shoresU'F >.his seems to be an obliHue 8ay of denying that there is forgetfulness in the after:life'?

.he records of these sittings+ 8hich I have considerably abridged+ 8ere carefully e;amined first by Mrs Eerrall+ and then by G' &' Balfour+ both of 8hom 8ere accomplished classical scholars' .o neither did they ma9e sense' .hey 8ere then sent to /' G' Piddington+ 8ho eventually located a passage >previously un9no8n to him? in the eleventh boo9 of $vidFs Metamorphoses 8hich seems to provide the 9ey to MyersFs K#etheF associations' It tells the story of Cey; and Alcyone+ of 8hich I give the follo8ing summary+ adapted from Podmore >(33e?' .he correspondence 8ith the scripts are indicated by capital letters: CEA,+ 0ing of .rachin+ 8as dro8ned at sea+ and /uno sent I IS+ goddess of the rainbo8+ to Somnus >S#EEP?+ to bid him carry the ne8s in a dream to Alcyone+ Cey;Fs be#$EE% Vueen+ daughter of Aeolus+ ruler of the &I"%S' Iris points her B$& upon the s9y+ and glides do8n to the CAEE of Sleep+ 8hich 8as surrounded and hidden by dar9 C#$*%S' 4rom the foot of the roc9 flo8s the river of #E.!E+ and on its BA"0S are P$PPIES and innumerable 4#$&E S+ from 8hose Duice "ight distils Sleep' Somnus sends his son M$ P!E*S to impersonate in a dream the dead Cey;' Going do8n to the S!$ E+ Alcyone finds Cey;Fs body+ and in despair thro8s herself into the sea' .he gods ta9e pity on her SA%ness+ and transform her into a halcyon' #ater her #$EE% Cey; is restored to her as her MA.E in the form of a 9ingfisher' !er nest floats on the seaI and every 8inter her father Aeolus confines the &I"%S for seven days to secure a calm surface for her brood' .he correspondences+ I thin9 it is fair to say+ are absolutely unmista9able' "o8 Myers had certainly read $vid in detail >(()b+ p' ()?+ 8hereas none of the SP investigators had studied the Metamorphoses, nor+ of course+ had Mrs Piper' >I should add+ perhaps+ that reading $vid in the original is not so light an underta9ing that one is li9ely to forget itP? $n the face of it+ therefore+ the Myers:communicatorFs associations to K#etheF accord 8ith the supposition <-C< that they came from MyersFs o8n mindI they do not fit the hypothesis of telepathy from any of his living colleagues' But of course the story of Cey; and Alcyone has often been told in the English language' Perhaps Mrs Piper+ or else G' B' %orr+ had read an English version of it' %espite considerable search+ Piddington could only locate t8o popular 8or9s 8hich gave the story in the reHuisite detail+ vi@' BulfinchFs (ge of Fa#le, and GayleyFs The Classic Myths in 3nglish "iterature, 8hich is based on Bulfinch' Mrs Piper+ of 8hose honesty there 8as never any serious Huestion+ said that she had never read any such boo9s+ and this 8as borne out by close Huestioning of herself and her daughters+ and by e;amination of her boo9shelves' %orr had as a boy read at least some parts of Bulfinch' "o recollection of the story+ ho8ever+ stirred in his mind 8hen he sa8 the scripts or read PiddingtonFs interpretation of them' !is o8n association to K#etheF 8as the obvious one+ 8aters of forgetfulness' .here seem in fact to be reasons for denying that the script intelligence reflected BulfinchFs version of the story' Scripts immediately follo8ing the K#etheF ones ma9e apparent references to other passages of $vid 8hich are not paraphrased by BulfinchI and the scripts introduce at a certain point the 8ord K$lympusF 8hich is in the te;t of $vid Myers 8ould probably have had+ but is not in Bulfinch >(3)d?' It appears+ therefore+ highly unli9ely that Mrs Piper could have obtained her information about the story of Cey; and Alcyone telepathically from anyone in the circle of those 8ho 8ere investigating her' "or+ incidentally+ could she have read it up in a library after the first sittingJtoo much undeniably relevant information 8as given straight a8ay' Could Mrs Piper have obtained 9no8ledge of $vidFs version of the story by ESP+ by+ for instance+ clairvoyantly reading a translation of $vid+ or telepathically tapping the mind of a

classical scholarM Even if one 8ere prepared to admit that such a degree of ESP is possible >for 8hich there is very little evidence?+ there still remains the problem of ho8 this material 8as located' 4or 8hat had to be located 8as not $vid+ or the story of Cey; and Alcyone+ but associations 8hich Myers might plausibly be e;pected to give to the name K#etheF' %id Mrs Piper first trac9 do8n the passage in $vid by clairvoyantly >and instantaneously? reading about #ethe in some reference 8or9M Piddington could not find one 8hich mentioned $vid under the heading "ethe$ $r did she 8ith lightning speed pic9 out from the minds <-7< telepathically accessible to her one 8ell furnished 8ith classical 9no8ledge >a !arvard professor no doubt?+ and flic9ing straight8ay through his subconscious+ much as she might have done through a reference 8or9+ unearth the 8ord K#etheF and a string of obscure associations to itM .hese suggestions are totally preposterousI and later on 8e shall have to try to put a finger on Dust 8hy they are preposterous' .he ne;t Kliterary pu@@leF 8hich I shall outline is one of t8o obtained through the mediumship of Mrs K&illettF >Mrs Coombe:.ennant?' .he other &illett pu@@le is 9no8n as the KStatiusF case >La?' Mrs &illett 8as not a professional medium+ but a British KSocietyF lady active in national politics and in the #eague of "ations' She began automatic 8riting in (-)2+ but in (-)- it 8as suggested to her+ ostensibly by the deceased Myers and Gurney >she 8as related to Myers by marriage?+ that she should instead try to apprehend ideas and images 8hich they 8ould insinuate into her mind+ and should then record them by 8riting or spea9ing' .he principal investigator of the Statius and Ear of %ionysius cases 8as G' &' Balfour+ and the communicators 8ere t8o recently deceased classical scholars+ A' &' Eerrall >the husband of Mrs M' de G' Eerrall? and S' !' Butcher' .hey had been close friends' Butcher 8as not 9no8n in life to Mrs &illett+ and Eerrall only slightly' .he Ear of %ionysius case >Lb? is long and complicated+ and once again I can only give a bare outline' In a number of &illett scripts+ the maDority dating from (-(5+ 8ith G' &' Balfour as sitter+ the follo8ing topics are mentioned or alluded to: .he Ear of %ionysius' RA cave from 8hich %ionysius the Elder+ .yrant of Syracuse 5)LG6C7 BC+ 8as 8ont to listen to possibly seditious conversations among prisoners' It opened from certain stone Huarries in Sicily' A &illett script of (-() had referred to it+ and Mrs Eerrall had in conseHuence as9ed her husband about it'S .he stone Huarries of Syracuse+ in Sicily' Enna+ in Sicily' .he heel of Italy' *lysses and Polyphemus' RPolyphemus+ the one:eyed giant+ imprisoned *lysses in his cave'S Acis and Galatea' RAcis+ a shepherd+ loved the nymph Galatea+ and 8as murdered by the Dealous Polyphemus'S /ealousy' <-2< Music' A Bither' AristotleFs Poetics$

Satire' .hese references did not Kadd upF to anything so far as Balfour and Mrs Eerrall 8ere concerned' .he 9ey 8as provided by the Butcher:communicator in a script of 3 August (-(L+ Mrs Eerrall being the sitter+ in 8hich the follo8ing 8as 8ritten: .he Aural instruction 8as I thin9 understood (ural appertaining to the Ear and no8 he as9s !AS the Satire satire been identified Q .he man clung to the fleece of a am Y so passed out surely that is plain Ri'e' *lysses escaping from PolyphemusF caveS 8ell conDoin that 8ith Cythera Y the Ear:man Q .here is a satire 8rite Cyclopean Masonry+ 8hy do you say masonry I said Cyclopean Philo; !e laboured in the stone Huarries and dre8 upon the earlier 8riter for his Satire /ealously .he story is Huite clear to me Y I thin9 it should be identified a musical instrument comes in something li9e a mandoline thrumming Q !e 8rote in these stone Huarries belonging to the tyrant .his script lin9s together the previous cryptic references' Philo;enus of Cythera >56CG62)BC? 8as an obscure Gree9 poet 8ho lived under the protection of %ionysius the elder+ tyrant of Syracuse' Philo;enus fell into disfavour 8ith %ionysius+ and 8as imprisoned in the stone Huarries of Syracuse+ because he seduced the tyrantFs mistress+ Galateia' After his release >or+ according to some accounts+ 8hile still in prison? Philo;enus 8rote a satirical poem entitled either Cyclops or ?alateia$ In this he represents himself as *lysses+ and %ionysius+ 8ho 8as blind in one eye+ as Polyphemus' It 8as poetry of a 9ind usually recited to the accompaniment of a @ither' Philo;enusFs Cyclops is mentioned in AristotleFs Poetics >II+ 5?+ 8hich Butcher had translated' "either Mrs &illett nor the investigators had ever heard of Philo;enus+ of 8hose 8or9s only a fe8 fragments remain' .he classical 9no8ledge displayed in constructing this pu@@le 8as far beyond that possessed by Mrs &illett+ 8ho had no acHuaintance 8ith classical languages and little if any 8ith classical literature in translation' Articles on Philo;enus in various standard classical reference boo9s current at that time did not contain all the details given in the scripts' Many >but not all? of these details are+ ho8ever+ to be found in a <--< moderately obscure American boo9 >!' &' SmythFs ?ree- Melic Poets?+ a presentation copy of 8hich Professor Eerrall+ the ostensible communicator+ had used in the preparation of some lectures' "o8 there is no doubt that if Mrs &illett 8as consciously and deliberately dishonest+ 8e can readily account for the material ostensibly communicated in this case' Any reasonably intelligent person could have put together a pu@@le li9e this after a moderate period of hard research in a large library+ or after a piece of luc9 in a second:hand boo9shop >such as finding SmythFs boo9 and follo8ing up the leads contained therein?' "o test phrase to 8hich the

communicator had to respond 8as presented to Mrs &illett at the outsetI she 8as free to introduce 8hatever subDect:matter came readiest to hand' .here is+ ho8ever+ no evidence of Mrs &illettFs dishonesty in this or any other case+ so that the hypothesis has no ground in established fact+ but is instead an assumption based only upon the supposed antecedent implausibility of the alternatives' .his+ as I have pointed out before+ is never a satisfactory reason for adopting a theory' If 8e reDect the theory of deliberate deception by Mrs &illett+ 8e seem forced to8ards some form of ESP theoryI for cryptomnesia >latent memory? concerning obscure points of classical scholarship hardly seems a li9ely possibility in a person of Mrs &illettFs 9no8n reading habits' &e might try supposing that Mrs &illett+ scanning clairvoyantly around for li9ely material+ happened upon the relevant page of SmythFs ?ree- Melic Poets, or that in her telepathic investigations of the contents of suitable minds+ she chanced upon that of a classical scholar 8ho had read and assimilated this 8or9' She e;tracted the Duice from her chosen source+ and >at a purely unconscious level? concocted the Kliterary pu@@leF' &e have reached this point so often before that it gro8s 8earisome' .here is no independent evidence for such Ksuper:ESPF' Clairvoyance+ indeed+ 8e can rule out immediately+ because SmythFs boo9+ though in derivative accounts of this case often represented as containing all the relevant facts on a single page+ does not in reality do so' .he information 8hich it gives on page 5C( 8ould need to be supplemented by an informed classical scholar before the Ear of %ionysius pu@@le could be constructed from it' .here remains the possibility that the information 8as e;tracted telepathically from the mind of a classical scholar' But the communicating intelligences did not Dust present a pac9age of factsI despite the apparent difficulties of communication+ they deployed <())< their facts intelligently in the manner of persons 8ho 8ere masters of their subDectJthe e;tract given above from the sitting of 3 August (-(L 8ill perhaps convey something of 8hat I mean' &e come bac9 to the fundamental point that I raised earlierJto acHuire a set of facts about+ from or related to a certain topic or area is not by itself to become a master of that topic or an adept in that area' Mastery is achieved by use and intelligent practice+ not by s8allo8ing and regurgitating facts' Shortly after G' &' BalfourFs paper on the Ear of %ionysius case 8as published came a brief but incisive critical note by a classical scholar+ Miss 4' Melian Sta8ell >(L)?' Miss Sta8ell pointed out that Mrs &illett+ though not a classical scholar+ no doubt had some relevant 9no8ledge latent in her mind' She probably 9ne8 the story of *lysses and Polyphemus+ and may have heard that S' !' Butcher had 8ritten on AristotleFs Poetics$ Perhaps this latent 9no8ledge could have been first stimulated and then augmented by the e;ternal influence of >this 8ill not come as a surpriseP? Mrs EerrallFs subconscious mind' Probably Mrs Eerrall had at some time or another come across all the necessary information' .here are Huite a fe8 scattered references to Philo;enus in classical literature+ and students commonly follo8 such things up 8hen they come across them' Miss Sta8ell herself had run into much of the relevant material' "one the less it did not spring to her mind 8hen she heard BalfourFs paper' It is reasonable to assume that Mrs Eerrall had similarly come across it and forgotten it' And surely she could have had a loo9 >subseHuently forgotten? at her husbandFs presentation copy of SmythFs ?ree- Melic PoetsM And the KSevensF case >mentioned in the previous chapter? sho8s that Mrs EerrallFs subconscious 8as capable of influencing the productions of other automatists' Miss Sta8ell added that SmythFs boo9 had no8 been adopted as a standard te;tboo9 at Cambridge' !ers is a persuasive case+ and BalfourFs reply to it >Lc? does not seem to me to be effective' Still+ 8e must be8are of constantly treating the supposed prodigious po8ers of Mrs

EerrallFs subliminal self as a universal solvent for disposing of cases 8hich might other8ise endanger the super:ESP hypothesis' .here is little clear evidence that she >or anyone else? possessed the po8ers for the imagined use of 8hich she has so often been incriminated' #et us spell out 8hat these putative po8ers must have been: Mrs Eerrall must have been: >a? An immense repository of information 8hich she could not consciously call to mind' <()(< >b? A successful automatist in her o8n right' >c? Capable of telepathically but unconsciously controlling in some detail the 8ritings of other automatists+ including Mrs &illettI of being+ in effect+ an unconscious Kliving communicatorF operating by means of KactiveF telepathy' >d? Capable of deciding at an unconscious level 8hat material she might appropriately incorporate in her o8n scripts+ and 8hat material 8ould >li9e classical 9no8ledge? be more convincing if palmed off on other automatists' >e? Capable of acting as a living communicator under false names+ her real identity and indeed her KpresenceF remaining un9no8n to the automatists she influenced' >f? >In some cases? capable of telepathically or clairvoyantly apprehending >again unconsciously? 8hat 8as said to the distant automatist and of unconsciously inducing in that automatist a relevant reply Huic9ly enough to conduct a conversation 8ith that automatistFs sitter' In a later chapter I shall say a little on the important topic of living communicatorsI but I do not 9no8 of any case of ostensible communication from the living 8hich 8ould Dustify us by analogy in attributing all these e;traordinary po8ers to Mrs Eerrall'

8enogloss"
Interest in the apparent post:mortem e;hibition of characteristic s9ills has in recent years focused especially on cases of ostensible ;enoglossyI on cases+ that is+ in 8hich persons >usually mediums+ or the subDects of reincarnation cases? have spo9en a real language >not an imaginary one+ as in KglossalaliaF?+ of 8hich they have ordinarily no 9no8ledge >see especially (L6f?' >Comparable cases in 8hich the language is 8ritten are called K;enographyF+ but I shall neglect this distinction'? Such cases are obviously of crucial importance to the present discussion' Imagine+ for instance+ that a mediumistic communicator+ 8ho has+ for preference+ given some factual Kproofs of identityF+ purports to spea9 through a medium in his o8n native language' !e does so fluently+ maintaining long and grammatical conversations 8ith detailed understanding on both sides' Aet the language is one 8hich the medium Huite certainly does not 9no8' Could 8e plausibly argue that the medium acHuired her transient linguistic s9ill by ESPM Several decades of fairly intensive laboratory investigations of ESP have not enabled us to fi; any clear limits to its possible scope' If there <()3< are distances too great for ESP to transcend+ or KtargetsF too comple; for it to grasp+ 8e have not discovered 8hat they are' .here seems no reason to suppose that linguistic facts 8ould not be as much 8ithin its reach as any other 9ind of fact' $r at any rate 8e should be ill:advised to deny the possibility if the alternative is so difficult an hypothesis as survival' .here are in fact some e;perimental

findings >(32a?+ together 8ith a fe8 anecdotes+ 8hich suggest that subDects may grasp through ESP the meaning of individual 8ords in a language un9no8n to them' And if 8ord:meanings can be thus learned+ 8hy not grammatical rulesM &e are no8+ of course+ bac9 again 8ith the point 8hich I raised 8hen discussing the imaginary e;ample of the mediumistic communicator 8hose bridge:playing s9ills had not deserted him at death' .he ability to play bridge 8ell is not simply a matter of learning >8hether normally or by ESP? the rules >considered as a set of facts? together 8ith the precepts given in some manual' It can only be acHuired by practising intelligently until things fall into place' And it is the same 8ith learning a language' I might study >say? a te;tboo9 of German+ and learn innumerable 8ord:meanings >such as that Fehler is the German for Kmista9eF+ and Pfote the German for Kpa8F?+ together 8ith all sorts of tric9y grammatical rules about the formation of passive tenses+ the 8ord:order in subordinate clauses+ and so on and so on' Perhaps I could even learn these things by ESP directed upon the te;tboo9 or upon the mind of a teacher of German >there is no evidence 8hatsoever that ESP of this degree occurs+ but that is not the present point?' But 9no8ledge of facts to do 8ith 8ord:meanings and grammatical rules >9no8ledge that1, 8hile it might help me to become a fluent German: spea9er+ 8ould not immediately transform me into one+ 8ould not by itself give me the s9ill >9no8ledge ho)1 of spea9ing German' Every schoolchild 8ho has had to learn the grammar and vocabulary of a foreign language by rote is 8ell a8are of this gapJa gap that can only be crossed by intelligent practice+ preferably 8ith accomplished spea9ers of the language in Huestion' .he gap 8ould e;ist 8hether or not oneFs factual 9no8ledge of the elements of the language 8ere acHuired ordinarily or by ESP' .hus cases of fluent ;enoglossyJ8ere such to occurJmight in the right circumstances constitute strong evidence against the super:ESP hypothesis' 4or 8e have >so far as I am a8are? no clear evidence+ e'g' from spontaneous cases+ to suggest that comple; s9ills may be suddenly acHuired by a process of e;trasensory induction from persons already possessing <()6< them+ and then as suddenly vanish again' I have not heard+ for e;ample+ of any English traveller in dar9est &ales 8ho has une;pectedly found himself able to spea9 and understand &elsh+ and has then lost the ability on recrossing into England' &hat evidence+ then+ do 8e actually have for ;enoglossy in a mediumistic or related conte;tM .he ans8er+ I thin9+ is not a great deal+ or rather not a great deal that has been satisfactorily recorded and analysed' &hat evidence there is may be conveniently ta9en under four headings+ of 8hich the first three may be treated very briefly' (' In some cases a mediumistic communicator+ though unable to spea9 a foreign language 9no8n to him in life+ has sho8n some understanding of 8ords or phrases spo9en in that language' .hus Mrs PiperFs supposed 4rench control+ %r Phinuit+ 8as occasionally able to understand bits of spo9en 4rench+ even though himself able to spea9 only occasional clichZs' Another control of Mrs PiperFs 8as able to translate the first fe8 8ords of the #ordFs Prayer in Gree9 >((3+ pp' 5LG52?+ but the similarity of the first 8ords >pater hemon? to the first 8ords of the better 9no8n #atin Pater ;oster may have provided the clue' 3' In a number of cases a communicator has correctly used single 8ords or very short phrases of a language un9no8n to the medium' 4or instance+ some Italian and !a8aiian 8ords 8ere on occasion spo9en through Mrs Piper >CCb+ pp' 5(CG5(2+ 52)G523?+ and %utch 8ords >6C? through Mrs osalie .hompson >b' (2C2?+ a British medium studied by Myers and Piddington'

6' &e have a fe8 e;amples of 8hat %ucasse >65b? calls Krecitative ;enoglossyF in a mediumistic or similar conte;t' In Krecitative ;enoglossyF the subDect repeats+ as it 8ere by rote+ fragments of a strange language 8hich he does not necessarily understand' In most such cases cryptomnesia >latent memory? is difficult to rule out >see+ e'g'+ (6)?' .here are in the literature one or t8o curious cases of adult or elderly persons in a state of illness or delirium repeating phrases+ sentences or passages from languages they had 9no8n or heard as children+ but had subseHuently forgotten >e'g' 56?' I shall describe a case of recitative ;enoglossy in Chapter .8elve' &here cases of categories ( to 6 are not due to cryptomnesia+ it does not seem impossible >though it may be implausible? to frame an e;planation of them in terms of ESP' *nderstanding of phrases in <()5< foreign languages might be gained by telepathically or clairvoyantly grasping the intention of the spea9er' Isolated 8ords+ phrases or sentences might be telepathically or clairvoyantly cogni@ed+ 8ith or 8ithout their meanings+ or+ if Kactive agentF telepathy is possible+ might be inDected into the sensitiveFs mind by the endeavours of another person' It is 8ith cases of the remaining category that the sort of difficulties for the super:ESP hypothesis 8hich I described above become acute' 5' #astly 8e have cases of 8hat %ucasse >65b? calls responsive ;enoglossy+ cases in 8hich the subDect converses intelligently in the foreign language' Vuite a fe8 accounts of such cases are to be found in the literature of Spiritualism+ but the standards of recording and investigation are rarely such as to carry 8eight' An apparently remar9able case is that of the automatist K osemaryF+ studied by &ood and !ulme >7)I (76aI (76b? osemaryFs guide K"onaF claimed that she had been a Babylonian princess 8ho had married the Pharaoh Amenhotep III >c' (5()G(67L BC?' In addition to giving some highly circumstantial accounts of her life in Egypt+ and of her relationship 8ith KEolaF+ a previous incarnation of osemary+ "ona communicated over a period of years a very large number of apparently correct phrases and short sentences in the ancient Egyptian language' osemary heard these phrases KclairaudientlyF and then spo9e them out loud' .hey 8ere ta9en do8n phonetically by %r &ood+ 8ho submitted them for study to a scholar interested in the ancient Egyptian language+ A' /' !ulme' &ood later studied this language himself' .he late Professor C' /' %ucasse+ 8ho submitted the case to a close analysis+ concludes >65a+ p' 3LC?: K.he ;enoglossy Q does provide strong evidence that the capacity once possessed by some person to converse e;tensively+ purposefully+ intelligently+ and intelligibly in the Egyptian language of three thousand years ago+ or any8ay in a language closely related to it+ have survived by many centuries the death of that personFs body'F I thin9+ ho8ever+ that %ucasseFs positive verdict is premature+ and that one should suspend Dudgement concerning this case until such time >if ever? as it has been independently e;amined by an ac9no8ledged authority on the ancient Egyptian language' 4or it is far from clear ho8 acceptable 8ere !ulmeFs Hualifications' Many of the alleged cases of responsive ;enoglossy have involved Kdirect voiceF mediums+ and have ta9en place in the dar9ness 8hich the <()L< spirits seem to find essential for manipulating the spea9ing trumpets and for constructing Kvoice bo;esF out of ectoplasm' In a volume >()6? concerning the American direct voice medium+ Mrs Etta &riedt >I Huoted in Chapter 4ive above Sir &illiam BarrettFs account of an e;perience 8ith her? 8e are told that there 8ere occasions on 8hich the deceased friends and relations of "or8egian:+ Spanish:+ Croatian:+ %utch:+ Italian:+ German:+ 4rench:+ !industani:+ &elsh:+ Serbian:+ and Gaelic: spea9ing sitters conversed 8ith them on appropriate topics in their o8n languages' Many of these sitters supplied signed and dated statements'

*nfortunately 8e do not have gramophone or stenographic recordings of these voices+ and it is e;tremely difficult to 9no8 8hat to say about them' A similar diversity of languages 8as allegedly heard at the seances of another American direct voice medium+ George Ealiantine >(LaI (Lb+ C2?' A &elsh sitter+ Mr Caradoc Evans+ spo9e at a sitting on 37 4ebruary (-35 to the soi:disant spirit of his father' As9ed in &elsh for the location of the house in 8hich he died+ Mr EvansF father replied >(La+ pp' 3()G3((?: K*ch ben yr avon' Mae stepsJla8er ia8n Jrh8ng y ty ar rheol' Pa bath yr ydych yn gofynM A ch8i yn mynd i 8eled a ty bob tro yr rydych yn y dreF+ 8hich means+ 8e are told+ KAbove the river' .here are stepsJmany stepsJ bet8een the house and the road' &hy do you as9M Aou go to see the house every time you are in the to8n'F At a Ealiantine sitting in "e8 Aor9+ an e;pert in oriental languages+ %r "' &hymant+ conversed in an archaic Chinese 8ith an alleged 0Fung:fu:t@u upon points of te;tual scholarship' &hymant prints >(7)? 8hat appear to be contemporary notes in English of this voiceFs Chinese pronouncements' *nfortunately our assessment of these e;citing claims is bound to be affected by the fact that Ealiantine 8as several times detected in fraud of the grossest 9ind >(LcI (62c?' A recording of his KChineseF voice had the appropriate intonation+ but could not be understood by Chinese spea9ers+ including %r &hymant' Ealiantine had undoubtedly the gift of catching the intonation and rhythm of various foreign languages+ and it 8as also his habit to repeat the last phrase spo9en to him by his interlocutor' .he probability seems to be that e;pectant sitters heard much more in his Kforeign languageF utterances than 8as actually there' 4e8 people reali@e+ perhaps+ ho8 prone is the human ear to hear articulate 8ords in all sorts of murmurings and stray sounds 8ith the right 9ind of periodicityI at least as prone as is the eye to see faces in in9blots' .his point is clearly brought out in %avid EllisFs >6-? <()C< recent investigations of the K audive voicesF >the voices+ allegedly of deceased persons+ pic9ed up by tape recorders under certain conditions?' In one K audive voiceF case that I observed personally the sitters 8ere interpreting as comprehensible 8hispered 8ords sounds made by their o8n fingers unconsciously rubbing the case of a small tape recorder >the microphone 8as integral 8ith the case?' .he most detailed studies so far of instances of responsive ;enoglossy are those by Professor Ian Stevenson of the cases of K/ensenF+ KGretchenF+ and KSharadaF' All three of these cases have 8hat is apparently a reincarnationist rather than a mediumistic setting+ but in none has the communicating personality been identified 8ith some person 9no8n once to have lived' By far the most remar9able is that of Sharada+ 8hich I discuss in Chapter Eleven belo8' $f the other t8o the case of /ensen >(L6f? is the more interesting' K/ensenF is the name of the S8edish spea9ing personality that emerged spontaneously in (-LLGC during hypnotic age regression e;periments 8ith .' E'+ the 67:year:old English:spea9ing 8ife of a Philadelphia doctor' .he hypnotist 8as the ladyFs husband+ 0' E' .he language spo9en by /ensen+ and the details he gave of his life+ 8ere consistent 8ith a previous e;istence in seventeenth century S8eden' .hree S8edish spea9ers 8ho conversed 8ith /ensen+ and four 8ho have subseHuently listened to the tape recordings+ agreed that he conversed sensibly+ grammatically and 8ith good pronunciation in S8edish+ though his remar9s 8ere usually short' An analysis of four tape:recorded sessions sho8ed that+ if doubtful 8ords+ and 8ords 8hich sound ali9e in S8edish and in English 8ere e;cluded+ /ensen introduced into one conversation at least si;ty S8edish 8ords not previously used in his presence by his intervie8ers' Stevenson considers in great detail the possibility that Mrs .' E' might have acHuired a 9no8ledge of S8edish by normal means' !is conclusions are entirely negative' Some years after the /ensen e;periments+ ho8ever+ .' E' developed a more conventional 9ind of

mediumship+ 8ith a control and various communicators' %uring this period+ evidence came to hand that on t8o occasions she had Kgot upF in advance the material for some KscientificF messages 8hich 8ere delivered at her sittings' Stevenson advances reasons for supposing that she did so in a dissociated state for 8hich she 8as after8ards amnesic' .here 8as nothing to suggest that she had ever entered such states prior to the /ensen e;periments' Mr Ian &ilson has lately argued >(73+ p' ((6? that this case may be <()7< entirely reDected' !e Huotes part of StevensonFs remar9s on the Kscientific messageF imbroglio Dust mentioned+ and goes on: K.he identities of the doctor and his 8ife have become 9no8n to me+ and suffice it to say that the case does not merit the serious consideration 8hich Stevenson advances for it'F $f course it 8ill not KsufficeF to say this' I cannot imagine 8hy any reasonable person should attach more 8eight to Mr &ilsonFs one dismissive sentence than to the t8enty pages 8hich Stevenson devotes to the Huestion of 8hether or not .' E' could have learned her S8edish by normal means' A curious point to do 8ith responsive ;enoglossy is the follo8ing' If I am right in proposing that s9ills+ linguistic or other+ cannot be acHuired by ESP+ then they obviously cannot be acHuired by telepathy 8ith deceased persons >if such a thing be conceivable?' !ence 8e should not e;pect a mental medium 8hose gifts are essentially those of telepathy 8ith the living or 8ith the dead to e;hibit a fluent responsive ;enoglossy >as distinct perhaps from the ability to understand or hesitatingly utter the odd phrase or 8ord of a foreign language un9no8n to her?' .his might be thought by some to accord 8ith the fact that most apparent cases of responsive ;enoglossy come either from direct voice mediums or from persons ostensibly reincarnated' I began this chapter by mentioning cases in 8hich mediumistic communicators have so e;actly reproduced the mannerisms+ gestures+ intonations+ humour+ etc'+ characteristic of them in life+ that friends and relations 8ere over8helmingly impressed' I 8ent on to describe e;amples of the apparent post:mortem manifestation of characteristic s9ills and accomplishments' And in previous chapters I described at some length evidence for the survival of memories and characteristic purposes' But >and this is a point almost impossible to put over in so brief a space? in certain rather stri9ing casesJthe GP case+ say+ or the AEB case+ or the Myers communicator of the cross:correspondencesJthese various elements 8ere+ according to those best Hualified to Dudge+ #lended together in a characteristic and recogni@able 8ay' Something that is almost a 8hole personality had been built up' "o8 the ability to construct+ or dramati@e+ or imitate a 8hole personality out of these elements is itself a s9ill 8hich cannot be reduced to mere 9no8ledge of facts concerning the various elements' #et me illustrate 8hat I mean' At one period of my life I spent a good deal of time studying the correspondence+ diaries+ papers+ etc'+ of !enry Sidg8ic9 and 4' &' !' Myers' I learned a great many facts <()2< about their private lives+ their friends+ their habits and their domestic arrangementsI far more facts than it is remotely plausible to suppose that the greatest sensitive could have obtained by ESP' But no amount of such factual 9no8ledge >9no8ledge that? 8ould per se have enabled me to imitate them >a s9ill+ 9no8ledge ho)? in a 8ay that their close friends 8ould have found anything other than absurd or pathetic' My performance 8ould have been infinitely less impressive than those of Mrs Piper or Mrs #eonard at their bestJindeed at their 8orstP It might be pointed out that I am not e;actly the sort of person 8ho gives impersonations at parties to the accompaniment of loud applause' I am not talented in that direction' But could even a s9illed impressionist+ of 8hom 8e have seen so many on stage and television+ have done much betterM Such a person 8ould

presumably have generali@ed s9ills related to his profession+ and 8ould no doubt attempt something if pressed' But impersonating+ say+ Mr Ed8ard !eath+ is none the less a different s-ill from impersonating Sir !arold &ilson' Some impersonators might be able to KdoF one but not the other' And the s9ills of doing a !eath:impersonation and of doing a &ilson: impersonation have to be acHuired separately by listening to tape and video recordings+ practising+ recording the practice attempts+ practising again+ and so on' .hey donFt arise directly from 9no8ing facts a#out !eathFs and &ilsonFs lives+ mannerisms+ voices+ habits of thought+ turns of phrase+ etc' Even if 8e grant >8hich is a rash thing to do? that such mediums as Mrs Piper and Mrs #eonard may have had enormously e;tended po8ers of ESP+ there still remains an immense problem over ho8 they translated the factual 9no8ledge they 8ere thus able to obtain into convincing impersonations of deceased people 8ell 9no8n to their sitters' <()-<

9 !he #ontrols of

ediums

In the preceding five chapters+ I have placed myself+ as it 8ere+ on the side of the angels' I have been principally concerned to set forth e;amples of the ostensible evidence for survival from the phenomena of mediumship' My conclusions have been+ on the 8hole+ favourable to this evidence+ in that I could find no ready formula for e;plaining all of it a8ay' .he time has no8 come to change sides and underta9e the role of devilFs advocate' In this chapter+ and in Chapters .en and .hirteen belo8+ I shall introduce and evaluate various considerations 8hich may be thought either to undermine large chun9s of the evidence for survival+ or else more directly to prove that survival is impossible' >Perhaps KdevilFs advocateF is the 8rong phrase+ since the devil might be supposed to have his o8n reasons for favouring survival'? An initial problem 8ith this enterprise is that of finding a starting point' Many of those 8ho have inveighed most strongly against survivalistic vie8s and the alleged evidence for survival display a readiness to accept inadeHuate evidence Huite as mar9ed as that 8hich they so freely >and often so rightly? attribute to their opponents >for an e;ample see 55b+ pp' 6C(G6C6?' >It can+ I thin9+ be no frea9 fact that one of the 8orst pro:parapsychology boo9s of recent years+ and one of the 8orst anti:parapsychology boo9s+ are both 8ritten by the same individual'? .he most succinct+ and the best informed+ statement of the case against survival is still the late Professor E' ' %oddsFs classic paper K&hy I do not believe in survival+ published in the Proceedings of the SPR about fifty years ago >66?' I shall base my o8n statement of that case primarily upon %oddsFs paper+ 8ithout+ ho8ever+ giving detailed references to it' .he present and succeeding chapters 8ill attempt a critiHue and assessment of the ostensible evidence for survival provided by the phenomena of mental mediumship' As a classical scholar and historian of "eoplatonism+ %odds 8as very impressed by certain historical considerations' If the departed can <(()< indeed communicate 8ith the living through the agency of mental mediums+ 8hy did they sho8 so little sign of doing so prior to the start of the modern Spiritualist movement in (252M .here 8as no lac9 of the necessary machinery or the necessary interest on the part of the living+ for Q the evidence collected in $esterreichFs boo9 on Possession sho8s that the mediumistic trance is a fairly constant phenomenon in all ages and among all peoplesI and curiosity about the state of the dead has left its mar9 ali9e on the literature of Gree9 and ome+ of the Middle Ages+ and of the enaissance' But there is something more singular still' .he t8o groups of

pre:nineteenth century mediums about 8hom 8e have most information+ the -atochoi of the late Graeco: oman period and the 8itches of the si;teenth and seventeenth centuries Ror rather the KvictimsF of the 8itchesS+ 8hile performing a number of the feats performed by modern mediums+ perversely attributed them in the one case to the agency of non:human gods or demons+ in the other to the agency of the devil' $nce again+ 8hyM >66+ pp' (L3G(L6? It seems to me that %odds is here e;aggerating some8hat' !is remar9s hold true mainly of &estern Europe+ 8here untypical constraints have operated+ and even in &estern Europe there have been notable e;ceptions >for a si;teenth century e;ample see 5L+ pp' 36G37?' .here is every reason to suppose that in many non:European cultures mediumistic communication 8ith the dead has been practised for centuries in the forms touched upon in Chapter .8o above' It seems to be+ and to have been+ a very 8idespread practice indeed' It is true+ of course+ that little in the 8ay of Kevidence for survivalF has come do8n to us from these cultures+ but that could 8ell be because+ for totally different reasons+ neither the members of the culture+ nor visiting travellers+ anthropologists+ etc'+ have felt called upon to record it' Still+ even if %oddsFs point is not proved+ there is a related point 8hich carries some 8eight' If most people survive the transition of death 8ith their memories+ purposes+ affections and intellectual s9ills more or less intact+ 8e might e;pect them+ or at least a substantial number of them+ to try as hard as they can to communicate 8ith loved ones left behind should communication be possible' &hy are drop:in communicators not all the time insinuating messages for friends and relations through 8hatever mediums may be availableM drop:in communicators are apparently rather rare+ and I do not 9no8 of a single instance in 8hich a drop:in communicator has tried to put the same message through t8o different mediums' Aet surely 8e might <(((< e;pect that some of them 8ould try' In fact cases in 8hich any 9ind of communicator has convincingly manifested through more than one medium 8ithout the presence of the same sitter are fairly uncommon+ though 8e have some e;amples' .he Myers and Gurney communicators of the cross:correspondences did so+ but they 8ere of course 8ell:9no8n personalitiesI so did Mrs PiperFs GP control >I have not+ ho8ever+ seen any useful comparative analysis of the communications?' In short: visit a good medium+ and there is a reasonable chance that you 8ill hear from the deceased person you desire to contact' .hat deceased person is+ ho8ever+ rather unli9ely to send you a message out of the blue' $ther things being eHual+ this might be held to suggest that 8hatever may be involved in mediumistic communication+ it is factors in this 8orld that are crucial rather than factors in the ne;t' A reply to this argument might+ for instance+ e;plore other possible reasons for the seeming scarcity of drop:in communicators >compare Chapter 4ive above?+ or contrast mediumistic communicators 8ith apparitions of the dead' Apparitions of the dead very often come as un8anted intruders upon the peace of mind of perfect strangers+ yet refuse to appear for those 8ho deliberately see9 them outJespecially if they happen to be parapsychologists' Q 8hen the glum esearchers come .he brutes of bogeysJgo' An issue of more substantial importance+ and one 8hich has e;cited a great deal of argument+ is that of the status of the KcontrolsF of trance mediums' #eading trance mediums+ such as Mrs Piper+ Mrs #eonard+ Mrs Soule and Mrs Garrett+ have provided 8hat must surely be the most impressive of all the mediumistic evidence for survival' .rance mediums tend to have one or a fe8 regular controls >that is spirits 8ho ostensibly Kta9e overF the mediumFs body for

e;tended periods+ and communicate through it? amongst 8hom 8ill be the mediumFs o8n KguideF >spirits 8ho+ li9e Mrs PiperFs Phinuit or Mrs #eonardFs 4eda+ loo9 after the mediumFs interests+ and act as intervie8ers or masters of ceremonies on Kthe other sideF?' It has often been suggested that the controls of trance mediums are simply secondary personalities+ to be compared 8ith the different phases of the various 8ell:9no8n cases of hysterical multiple personality >for an illuminating history of this idea see 2(?' .his tactic might 8ell be obDected to as e;plaining one <((3< phenomenon of doubtful status in terms of anotherI but one implication is fairly clear' Psychiatrists these days tend to argue that earlier investigators greatly e;aggerated+ and sometimes by their o8n probings greatly increased+ the differences bet8een the various personalities 8hich manifest in such cases' At root there is only one personality+ undergoing sudden and rather sharp changes >no doubt of pathological origin?' If this is the correct 8ay of loo9ing at the controls of trance mediums+ these controlsJeven though they may e;hibit flashes of paranormal 9no8ledgeJare not entities independent of the medium' It is possible to pile up arguments on both sides of this Huestion' .hus in favour of the multiple personality theory 8e may say: (' It is possible to construct a 8hole series of intermediate cases 8hich so to spea9 bridge the gap bet8een+ say+ Mrs PiperFs and Mrs #eonardFs most realistic controls and instances of undoubted multiple personality' >See for instance (()a+ I+ pp' 65G7)+ 3-2G6C2'? 3' .here are obvious similarities bet8een the some8hat childish guides of certain mediums >Mrs #eonardFs 4eda for e;ampleJsee (C(+ pp' 652G6L-? and the rather mischievous and capricious secondary personalities 8hich have emerged in some cases of hysterical multiple personality' 6' In at least one case >%oris 4ischerJsee 7(bI (3LaI (3LbI (3Lf? the subDect of a classic case of multiple personality after8ards developed into a versatile medium' >!o8ever it must be added that this happened after she had been relieved of hysterical symptoms+ and had become for the time being apparently a normal person'? Against the multiple personality theory 8e can advance the follo8ing considerations' (' .he number of distinct personalities 8hich may control a trance medium during the course of her career greatly e;ceeds anything for 8hich the annals of multiple personality provide a parallelI nor do I 9no8 of a complete parallel for the simultaneous and apparently Huite full manifestation of t8o personalities >one through the hand and one through the voice?+ 8hich occurred Huite commonly during one period of Mrs PiperFs mediumship' 3' .here does not seem to have been anything disturbed about the normal personalities of Mrs Piper+ Mrs #eonard+ and other leading trance mediums' >In Chapter 4ive I made a similar point about the <((6< shamans and 8itchdoctors 8ho fulfil analogous roles in other societies'? 6' .he comings and goings of most mediumistic controls+ unli9e those of secondary personalities+ are strictly circumscribed' I cannot see much hope of reaching a decision on the basis of these general observations' Attempts have been made+ 8ith Mrs Garrett and Mrs #eonard+ to thro8 light on the issue by administering various psychological tests to the medium in her normal state+ and 8hen

controlled by her guide' Certain differences emerged+ but the 8or9 has been critici@ed+ and it is unclear ho8 the results should be interpreted >33aI 33bI 33cI 36I (L-a?' .o get any further 8e must loo9 at in:depth psychological studies of individual trance mediums' *nfortunately these are not numerous' By far the most important is Mrs E' M' Sidg8ic9Fs very lengthy investigation of the phenomenology of Mrs PiperFs mediumship >(5LbI cf' (5La?' Mrs Sidg8ic9 discusses in considerable detail 8hat the Piper controls and communicators say about themselves+ their situations+ and the process of communication' Much of this is in line 8ith the general traditions of &estern Spiritualism' .hey one and all represent themselves as autonomous beings Huite separate from the medium' .hey have bodies of a substance more subtle than that of our earthly ones+ so that they can change shape and si@e and transport themselves great distances very rapidly' .hey say that to them the medium appears as+ or surrounded by+ a ball of light+ to 8hich they are attracted' .hey have to Kenter the lightF in order to communicate' .he light seems to be regarded as a sort of energy or po8er 8hich ma9es communication possible' Sometimes it seems to be thought of in terms of the notion of a luminiferous ether 8hich 8as utili@ed in the physics of the day+ at other times 8e get such absurd suggestions as that the light is made of Kair+ light and hydrogenF or of KvaciumF RsicS' &hen a spirit enters the light he is able+ by means that are not made altogether clear+ to operate the mediumFs organism more or less effectively+ and to become a8are of the sitter and the mediumFs surroundings through her sense organs+ especially her ears >her eyes being usually shut?' Sometimes+ ho8ever+ controls spea9 as if they could directly see the seance room+ or for that matter other and more distant earth scenesI and they regularly spea9 as if they could both see and hear and so transmit messages from other deceased persons in the hereafter' <((5< An obvious Huestion that arises at this point is that of 8hat happens to Mrs Piper+ or to the spirit of Mrs Piper+ 8hen her body is being operated by deceased persons' .he story told by her controls is that as a spirit moves into her organism+ she herself moves out of it+ and into the spirit 8orld' She is freHuently said to remain connected to her body by a slender cord+ perhaps made of the mysterious KlightF referred to above' If this cord 8ere bro9en+ she 8ould not be able to return to her body and it 8ould die' .he cord is sometimes assigned other functions' Controls are occasionally represented as sliding do8n it in order to enter the mediumFs organism+ and it is also more than once said to function as a sort of telephone line by 8hich non:controlling communicators can spea9 to controls occupying the body' Mrs Piper herself+ on a8a9ening from her trance+ 8ould sometimes for a short 8hile retain an apparent memory of 8hat had befallen her in the spirit 8orld+ and even seem to have some lingering a8areness of that 8orld' In this K8a9ing stageF she 8ould sometimes repeat >correct? names given to her 8hile KinF the spirit 8orld+ and on a number of occasions she 8as able to pic9 out from photographs deceased persons 8hom she had ostensibly met there' Mrs PiperFs controls thus apparently regard themselves as entities completely separate from the medium+ and in support of their contention they present a detailed picture of their o8n activities 8hilst controlling and communicating' Can 8e accept their o8n estimate of themselvesM Mrs Sidg8ic9 argues that 8e can not' .here are many points 8hich 8eigh against it' .o begin 8ith+ there are a number of controls 8ho are Huite certainly fictitious' Phinuit is one' Chlorine is another' Among others are+ for instance+ a /ulius Cae@ar RsicS and a Sir &alter

Scott so totally unli9e the originals that one can hardly even regard them as impersonations' .he KImperatorF band of controls also belong in this group' .hey claimed identity 8ith the controls of the same pseudonyms 8ho had manifested through the famous British medium+ &' Stainton Moses >see (C)?' .hey 8ere never able to establish this identity+ but ha@arded all 9inds of incorrect and contradictory guesses at their o8n KrealF names' Even the most life:li9e and realistic controls+ such as GP+ sho8 signs of being impersonations >not deliberate ones?' .hey brea9 do8n at Dust the point 8here Mrs PiperFs o8n stoc9 of 9no8ledge runs out+ vi@' 8hen they are reHuired to tal9 coherently of science+ philosophy and literature >8hich the living GP could readily have done?' <((L< Mrs PiperFs controls sometimes e;cuse their shortcomings on the grounds that coming into the mediumFs KlightF has a confusing effect upon them+ or that they cannot manipulate her organism in 8ays to 8hich it is not accustomed' .hese e;cuses are+ ho8ever+ not adeHuate' .he confusion 8hich obliterates the controlsF grasp of science and philosophy does not prevent them from spouting reams of pompous nonsense upon religious and philosophical topics and presenting it as profoundest truth+ sometimes in the teeth of the sittersF HueriesI so that 8e have to attribute to them not Dust confusion but do8nright tale:spinning+ 8hich 8as certainly not a habit of the purported communicators in life+ nor yet of the normal Mrs Piper' Similar tale:spinning tendencies are manifested in the 8ay in 8hich controls cover up their mista9es' Controls 8ill+ generally spea9ing+ not admit their blunders' .hey 8ill rationali@e+ e;plain a8ay+ concoct any e;cuse+ ho8ever tenuous and childish' All other considerations seem subordinated to an over8helming urge to 9eep the drama flo8ing 8ithout pause or hiccup' .hat the trance drama of communication 8ith the departed really is only a piece of play: acting by the medium >not a deliberate piece of play:actingJcall it rather the enactment of a dream? is strongly suggested by the follo8ing further consideration' Some controls+ li9e GP+ or Bennie /unot+ are very life:li9e+ and in fact convinced many people of their authenticity' $thers+ ho8ever+ li9e /ulius Cae@ar+ Sir &alter Scott+ and the George Eliot 8ho claimed she had met Adam Bede in the ne;t 8orld+ are so implausible+ and so stilted and styli@ed in their diction and sentiments+ that no one could possibly regard them as anything other than fictions' Aet the most plausible communicators 8ill in the firmest tones guarantee the authenticity of the least plausible ones+ so that the authenticity of the former is ine;tricably and disadvantageously tied up 8ith the authenticity of the latter+ and it becomes abundantly clear that the maintenance of the drama is all:important and that every one of the controls+ from GP do8n to /ulius Cae@ar+ is part and parcel of the play8rightFs creative fantasy' If further proof 8ere 8anted that the controls and communicators are simply aspects of Mrs Piper herself+ it can perhaps be found in features of the diction and 8ording of the communications' It may be found for instance in the 8a;ing and 8aning of the use by the Imperator Band and others of archaic forms of speech' Although members of the Band claimed to be >behind their pseudonyms? !omer and *lysses+ Mrs Piper >a "e8 England Protestant? 8ould naturally <((C< have e;pected religious leaders to use $ld .estament forms of speech+ and the mista9es made in the handling of the archaic diction 8ould have been in accordance 8ith her some8hat limited education' Again+ there 8as evidence that the various ostensibly separate controls possessed a common stoc9 of associations+ 8hich could hardly have been the case if they had really been separate personalities' .hus Imperator once called #odge KCaptainF+ 8hich 8as PhinuitFs nic9name for

himI yet Phinuit never overlapped 8ith the Imperator regime' Several communicators sho8ed a some8hat mar9ed interest in clothes and hats+ 8hich 8ould not have been characteristic of them in life+ but )as characteristic of Mrs Piper' 4or my part I do not see ho8 it is possible to dissent from Mrs Sidg8ic9Fs conclusion that the Piper controls 8ere one and all aspects of Mrs PiperFs o8n personality' Mrs Piper 8as 8ithout doubt one of the most remar9able and the most successful mental mediums of all time+ and it seems highly li9ely that if Mrs Sidg8ic9Fs conclusions about the status of the Piper:controls are correct+ they 8ill also hold true of the controls of other trance mediums' *nfortunately 8e do not have any investigation of the status of Mrs #eonardFs controls comparable in scope and detail to Mrs Sidg8ic9Fs massive study of the Piper controls' A number of papers on the modus operandi of trance communication through Mrs #eonard+ together 8ith relevant observations from other papers+ are summari@ed and critically discussed in a valuable chapter of C' %' BroadFs "ectures on Psychical Research >(-C3?' Mrs #eonardFs controls seem to have been fe8er in number than Mrs PiperFs >4eda stuc9 to her post throughout Mrs #eonardFs career?+ and I have the impression that they 8ere rather less prone to engage in fishing+ covering up mista9es+ giving each other spurious testimonials+ and the other sorts of activities 8hich+ carried out by the Piper controls+ encouraged Mrs Sidg8ic9 to regard them as stage characters in a drama created by the medium' .he #eonard controls also give a some8hat more coherent account of the process of communication+ though I can by no means reconcile 8ith each other+ or fully ma9e sense of+ their various statements as to ho8 they operate the mediumFs organism' "one the less there are certain hints that in the #eonard mediumship+ as in that of Mrs Piper+ a dramatic construct is being built around events 8hich+ 8hatever their real nature+ are not as they are made to appear' 4or instance+ 4eda often tal9s as though she can directly see and hear the communicators from 8hom she relays messages' But there is much to sho8 that these claims cannot be ta9en at face value' .hus Mrs &' !' <((7< Salter says >(62b+ pp' 6)-+ 6(3? of a series of statements made by 4eda concerning a communicator subseHuently said to be her mother >Mrs Eerrall?+ KMany of these statements Q are trueI they contain+ ho8ever+ an admi;ture of such errors as could hardly have arisen had 4edaFs 9no8ledge been derived from any clearly apprehended image or series of images'F And again+ K.he general inference 8hich I should dra8 Q is that a certain amount of veridical information about my mother 8as 8oven by 4eda into an imaginary picture of an elderly 8ido8+ based on preconceived ideas of the appearance such a picture might be e;pected to present'F $f course if 8e leave the top end of the scale and descend to the bottom 8e find trance mediums in 8hom the element of Kveridical informationF is largely missing+ and imagination reigns supreme' Such a medium 8as the Genevese K!ZlXne SmithF >Catherine Elise Muller?+ of 8hom the S8iss psychologist+ .heodore 4lournoy 8rote a remar9able study+ From ndia to the Planet Mars$ 4lournoyFs conclusion is that all !ZlXneFs controls are constructs of a some8hat childish dream stratum of her personality+ and are+ indeed+ not separated from her o8n consciousness Kby an impenetrable barrier+ but that osmotic changes are effected from the one to the otherF' It 8ould+ I thin9+ be possible to produce a graduated series of cases+ from those in 8hich there is no element of veridicality >say the shamans or 8itchdoctors 8ho are controlled by animals or godlings?+ through cases+ li9e that of !ZlXne Smith+ in 8hich there is a small admi;ture of veridicality+ up to cases li9e those of Mrs Piper and Mrs #eonard in 8hich there is a good deal of veridicality+ and argue that there is no discontinuity mar9ing a changeover from mediums 8ho in trance e;ercise their o8n dramatic gifts+ e9ed out perhaps by ESP+ to those 8ho are KpossessedF by alien and intrusive spirits 8hich operate their bodies directly' .he psychological processes are in all cases at root the same'

It 8ould seem+ therefore+ that 8e have to abandon the idea that the controls of trance mediums are the spirits of deceased persons temporarily controlling a living body' Are 8e then forced to adopt some form of the super:ESP hypothesis+ to suppose that Mrs Piper and Mrs #eonard 8ere able to inDect into their dramatic representations of various deceased persons correct and appropriate information obtained telepathically from the minds of living persons or clairvoyantly from e;isting recordsM Mrs Sidg8ic9 did not thin9 so' She eventually came to believe that behind Mrs PiperFs dramatic rendering of communication from the dead+ overshado8ing it and <((2< someho8 directing its course+ there might sometimes lie those same deceased persons 8ho figure as characters in the drama' .he medium 8rites many of the speeches+ and ensures continuity in the plotI but some of the lines >perhaps the most important ones? are filled in by outside authors' #et us call this theory the theory of Kovershado8ingF' It seems to be a version of it to8ards 8hich &illiam /ames moves at the end of his report on Mrs PiperFs !odgson:control >75+ p' ((7?: E;traneous K8ills to communicateF may contribute to the results as 8ell as a K8ill to personateF+ and the t8o 9inds of 8ill may be distinct in entity+ though capable of helping each other out' .he 8ill to communicate+ in our present instance+ 8ould be+ on the prima facie vie8 of it+ the 8ill of !odgsonFs surviving spirit+ and a natural 8ay of representing the process 8ould be to suppose the spirit to have found that by pressing+ so to spea9+ against Kthe lightF+ it can ma9e fragmentary gleams and flashes of 8hat it 8ishes to say mi; 8ith the rubbish of the trance:tal9 on this side' .he 8ills might thus stri9e up a sort of partnership and reinforce each other' It might even be that the K8ill to personateF 8ould be comparatively inert unless it 8ere aroused to activity by the other 8ill' <((-<

: $./ershadowing) and the %u&er'E%( H"&othesis ; !heoretical #onsiderations

If 8e hold+ as I certainly do+ that fraud and chance:coincidence 8ill not suffice to e;plain a8ay the successes of such mediums as Mrs Piper and Mrs #eonard+ and if 8e agree that Mrs Sidg8ic9 is correct in regarding the KpersonalitiesF 8hich communicate through mediums as being facets of the medium herself+ 8e appear to have left on our hands not a theory of KpossessionF or direct control by deceased persons+ to 8hich is opposed some 9ind of super: ESP hypothesis+ but t8o forms of ESP theory+ namely the super:ESP theory+ aforementioned+ and the theory of Kovershado8ingF 8hich I have Dust touched upon' K$vershado8ingF+ if it ta9es place+ 8ould appear by definition to involve telepathic interaction bet8een the deceased person and the medium' In so far as mediums 8ho are Kovershado8edF may instead or in addition have a KclairvoyantF or KclairaudientF a8areness of deceased persons+ 8e may need to enlarge the theory of overshado8ing to accommodate it' Since ESP is thus a 9eystone both of the survivalist and of the anti:survivalist positions+ I shall begin by raising the Huestion of ho8 ESP is itself to be conceived' 4or it may be that the super:ESP theory and the theory of overshado8ing do not harmoni@e eHually 8ell 8ith the conception of ESP to8ards 8hich 8e are forced' My remar9s 8ill necessarily be brief to the verge of total inadeHuacy+ but it is important that I raise certain issues even though I can hardly pretend to resolve them' >4or further discussion of these and related issues see (7 and (32b'?

In a recent Presidential address to the Parapsychological Association+ Palmer >((2c? distinguishes t8o KparadigmsF >models or patterns of thought? 8hich parapsychologists have applied to psi phenomena >ESP and P0?' .he first of these is 8hat he calls the transmission paradigm$ .his paradigm+ 8hich has until recently been the received one+ Kassumes that psi involves the transmission of information across some 9ind of channel from a source to a receiver+ at least one of <(3)< 8hich is a mind >or+ according to a fe8 diehards+ a brain?'F PalmerFs second paradigm+ the correspondence paradigm+ is+ he thin9s+ harder to define' KIn fact+ it might be fair to say that it is simply a negation of the transmission paradigm' About the best I can do to define it positively is to say that it postulates some principle 8hich causes events in nature to coincide to a greater than chance degree+ given certain preconditions'F

!he !ransmission (aradigm

I shall begin by loo9ing at the transmission paradigm' .his paradigm clearly encounters its greatest difficulty 8hen one attempts to e;tend it to cover the phenomena of clairvoyance >precognition is too vast an issue for me to raise at this point?' In terms of the transmission paradigm clairvoyance must involve the receipt+ through some sort of surrogate sense: perception+ of a distinctive emanation >9ind un9no8n? from the obDect that is clairvoyantly perceived' It seems to me that the implications of this theory have only to be set forth for it to be decisively reDected' &e should have to suppose that an obDect may emit a 9ind of emanation that passes round or through all obstaclesI that is emitted by all the sorts of obDects that have been targets in successful clairvoyance e;perimentsI that supplies information about colour and shape+ regardless of 8hether the target obDects are edge:on or in a light:tight bo;I that is not confused or obliterated by+ but can be distinguished from+ the emanations emitted by all surrounding obDectsI that yields indifferently the information normally provided by sight+ hearing+ etc'I and that gives rise to no characteristic sensory e;perience of its o8n+ but is accurately translated into the terms of any other sense:modality' It is impossible not to agree 8ith the late Professor C' %' Broad 8hen he says in a classic paper >(2C+ pp' 37GC7? on this theme that such theories involve a Kvery heavy draft on the ban9 of possibility'F $ne might at first thin9 that telepathy+ so often conceived as Kmental radioF+ 8ould accord more happily 8ith the transmission paradigm than does clairvoyance' But this is not the case' Consider the follo8ing points' (' If 8e regard the KtransmissionF as mediated by any form of physical energy transfer+ 8e confront the problem that the energy concerned appears able to pass through all material barriers' But then it should pass through the brain too+ and not be stopped as+ for e;ample+ radio 8aves are stopped by aerials' 3' If >again thin9ing in physical terms? 8e suppose that the end <(3(< result of the supposed process of energy transfer is to produce in the receiverFs brain a pattern of brain cell activity similar to that 8hich obtains in the senderFs brain+ 8e run upon the follo8ing difficulty' .here does not seem+ as 8e shall see in Chapter .hirteen+ much reason for supposing that the same spatio:temporal pattern of brain cell activity 8ill necessarily give rise to the same e;perience in t8o different people+ or even in the same person on t8o different occasions' 6' #et us 8aive the preceding obDection+ and assume that+ follo8ing upon some process of transmission from sender to receiver+ the latter becomes a8are of 8hat the former is

e;periencing' 4or e;ample+ a friend of mine had one night a distressing dream of his father >C-?' !e felt that his father 8as about to die+ and he himself under8ent the pain of his fatherFs heart attac9' !is father 8as not 9no8n to have a 8ea9 heartI yet the dream turned out to be veridical >it 8as actually precognitive by about t8enty:four hours+ a point 8hich I shall here neglect?' "o8 one can Dust about imagine that by some un9no8n process of transmission and induction he might have been brought to feel a heart:pain resembling his fatherFs' But ho8 did he 9no8 that the pain reflected his father7s pain rather than that of any other of the numerous persons 8ho 8ould at that time have been undergoing heart attac9sM !e had no previous e;perience of the Huality of his fatherFs heart:pains' .o his father+ of course+ the heart:pains had a meaning' .hey meant KI am dyingF' .he son+ ho8ever+ did not pic9 up the meaning the pains had for this father' !e did not thin9 KI am dyingF' !e thought KMy father is dyingF+ 8hich 8as not 8hat his father 8as thin9ing' So ho8 did the son 9no8 ho8 to interpret the painM !e 9ne8 because in a strange 8ay he identified 8ith his father+ almost became him' But 8hat signals could be transmitted that could induce this state of mind in him+ and ho8+ indeed+ could he recogni@e such a state+ given that he had >and could have had? no prior e;perience of 8hat being his father 8as li9eM In short the meaning of the heart:pains is something that could not be transmitted' 5' Most cases of ostensible spontaneous telepathy are+ ho8ever+ not of this 9indI they are not instances of the receiver undergoing an e;perience mirroring the e;perience of the sender' .a9e the follo8ing e;ample of a Kreciprocal dreamF+ Huoted by Mrs Sidg8ic9 >(5Ld+ pp' 5(LG 5(7?' A mother holding her sic9 baby sleeps+ and dreams that her son of thirteen+ a8ay at boarding school and ill 8ith measles+ 8anted to put his head on her shoulder+ but could not because of the baby' $n the same night her son dreams that he 8ants to put his head on her < (33< shoulder but finds the baby in the 8ay' "o8 the minimum hypothesis here+ 8ithin the transmission paradigm+ is that one of the t8o dreamers pic9ed up the otherFs dream+ and himself or herself dreamt accordingly' But consider 8hat this hypothesis involves+ say from the boyFs point of vie8' !is mother+ in addition to dreaming+ must have been transmitting her dream to him' But he did not dream her dreamI he did not dream of being his mother+ holding a baby+ and having a boy cuddle up to her' "or+ for e;actly the sorts of reasons given under 6 above+ is it clear ho8 he could have attached any meaning to KcopiesF of his motherFs sensations had he undergone them' Perhaps+ then+ some part of his motherFs brain 8as 8atching her o8n dream and broadcasting a coded account of it 8hich the eHuivalent in 8ords 8ould be+ KI+ ""+ of such and such an address+ and mother of 4"+ am dreaming that QK .he boy+ pic9ing up this message+ and decoding it+ could initiate a reciprocally corresponding dream' But this idea too is nonsense' Any such telepathic code 8ould have to be the functional eHuivalent of a language+ perhaps of a universal language+ 8ould have to be as fle;ible as a language+ and li9e a language 8ould have to gro8 continually as the conceptual eHuipment of its user enlarges' 4or there does not seem to be any limitation on the sorts of telepathic messages that can be sent and received+ other than the limitations imposed by the conceptual eHuipment of sender and receiver' "one the less this code 8ould have to be untaught and+ 8ith most people+ very rarely used' I hope that these fe8 remar9s 8ill at any rate serve to suggest that any defender of the transmission paradigm is ta9ing on an uphill tas9' .here is+ ho8ever+ a variant of the transmission paradigm that reHuires brief notice' It may perhaps be called the Kscanning paradigmF' Its central idea is that the percipient or receiver is not a passive recipient of ESP+ but actively and continually KscansF those parts of the environment accessible to him by ESP' Some such idea as this seems essential in connection 8ith clairvoyance to account for the fact that clairvoyance seemingly yields not useless information about a hapha@ard selection of

physical states of affairs+ but primarily information relevant to the concerns of the percipient' %r #ouisa hine >(3-? thin9s that a similar idea is forced upon us in connection 8ith telepathy+ because in certain cases of apparent spontaneous telepathy+ namely KcallF cases >cases+ that is+ in 8hich the telepathic message ta9es the form of a heard KcallF? the supposed KsenderF did not <(36< in fact call or even thin9 of the receiver' .elepathy in her vie8 is thought: reading rather than thought 8transference$ >It may+ ho8ever+ be that %r hine+ 8hose collection of cases consists mostly of letters Dust from the percipient+ underestimates the possibility of an effect from the agentI cf' Gibson+ 5-+ and Stevenson+ (L6c+ pp' 3LG3C'? .he notion of scanning is all very 8ell if it is held to involve some active process of selection among competing inputs+ 8here the inputs are conceived in terms of the transmission paradigm' Such a notion is legitimate+ but of course mista9en since the transmission paradigm is mista9en' But there is a half:hidden tendency for the idea of scanning to pass into something Huite different from this' Scanning seems sometimes implicitly to be regarded as >in the case of telepathy? a direct and immediate cogni@ing of other peopleFs mental states+ or >in the case of clairvoyance? a sort of reaching out of the mind to grasp >or KprehendF? a distant physical state of affairs' It is very hard indeed to ma9e sense of either of these conceptions' .a9e first this 9ind of vie8 of clairvoyance' In terms of it the clairvoyant mind seems rather li9e an amoeba' It can e;trude itself round obstacles and sei@e upon targets beyond them' It can prehend the faces of obDects 8hich are edge on to it+ presumably by flo8ing across them' It can filter into sealed bo;es or closed houses' *nli9e an amoeba+ it can operate on any scaleI it can prehend playing cards+ printed 8ords+ even >on some accounts? the state of electronic circuitry or nerve cells in the brainI it can eHually readily grasp a portrait+ furniture+ the front of a house+ the vie8 from a hill' It operates usually upon the surfaces of obDects+ but could no doubt operate eHually 8ell upon their insides' It can be functionally eHuivalent to any sense modality' It can+ in short+ do anything that is reHuired of it' !ence the idea of prehension is of no e;planatory value 8hatsoever' .he notion of Ktelepathic scanningF+ a direct and selective cogni@ing of other peoplesF minds+ is in no better case' 4or it ma9es no sense at all to tal9 of a Kdirect a8arenessF of other peoplesF e;periences' .he only a8areness one can have is of oneFs o8n e;periencesJthis is a logical rather than a factual point' $ne cannot+ so to spea9+ brea9 out of the circle of oneFs o8n a8areness into someone elseFsI any e;perience that one has is oneFs o8n e;perience and not another personFs' And in any case it is obvious+ from 8hat 8as said above+ that in most instances of spontaneous telepathy the e;perience of the percipient does not directly reflect that of the agent' Another reason 8hy the KscanningF concept of telepathy has <(35< surreptitiously gained ground is of course that it seems to be an essential ingredient in the super:ESP hypothesis' 4or that hypothesis had to suppose that mediums can have access to the memories of distant persons even 8hen those memories are not activated+ i'e' are presumably not generating telepathic signals' Since the idea that even an activated memory could be directly scanned by telepathy ma9es no sense+ the idea that unactivated and merely stored memories may be so scanned must be eHually unintelligible' Indeed+ the proposal that our memory stores contain vast numbers of memory:images through 8hich mediums can telepathically rummage appears so bi@arre that most theorists have instead supposed mediums to have clairvoyant access to memories stored in the form of neural charges in the brain' .his suggestion seems to me no more helpful than the previous one' I have already proposed that both transmission and prehensive theories of clairvoyance are Huite untenable+ and they 8ill be no less untenable 8hen the target of the clairvoyance is the state of someoneFs brain' 4urthermore I shall argue

in Chapter .hirteen that the notion of a memory store+ containing coded representations of our past e;periences+ is Huite incoherent in 8hatever form it is cast+ and cannot possibly e;plain our ability to remember' If this argument is correct+ the thesis that mediums can KscanF distant memory stores necessarily collapses+ 8hether the scanning is regarded as telepathic or as clairvoyant+ and 8ith it collapses all hope of coherently formulating the super:ESP hypothesis in the terms of this offshoot of the transmission paradigm'

!he #orres&ondence (aradigm

&e come no8 to the correspondence paradigm of ESP' .his paradigm dispenses 8ith ideas of transmission and proposes that in certain circumstances certain sorts of events in nature come into correspondence 8ith each other' .he tendency for such correspondences to occur is+ presumably+ an ultimate fact about the 8ay things are' .he principal theories of this category are the KconformanceF model of Stanford >(CI 6LI (5-aI (5-b? and the KsynchronicityF theory of /ung and 0oestler >77+ 23I I am not sure ho8 the so:called KobservationalF theoriesJsee ()(Jshould be classified?' !o8ever I do not thin9 it 8ould be profitable at this stage to stic9 to one specific version+ so I shall merely offer some general remar9s about the correspondence paradigm' I shall furthermore confine myself to discussing this paradigm in relation to telepathy' .elepathy is+ for our <(3L< immediate purposes+ more important than clairvoyanceI and I find it e;tremely hard to thin9 ho8 clairvoyance might be intelligibly handled 8ithin the correspondence paradigm' So far as telepathy is concerned+ a KcorrespondenceF approach might go something li9e this' *nder certain preconditions the mental processes+ and also the actions+ of t8o persons may 8ithout any e;planation of an ordinary 9ind from time to time come into correspondence in such a 8ay that if+ for instance+ one of them develops a pain in the 9nee+ the other 8ill li9e8ise feel such a painI if one feels depressed+ the other feels depressed alsoI if one has a certain tune running through his head+ the other 8ill 8histle itI and so on' .he time relations bet8een the t8o sets of events might not be e;act+ but the gap 8ould not be very great' $ne might suppose that the occurrence of such correspondences is simply a feature of the 8or9ings of e;traordinarily comple; systems >such as brains? and is susceptible of no further e;planation >other perhaps than that the apparently separate systems+ in some 8ay that 8e cannot comprehend+ are parts of a larger and overriding system or systems?' .he KpreconditionsF mentioned above may include such factors as+ for e;ample+ the minds of one or both being in a relatively rela;ed state >i'e' open to intrusive random thoughts and stray ideas?I the t8o persons concerned already having many associations and habits of thought in commonI and the presence of emotional bonds and motivational factors' I am far from sure that I can ma9e sense of these ideas' But if 8e are going to entertain them at all+ I thin9 8e are bound to e;tend them a little+ and suppose that the correspondences concerned 8ill not be Dust ones of sensory content or of emotional state >8hich are in fact not very common?+ but correspondences on 8hat may be called a propositional or conceptual level' .his seems to be reHuired to account for the not uncommon instances of apparent dream telepathy in 8hich there is similarity of theme rather than of detailed dream content >(C6?I and also for cases >such as the boyFs dream of 8anting to lay his head on his motherFs shoulder cited above? in 8hich t8o people have reciprocal or complementary dreams' E'g' if /ac9 dreams of 9issing /ill+ /illFs reciprocal dream 8ill not be that she is /ac9 and is 9issing a simulacrum of herself' It 8ill be that she is in propria persona and is being 9issed by /ac9' $ne 8ould have to say here+ I thin9+ that /ac9Fs mind and /illFs correspond >some 8ould say overlap? in point of an underlying idea or conception+ 8hich could be e;pressed as K/ac9:

9issing:/illF >or in more comple; cases+ perhaps+ as K/ac9:9issing:/ill: <(3C< on:the:hill:and:to: hell:8ith:the:buc9et:of:8ater?+ and that the dream consciousness of each elaborates this theme in individually appropriate 8ays' Elaboration of the theme could+ ho8ever+ only be in terms of the 9no8ledge and conceptual eHuipment 8hich the dreamers already possess' Much more might be said both for and against these notions' !o8ever+ for immediate purposes the important Huestion is ho8 could the super:ESP hypothesis fare 8ithin the bounds of the correspondence paradigm as thus conceivedM $ne could not+ I thin9+ e;actly rule the hypothesis outJall 9inds of odd correspondences might come into being bet8een the thoughts of any t8o persons 8hatsoever+ even persons 8ell separated in space and time' "one the less it seems to me unli9ely that 8ithin the correspondence paradigm the super:ESP theory 8ould ever get off the ground' 4or the correspondence paradigm is not a cognitive paradigmI there is no Huestion of one person scanning+ or becoming directly a8are of+ events in another personFs mind or brainI and it is the idea that a medium might as it 8ere loo9 at+ riffle through+ and ma9e a selection from+ another personFs memories that more than anything else has led people to ta9e the proposals of the super:ESP theory seriously' 4or if you can riffle though one personFs memory:store+ 8hy not through anotherFs and anotherFs+ until you come to the information you 8antM .he correspondences of the correspondence paradigm+ ho8ever+ are+ and can only be+ bet8een actual mental events >even if these are ultimately brain:processes?I the correspondences might Dust conceivably involve events in dissociated or subconscious streams of consciousness+ but they could not be bet8een events in one personFs mind and inert memories stored a8ay in another personFs memory:store' 4or in the absence of scanning there could be no principle by 8hich one out of the innumerable coded memories in A'Fs memory:store is selected to bring about a corresponding effect on current events in B'Fs mind' .he only possible form of selection 8ould consist in A'Fs activating the memory' But 8hy should not the event in B'Fs mind conform itself to 8hatever memory in A'Fs memory: store represents the information 8hich B' needsA B'Fs need then constitutes the principle of selection' .o suggest this is to endo8 B'Fs mind 8ith a po8er of selective discrimination among A'Fs memories 8hich is simply scanning in disguise' $ne could continue debating these issues more or less indefinitely+ but I do not see the super:ESP hypothesis becoming any more plausible 8ithin the frame8or9 of the correspondence paradigm' <(37< .o recapitulate: I distinguished t8o 9inds of theory about ho8 mental mediums+ and especially trance mediums+ achieved their successes' Both involved attributing ESP to them' $ne theoryJthe super:ESP theoryJsuggested that they obtain all their information by telepathically tapping the memory:stores of living persons+ clairvoyantly scanning archives+ etc' According to the other theory discarnate persons may sometimes influence the course and content of mediumistic KcommunicationsF by a process+ presumably telepathic in nature+ 8hich I termed Kovershado8ingF' I then outlined t8o approaches to the Huestion of ho8 ESP is to be conceived' 4ollo8ing Palmer+ I called these the KtransmissionF paradigm and the KcorrespondenceF paradigm' I argued that the transmission paradigm is incoherent+ and that furthermore no sense can be made of the super:ESP hypothesis 8ithin either paradigm' It remains for me to as9 8hether the theory of overshado8ing stands in better case'

./ershadowing
It seems to me that this theory could be given some sort of more or less intelligible e;pression 8ithin either the transmission paradigm or the correspondence paradigm' Its most straightfor8ard e;pression 8ould be in terms of the transmission paradigm' &e should have to suppose a largely passive KreceiverF >the medium? 8hose stream of thought and action is

sufficiently labile to be directed and influenced by the endeavours of an active >and generally discarnate? KsenderF' .he relationship bet8een events in the senderFs mind and events in the receiverFs mind might >in favourable cases? be a fairly straightfor8ard one+ so that 8hen the sender thought of certain 8ords or of a certain person or scene+ similar 8ords+ or a similar picture+ came into the receiverFs mind' It might+ ho8ever+ be less easy to give 8ithin the transmission paradigm an account of ho8 the discarnate person becomes a8are of+ and thus is able to respond to+ 8hat is said and done in the mediumFs vicinity' *nfortunately the transmission paradigm is+ or so I have argued+ untenable upon other grounds+ and the correspondence paradigm does not generate Huite such a simple account of the proposed process of Kovershado8ingF' In general terms+ of course+ 8e might suppose that a mediumFs stream of thought and action is so fle;ible and so Huic9 to KcorrespondF 8ith another personFs+ that a 8ily and 9no8ledgeable discarnate influence can e;ploit this fact to KdriveF it' But many problems arise to 8hich no very obvious solutions present themselves' < (32< Earlier in the chapter I suggested that in cases of+ for instance+ Kreciprocal dreamsF 8e must postulate correspondence in respect of some general idea+ 8hich each participant elaborates in his or her o8n 8ay' K$vershado8ingF+ ho8ever+ 8ould on the 8hole reHuire much more specific correspondences' &hat determines in a given case the level of generality or specificity of the correspondencesM &hat determines+ also+ 8hich mind Kovershado8sF the otherM Must 8e invo9e motivation+ concentration+ attention+ need+ purpose+ personality factors+ role:playing+ etcM "o clear ans8ers are currently available' .hese obscurities are+ ho8ever+ less difficulties for the overshado8ing hypothesis as such+ than symptoms of the undeveloped state of the correspondence paradigm+ a paradigm 8hich has only Huite recently come to the fore' I do not thin9 that they render the general notion of overshado8ing unintelligible' .he main problem 8hich confronts the theory of overshado8ing is not 8hether it is intelligible+ 8hich it is+ at least up to a point+ but 8hether it coheres 8ith the empirical facts concerning ESP' 4or central to the 8hole theory is the idea that the sender+ or the dominant partner in the KcorrespondenceF relationship+ by some 9ind of special concentration or endeavour can directly influence the course of the receiverFs or mediumFs thoughts and actions' Some 8riters+ %r #ouisa hine for e;ample+ tend to deny that in cases of apparent spontaneous telepathy concentration or activity by the supposed sender has any effectI in a substantial number of cases the supposed sender remains una8are that he has sent' A fe8 e;periments+ ho8ever+ do suggest that concentration or strong 8illing by an agent may have a positive effect >see ((2a+ pp' -CG()3?' .he issue is one that reHuires further investigation+ on the results of 8hich the tenability of the theory of overshado8ing 8ill depend' .he e;periments concerned might 8ell in effect be ones on Kmediumistic communication by the livingF+ a topic 8hich I shall mention again shortly' >By analogy 8ith cases of trance mediumship one might suppose that such KcommunicationF 8ould be facilitated if the subDect 8ere to imagine himself to be the KsenderF and 8ere to spea9 in that role'? <(3-<

1< $./ershadowing) and the %u&er'E%( H"&othesis ; the Data

My feeling+ thenJand I deliberately spea9 of KfeelingF rather than of KDudgementF because of the obscurities and uncertainties 8hich confront one 8hichever direction one moves inJis that the theory of overshado8ing can be e;pressed 8ithin either of the t8o leading models of or paradigms for ESP+ 8hilst the super:ESP hypothesis ma9es sense 8ithin neither' But one 8ould be ill:advised to let a decision bet8een the super:ESP hypothesis and the theory of overshado8ing hang largely upon the abstract issue of their agreement or other8ise 8ith some speculative frame8or9 of thought' !o8 far do they fit the factsM .hat is the decisive HuestionJor rather 8ould be if 8e could ma9e the theories definite enough for the Huestion to be ans8erableP .he super:ESP hypothesis is a peculiarly elusive theory+ and I am conscious that I have hitherto invo9ed it and attac9ed it 8ithout any attempt to set it forth systematically' .he trouble is that it is not so much a theory as an attitude of mindJan attitude 8hich simply refuses to admit that there is or ever could #e any evidence for survival 8hich cannot be e;plained a8ay in terms of the psi faculties+ especially the ESP+ of living percipients and mediums' .he postulated reach of ESP is progressively e;tended to cover any ne8 evidence+ indeed any possible evidence+ that may come in' A Dustification of this elastic 8ay of thought is usually given by appeal to some principle of simplicity or parsimony' &e 9no8 that ESP ta9es place+ the argument goes+ but 8e have no independent evidence for the spirits of the deadI hence it is more parsimonious to cast our e;planations only in terms of the former' By so doing 8e avoid postulating a 8holly ne8 class of entities' Considerations of parsimony+ ho8ever+ have to be 8eighed against considerations of factual adeHuacy' A theory that 8ill not do the Dob cannot possibly be parsimonious+ for it 8ill soon get snared in a hopeless tangle of supplementary assumptions' .he central plan9 of the super: ESP hypothesis must be that ESP of the reHuired degree <(6)< >reHuired that is to e;plain a8ay the most stri9ing mediumistic data? ta9es placeI and 8hether 8e consider the literature of e;perimental or of spontaneous ESP 8e come across little to suggest that it can' .he e;perimental material is indeed very difficult to relate to the Huestion at hand' In 8hat is+ I thin9+ by far the best recent survey of it+ /ohn Palmer >((2a? concludes there is no evidence that ESP is limited by either separation in space+ separation in time or the physical characteristics of the target' But the targets used in modern ESP e;periments >Bener cards+ the outputs of binary random number generators+ etc'? are totally unli9e+ and+ so far as one can tell+ usually much simpler than+ the KtargetsF >memory traces in distant brains+ printed obituary notices+ etc'? upon 8hich mediums must score regular KhitsF if the super:ESP hypothesis is correct' 4urthermore+ even the most successful subDects in laboratory ESP e;periments do not achieve KhitF rates 8hich suggest that one could KcommunicateF messages to them' An outstanding scorer might correctly guess 6L) cards in ())) in tests 8here one 8ould e;pect 3L) hits any8ay+ KDust by chanceF' It seems to me that if one compares the most successful mental mediums+ on the one hand+ 8ith the most successful laboratory subDects+ or percipients in spontaneous cases+ on the other+ the former greatly outstrip the latter in at least the follo8ing respects+ of all of 8hich I have given e;amples in the preceding chapters' (' .he rapid and occasionally almost non:stop flo8 of paranormal 9no8ledge sometimes e;hibitedJin the best instances a flo8 of 9no8ledge comparable to that 8hich might occur in an ordinary conversation' 3' .he detailed 9no8ledge and the 9no8ledge of detail sho8n by the ostensible communicators+ again+ of course in the most favourable instances'

6' .he retailing of information 8hich+ if obtained telepathically from living persons >as+ according to the super:ESP hypothesis+ it must have been? could only have come from distant persons 8hose very e;istence 8as un9no8n to the medium+ and 8ho had almost certainly not been consciously thin9ing about the facts concerned at any recent or relevant time' 5' .he retailing of information 8hich+ if obtained by ESP not involving deceased persons+ must have been assembled and put together from several different sources+ often including ones 8hich 8ould also fall under 6 above' .he problem of ho8 the medium might be supposed+ on the super:ESP hypothesis+ to locate such sources is >as I <(6(< pointed out in Chapters 4our and 4ive? a very considerable one' L' .he e;hibition of intellectual s9ills and attainments not hitherto characteristic of the medium+ but formerly characteristic of a person no8 dead+ s9ills and characteristics 8hich+ on the super:ESP hypothesis+ must have been temporarily caught from living persons by some sort of telepathic contagion' C' .he realistic delineation+ sometimes involving impersonation+ of the personality characteristics+ 8ay of thought+ turns of phrase+ tone of voice+ gestures+ etc' of a deceased personI the ability to put on a personation of a given individual being a 9ind of s9ill 8hich could not >I argued in Chapter Seven? be caught telepathically from living persons' 7' Co:ordination of the ESP of several sensitives+ so that 8hile the productions of each are individually pointless+ ta9en together they constitute a meaningful pattern >cf' Chapter Si;?' Add to these considerations the fact that the mediums 8ho+ 8hen purportedly contacting or transmitting messages from the dead+ e;hibit such unparalleled ESP+ are commonly not by any means star subDects in ESP tests+ and 8e 8ould appear to have a formidable case against the super:ESP hypothesis as applied to the best mediumistic material' "othing that 8e have so far learned about ESP licences us to claim that ESP can do the Dob 8hich the super:ESP hypothesis reHuires of it'

!he E/idence for %u&er'E%(

So can 8e decisively reDect the super:ESP hypothesesM Alas+ nothing in parapsychology is ever clear:cut or straightfor8ard' I have omitted to mention t8o further factors 8hich have a bearing on the issue' .he first of these is the performances of certain sensitives 8ho might loosely be described as fortune:tellers' .he investigations most freHuently cited are those of a 4rench physician+ E' $sty+ %irector from (-3C to (-62 of the Institut MetapsychiHue of Paris >((C?' $styFs sensitives+ it is alleged+ e;hibited e;trasensory po8ers amounting to 8hat could Dustifiably be called Ksuper:ESPF+ and did so 8ithout any suggestion that the information originated from spirits' !ence+ it is argued by %odds and others+ 8e have undeniable evidence that certain persons indeed possess super:ESP' 4urthermore these persons cannot as a class be sharply distinguished from the class of mental mediums' KClairvoyantF mediums often tal9 very much li9e fortune:tellers+ ma9e predictions about their sittersF futures+ diagnose their ailments+ etc' In <(63< fact the guides of trance mediums often act in very much the same 8ay+ 8ith respect to sitters and also 8ith respect to other supposed inmates of the ne;t 8orld' It follo8s that the difference bet8een fortune:tellers and mental mediums is not that the latter tap a source of information that the former do not+ vi@' deceased persons+ but that the latter dramati@e the deliverances of their super:ESP as messages from the departed' >Similar arguments have been advanced+ e'g' by Andre8 #ang R27bS+ in connection 8ith the

achievements of scryers or crystal ga@ers+ but I shall neglect these since the cases appear to be much the same'? &hat+ then+ 8ere the performances of $styFs sensitives li9eM !e seems to have found many such personsJ4rance has a long tradition of themJand his custom 8as either to arrange sittings for persons 9no8n to him+ and ta9e notes himself+ or else to hand the sensitive an obDect 8hich has been 8orn or carried by the person about 8hom information 8as desired >Mrs Piper+ li9e many mediums+ sometimes made use of such Kto9en obDectsF or Kpsychometric obDectsF?' .he obDects seemed in some 8ay to lin9 the sensitive to the absent person but their use 8as not essentialJit 8as usually sufficient if $sty merely thought of the Ktarget personF or handed the medium a photograph' I Huote verbatim a sensitiveFs delineation of a certain Mme 4'+ about 8hom $sty 9ne8 ne;t to nothing+ but of 8hom he 8as thin9ing >the omissions+ represented by dots+ are $styFs o8n?: .his is a 8oman 8ith auburn hair+ good:loo9ing+ decidedly good:loo9ing' I thin9 her fran9 and sincere+ but she 9no8s ho8 to be other8ise on occasion' She is gay+ amiable+ sympathetic+ rather depressed sometimes+ and then e;uberant Q she is liable to these ups and do8ns+ as if there 8ere t8o natures in her' She had a strong 8ill Q although nervous+ she can control herself' She is conscious of the "orth' She is fond of music+ gaiety+ but of 8or9 too' !er past has been cloudy+ there are things in it that are not clear Q I thin9 she 8as illegitimate+ there 8as some secret about her birth Q some personage is concerned Q could he have been her fatherM !er father seems to have been a 8ell:9no8n personage+ an important person' .here is a 8ido8 Q her mother 8as a 8ido8 8hen her daughter 8as born' She 8as attended by a very fe8 persons' It 8as a difficult birthI there 8as a doctor and a priest' !er mother had t8o other children' She 8as a light 8oman+ had lovers Q not 8orth much Q is still coHuettish and does not trouble herself to see her daughter' .he poor child lived a8ay from her mother' &hat changes and travels' I see her 8ith a 8ic9ed 8oman' She must have gone abroad 8hen Huite <(66< young Q .here is a 8oman near her 8ho has been in prison' $hP .hefts and imprisonmentJ8hat surroundingsM She has been beaten and roughly treated' "o 8orse people could be found than those among 8hom she gre8 upI they 8ere capable of anything+ 8ould have made her a lost 8oman' !appily the child had an honest nature' She has 8ept much' Many changes from one to8n to another' !er mother came bac9 to her' .hey 8rote to each other and met about her marriage' .he mother 8ill ma9e a little revelation before she dies' .he young 8oman is married no8 and very happy' !er husband is good and clever Q he seems to be a chief over others Q he 8ears a uniform and is much at seaJhas travelled much and 8ill travel more' >((C+ pp' -3G-6? .o cut a long story short+ a large part of the information given 8as confirmed by t8o of Mme 4'Fs close friends' But almost none of it 8as 9no8n to the sitter+ $sty' &e therefore have here a case in 8hich a sensitive gives detailed+ copious and correct information about a distant living person 8ithout anyone possessing that information being actually present' In one or t8o of $styFs cases+ furthermore+ correct information 8as given 8hich 8as probably neither all 9no8n to any one distant person+ nor contained in any 8ritten record+ document+ etc'+

8hich might be supposed accessible to clairvoyance' E;trasensory 9no8ledge as e;tensive as that displayed by fairly good mediums is here being displayed in a non:mediumistic conte;t' .he super:ESP hypothesis+ 8hich loo9ed in a poor 8ay only a fe8 paragraphs bac9+ no8 begins to ta9e on a healthier tingeJor at least it 8ould do if $styFs 8or9 8ere above criticism' *nfortunately $styFs standards of evidence and presentation >the t8o are hardly separable? leave a great deal to be desired' It is clear+ for e;ample+ that the cases he actually gives are only a very limited selection from an indefinitely larger mass of material+ much of 8hich represented the errors and confabulations of his sensitives' Even his individual case reports are edited and heavily abridged+ and 8e have no means of 9no8ing 8hat 8as left out' !is verifications of his sensitivesF statements are freHuently by no means adeHuateJin the case I Huoted+ for instance+ 8hich is not untypical+ the verification 8as at second:hand' .he lady to 8hom the statements purportedly referred 8as not herself consulted' I thin9 it is almost certain that 8ere the 8hole of $styFs materials laid before us+ the cases he Huotes 8ould appear less rather than more impressive' I could 8ell understand the position of someone 8ho argued that 8e should reDect $styFs findings altogether' <(65< "one the less I cannot myself so comprehensively reDect them' It 8ould ta9e an immense mass of erroneous material to out8eigh $styFs more remar9able cases+ and a great deal of misrecording and misverification to undermine them' .hey receive some support from comparable findings by others >e'g' Pagenstecher+ ((7I Prince+ (3Lc+ (3Le?' And they have some curious and fascinating features' Consider+ for e;ample+ the case I have Dust Huoted' Can one possibly attribute the KhitsF to telepathyM .he sensitive gave >as often happened? a sort of conspectus or prZcis of the subDectFs life' $ne can hardly suppose that the subDect herself 8as revolving such a prZcis in her mind and thus broadcasting it to the 8orld' "or can one plausibly suppose that the sensitive Huic9ly scanned the memory:store of her distant subDect and 8as immediately able to e;tract therefrom the series of general facts reHuiredJespecially 8hen one adds that in many cases this sort of conspectus 8as apparently continued into the future' Clairvoyance is not a possible e;planationJit is not stated that the main facts of the subDectFs life 8ere any8here recorded in physical form' It seems to me that 8hat 8e have here does not >in most instances? suggest a telepathic cogni@ing of the subDectFs memory:storeI it suggests rather the direct acHuisition >8hatever that may mean? of propositional 9no8ledge about the subDect' If I understand $styFs some8hat vague remar9s aright+ this is the sort of conclusion to8ards 8hich he too is driven' !e points out that the visions and images 8hich pass before the minds of his sensitives cannot be regarded as perceptions of distant persons+ scenes+ etc' .hey are often symbolic in formI and the same piece of information can present itself to the same sensitive in numerous different guises' It is as though 8hat the sensitive grasps is on a conceptual level+ a level of propositional or factual 9no8ledge+ 8hich she then translates into the language of sensory imagery >cf' (C3bI also 55d and 55e+ pp' C(7GC(2?' I am not sure that this sort of 9no8ledge:acHuisition fits into the conventional categories of ESP at all' .he 9no8ledge is+ one may note+ 9no8ledge primarily about people and thus differs mar9edly from the K9no8ledgeF 8hich it is hoped that e'g' subDects in card:guessing e;periments 8ill display' .o return to my main theme: If >and it is a si@able KifF? 8e accept an appreciable percentage of $styFs findings+ there can be little doubt that the super:ESP hypothesis must+ so far as mediumistic material is concerned+ appear a good deal more plausible' .he gap bet8een 8hat mediums can do and 8hat ESP >I call it ESP for lac9 of a better name? <(6L< can achieve has been appreciably narro8ed' !o8 far it has been narro8ed I shall enHuire shortly'

I must emphasi@e at this point that I do not thin9 $styFs findings ma9e the super:ESP hypothesis more plausible so far as either the cases of apparitions discussed in later chapters of this boo9+ or the reincarnation cases 8hich 8ill be discussed in Chapter .8elve belo8+ are concerned' 4or $styFs sensitives 8ere+ if 8e accept his accounts+ clearly persons 8ith very unusual abilitiesI 8hereas there is much to suggest that both the percipients of veridical apparitions+ and the KreincarnatedF personalities in the more stri9ing reincarnation cases+ are not on the 8hole especially endo8ed 8ith such gifts' I said a fe8 pages ago that I had left out t8o factors from my preliminary assessment of the super:ESP hypothesis' .he first of these 8as the performance of sensitives li9e those studied by $sty' I no8 come to the second+ 8hich is the evidence+ such as it is+ that mediums actually do incorporate in their representations of deceased persons information obtained by ESP directed upon persons or events in this 8orld' I cited earlier some instances in 8hich Mrs Piper had apparently done thisI and there 8ere similar happenings 8ith Mrs #eonard' 4or instance one evening Mrs Salter heard in conversation a story about a man 8ho 8ore several pairs of trousers simultaneously' .he ne;t day her father+ the late Professor A' &' Eerrall+ communicated through Mrs #eonard and erroneously stated that he had once 8orn t8o pairs of trousers >(62b+ p' 63)?' >Some allo8ance must ho8ever be made in the assessment of such e;amples for chanceI on ho8 many occasions did sitters hear prior to sittings odd stories 8hich 8ere not retailed at the ne;t sittingM? .he late %r S' G' Soal claimed to have telepathically foisted a fictitious communicator of his o8n invention upon Mrs Blanche Cooper+ a 8ell:9no8n #ondon medium' Soal 8ould invent KfactsF about this control+ K/ohn 4ergusonF+ prior to a sittingI and these facts 8ould often then be unambiguously communicated to him >(57+ pp' L36GL52?' &e have thus: >a? apparent evidence that persons in many 8ays indistinguishable from mediums can e;ercise po8ers of ESP so mar9ed that they might 8ell be called super:ESP 8ithout there being the slightest suggestion that the information concerned is purveyed by spiritsI and >b? evidence that mediums may incorporate in their representations of deceased persons information acHuired by telepathy 8ith the <(6C< living or by clairvoyance of the physical 8orld' Put >a? and >b? together+ and you come up 8ith the possibility that mediums may utili@e super: ESP in their portrayals of communication from the dead' And indeed there is at least one case in 8hich this apparently happened' .he case concerned+ the KGordon %avisF case+ is again one recorded by Soal during his sittings 8ith Mrs Blanche Cooper >(57+ pp' LC)GL-6?' In outline it goes as follo8s' $n 5 /anuary (-33 a communicator calling himself KGordon %avisF began to spea9 in a clear and strong voice >Mrs Cooper 8as a direct voice medium?' Gordon %avis 8as an old school acHuaintance 8hom Soal believed had been 9illed in the 4irst &orld &ar' .he communicator did not state that he had been 9illed+ but said+ KMy poor 8ife is my only 8orry no8Jand 9iddie'F !e referred correctly and unmista9ably to matters relating to their past acHuaintance+ and used forms of 8ords characteristic of the real Gordon %avis' At t8o later sittings+ "ada+ a regular control of Mrs CooperFs+ described in considerable detail certain e;ternal features of Gordon %avisFs house+ and made some Huite specific references to the furniture+ pictures and ornaments inside it' In (-3L Soal learned that Gordon %avis 8as still alive+ and 8ent to see

him' !e found that much of 8hat "ada said about the house and its contents 8as correctI yet %avis+ and his K8ife and 9iddieF+ had not moved in until a year after the relevant sittings' %avisFs diary sho8ed that at the times of these sittings he had been intervie8ing clients >he 8as a house agent?' &e seem to have here an instance of the construction of a mediumistic communicator by means of telepathy 8ith the sitter plus precognitive telepathy or clairvoyance relating to a distant living person' KSuper:ESPF seems an appropriate term to describe 8hat 8as going onI and if it could occur in this case+ 8hy not in others+ indeed in all the others that have been presented as evidence for survivalM 4or the $sty cases+ and others li9e them+ sho8 that many persons besides Mrs Cooper can e;ercise super:ESP' %o the considerations Dust advanced suffice to ma9e the super:ESP hypothesis once again seem plausible+ and to render the theory of overshado8ing+ 8ith its survivalistic implications+ unnecessaryM I thin9 that they do not altogether do so+ for the follo8ing reasons: (' Some 8eight must be allo8ed to the criticisms of $sty 8hich I detailed above' 3' .he performances of even $styFs best sensitives do not+ I thin9+ <(67< Huite measure up to the achievements of the most remar9able mediums in point of rapidity of information flo8+ and the level of detail conveyed' .he Piper:Sutton sittings+ 8ith their mass of identifying detail+ including names+ 8ill convey something of 8hat I mean >see Chapter .hree?' $r again: Mrs PiperFs !odgson:control reminded a sitter of the very )ords the living !odgson had once used in telling him a story' 6' Similar considerations apply 8ith regard to the detailed delineation of personal characteristics+ voice+ gestures+ mannerisms+ turns of phrase+ etc'+ and the presentation of a tout ensem#le of these+ in 8hich some trance mediums have+ as I pointed out in Chapter Seven+ achieved an astonishing verisimilitude+ a verisimilitude the attainment of 8hich+ I argued+ is itself a s9ill of a 9ind not to be acHuired by the mere gathering of information >8hether by ESP or more ordinary means? about the person concerned' 5' More generally+ $styFs sensitives give no sign of the paranormal acHuisition of s9ills and attainments >see Chapter Seven above+ and Chapters Eleven and .8elve belo8?I rather the sensitives have so to spea9 their o8n specialist capacities >medical clairvoyance+ depiction of intellectual states+ etc'? 8hich determine the type of material they can most successfully obtain' L' "or+ in general+ do $styFs sensitives so co:ordinate their individual deliverances concerning a particular individual or topic that separately those deliverances are meaningless+ but together they add up' !o8ever to say this is not to say that they could not have done soI for+ clearly+ their activities 8ere carried on in a conte;t 8ithin 8hich such Kcross:correspondencesF 8ere not called for' C' .he Gordon %avis case does not Huite suffice to undermine some of the more stri9ing mediumistic cases' 4or in the latter the medium must+ according to the super:ESP hypothesis+ have assembled the reHuisite information by telepathically tapping several different sources+ none of 8hom 8as the alleged communicator' In the Gordon %avis case the principal source must have been %avis >the communicator? himself'

7' It is hard to avoid some degree of suspicion that Soal may have KimprovedF the Gordon %avis case' .here is no8 no doubt at all that he manipulated the results of his famous card: guessing e;periments >--?' .he Gordon %avis case has remained for over fifty years 8ithout a real parallel+ and certain features of it raise doubtsJe'g' SoalFs claim that he 8as able to record the mediumFs statements in detail in the dar9 using <(62< only his left hand+ and the fact that his brother signed a statement that he had read the communications+ 8hich too9 place in 4ebruary (-33+ in the Christmas vacation of (-3(' $n balance+ then+ it seems to me that the super:ESP hypothesis cannot be Dustifiably e;tended to cover all the data 8hich 8ere set forth in Chapters .hree to Seven above' In so far as the theory of overshado8ing seems at present to be the most viable alternative to the super:ESP hypothesis+ the former may perhaps dra8 strength+ or at least comfort+ from the latterFs shortcomings' !o8ever+ as I have several times emphasi@ed+ a theory cannot be adeHuately established Dust by undermining its only apparent rival' Its o8n pros and cons must+ so far as possible+ be independently scrutini@ed'

!he #ase for ./ershadowing

It 8ill be best to tac9le the pros and cons of the theory of overshado8ing in t8o parts' .here is firstly the Huestion of its survivalistic implications' If the theory is correct+ some8here KbehindF the trance and other utterances of certain mediums there sometimes lie the actual deceased persons 8ho purport to be communicating' &hat evidence can 8e find telling against this idea+ and 8hat for itM Secondly there is the Huestion of the nature of Kovershado8ingF+ 8hich+ on the face of it+ must be a form of telepathic interaction' %o 8e have any evidence that this sort of telepathic interaction can occurM I turn first to the theoryFs survivalistic implications' &ith one standard obDection to the survivalistic interpretation of the phenomena of mental mediumship the theory of overshado8ing can easily cope' I refer to the complaint so often made that the late so and so >a man of incisive mind and distinguished prose style? could not possibly be responsible for the reams of vapid rubbish he has allegedly 8ritten >or spo9en? through the agency of such and such a medium or automatist' .he obvious ans8er is that the rubbish comes from the mediumI the flashes of 9no8ledge and intelligence >if any? from the communicator' In general 8e 8ould e;pect on the theory of overshado8ing that the contents of automatic 8ritings+ trance utterances+ etc'+ 8ould be limited to matter 8ithin the mediumFs o8n grasp' 4or according to the theory of overshado8ing+ it is her intelligence+ not that of the supposed overshado8ing entity+ that communicates directly 8ith the sitters' $ne 8ould e;pect that ideas outside the scope of her o8n conceptual eHuipment could be Kgot <(6-< throughF+ if at all+ only in a roundabout and circuitous 8ay' $f this there are one or t8o apparent e;amples >see LdI (2c+ pp' 6)2G6(5?' .he other standard obDections to the survivalistic interpretation are of a more general 9ind+ and 8ill be discussed in Chapter .hirteen belo8' &hat+ then+ can be said in favour of the theory of overshado8ing in so far as that theory is one 8hich implies survivalM &hat positive indications can 8e glimpse that the Kovershado8ingF is carried out by deceased persons hidden+ as it 8ere+ from our vie8+ but manifesting themselves through their influence upon a mediumFs dream life and dramati@ing tendenciesM

$ne must tread carefully here' .he immediate temptation is to ans8er this Huestion by citing sample cases in 8hich mediumistic communicators have retailed copious and correct information about their lives on earth+ information 8hich the medium could not possibly have acHuired by ordinary means' %o not such cases strongly suggest that the deceased persons themselves are some8here in the bac9ground+ directing and influencing the communicationsM .he trouble 8ith this line of argument is+ of course+ as follo8s' .he proposed process of overshado8ing+ though its nature remains obscure+ must be or involve or Hualify as a form of telepathic interaction' !ence to the e;tent that overshado8ing is alleged to occur 8e are invo9ing a form of ESP' And 8hen the communicators are fluent and successful 8e are invo9ing fluent and successful ESP' But as soon as 8e do this+ the theory of overshado8ing is in danger of losing any advantages it may have over the super:ESP hypothesis' 4or if 8e are going to postulate fluent and successful ESP+ 8hy not let it be ESP involving only living persons >the ones 8ho possess the information 8hich confirms the mediumFs statements?M .hus it is not so much to the Huantity and detail of the material retailed by mediumistic communicators that 8e might loo9 for indications of an overshado8ing discarnate agent+ as to the 8ay in 8hich that material is patterned and deployed' .he Huestion of the patterning and deployment of material in effect figured prominently among the issues 8ith 8hich+ I suggested+ the super:ESP hypothesis cannot adeHuately cope' It is over Dust these issues that the theory of overshado8ing comes into its o8n' .he super:ESP hypothesis has difficulty over cases in 8hich it must assume that the medium integrated into her personation of one communicator information obtained by ESP directed upon a number of different living or < (5)< contemporary sources >8hich must furthermore be located?I the theory of overshado8ing+ of course+ simply says that since the overshado8ing agent already possesses all the information+ the need for integration does not arise' .he super:ESP hypothesis runs into trouble 8hen communicators e;hibit intellectual capacities and s9ills 8hich the medium does not possess+ for acHuiring such capacities and s9ills does not consist simply in learning lists of facts of the 9ind to 8hich ESP might be supposed to give one access: the theory of overshado8ing says that the deceased agent is using his still surviving s9ill or capacity in directing the mediumFs activities >if+ ho8ever+ the s9ill is one+ li9e a linguistic s9ill+ involving a bodily element+ the problem is more comple;?' .he super:ESP hypothesis had problems 8ith cases in 8hich a mediumFs personation of a certain deceased person has been particularly lifeli9e and convincing+ for there is an immense gap bet8een accumulating factual 9no8ledge about a certain deceased person and developing the s9ill of giving a realistic impersonation of himI the theory of overshado8ing holds that the deceased person in Huestion is himself KbehindF the mediumFs KimpersonationF' .he super:ESP hypothesis has great difficulty in accounting for cases of the Kcross:correspondenceF 9ind+ in 8hich different and separately meaningless parts of one meaningful communication appear in the productions of different mediums or sensitivesI the theory of overshado8ing can propose that the same intelligent agency overshado8ed them all' I have already discussed these issues in some detail in earlier parts of this boo9+ and there is no point in elaborating them further no8' .he overall upshot is this' In certain cases over 8hich the super:ESP hypothesis loses impetus and begins to flounder 8e can detect hints of the operation of 8hat 8e may perhaps call Kovershado8ingF agencies imposing characteristic+ recogni@able and appropriate patterns upon the fantasies and personations dreamed up by the medium and fed by her po8ers of ESP' .he patterns are over+ above+ and beyond anything 8hich can be plausibly accounted for by the mediumFs o8n ESP+ even if 8e suppose her to possess unusual dramatic gifts' It therefore loo9s as though 8e have here 8hat can reasonably be regarded as positive evidence in favour of the theory of overshado8ing'

.here are t8o further groups of cases+ not easy to define+ 8hich I have not so far mentioned+ that seem to me to provide further evidence of the same 9ind' .he first is that of cases in 8hich mediumistic communicators have given their sitters not e;actly facts un9no8n to <(5(< persons present or outside the 9no8ledge of anyone at all+ but 8hat may be called insights into episodes in their o8n earthly lives+ insights 8hich once received can be seen to be valid+ but 8hich had not previously been thought of+ still less 8ritten do8n+ by anyone at all+ and 8hich the medium could therefore not have obtained by ESP' Consider the follo8ing remar9s by &alter 4ran9lin Prince >(2C6G(-65?+ by far the ablest and most Dudicious American psychical researcher of his day+ upon some sittings 8hich he and his adopted daughter+ .heodosia+ had 8ith Mrs KCheno8ethF after the death of his 8ife' Q It 8as the peculiar selective character of the details purporting to come from my 8ife and relating to her last 8ee9s on earth 8hich most impressed me 8hen I reali@ed it Q in the alleged communications there is no hint of the features of the case 8hich to us stood out so prominently+ and in fact she never 9ne8 8hat her malady really 8as+ she never reali@ed that there 8as an open 8ound+ and she e;pected+ up to her last five minutes+ to get better and return to her home' $n the contrary+ 8hat 8e do find is a multitude of true little details+ her bac9 being rubbed+ her head rubbed in a particular 8ay+ the trouble 8ith her foot and 9nee+ continuing sensations of hunger+ the sensitiveness of her head 8hen her hair 8as 8ashed or combed+ feeling that she 8ould be all right again+ trouble 8ith her bac9 to8ards the last+ yet not being permitted to lie on her side+ the chic9en broth 8hich .heodosia brought her+ the trouble her KstoreF teeth 8ere to her+ a sensation of fulness in the chest and of bad pain in the abdomen+ pain stopping all at once >from the opiate?+ comforting visions of her relatives+ sense of rebellion associated 8ith death+ etc' It came to me as I scanned this list that it 8as these details and others li9e them that had loomed large in my 8ifeFs sic9 mind Q I+ .heodosia+ or both of us+ 9ne8 all the above details+ but some 8ere 8an and fading images in our minds+ luridly overshado8ed by the memories I have mentioned and others' >3+ pp' 3)3G 6? .he KinsightF in this case is into 8hat might be described as the late Mrs PrinceFs 8hole point of vie8 during the last fe8 8ee9s of her life' .he facts 8ere 9no8n to Prince and his daughter+ and probably to them alone+ but the point of vie) 8as not fully appreciated by them' Aet it 8as the point of vie) that 8as communicated to them' It 8as as though the mediumFs selection and presentation of the facts >facts perhaps accessible to her ESP? 8as shaped and directed by an e;ternal overshado8ing presence' Prince goes on: "othing that 8e 9no8 or thin9 8e 9no8 of telepathy 8ould lead us to suppose that it acts other8ise than after the analogy of a mechanical force+ gives ground to suppose that it dramati@es+ intelligently adopts the <(53< vie8point of a third person+ and selects to suit the characteristics of that person' It appears as though there 8ere the stamp of Mrs PrinceFs mind upon the details alleged in the te;t to be connected 8ith her' .he second group of cases is even more difficult to define than the first+ yet it contains cases that can be individually and collectively Huite impressive' KCasesF is+ ho8ever+ perhaps the 8rong 8ord' &hat I have in mind are the some8hat numerous small incidents occurring in the course of successful sittings+ in 8hich KcommunicationF seems to encounter a bloc9age 8hich the communicating intelligence tries by various stratagems to circumvent' !ere is an e;ample from an interesting paper by &' 4' Prince >a paper in 8hich he is 8eighing up considerations for and against the super:ESP hypothesis?'

.heodosia PrinceFs mother+ controlling Mrs KCheno8ethF+ 8as trying to remind her daughter of a visit to a neighbourFs to see a calf >colloHuially a KBossyF?' &hat came ne;t 8as >roughly? as follo8s: K&e 8ent to a neighbourFs to see a pet BunnyJpauseJpet Bunny BB BunnyJpauseJ"o+ it 8as a pet Bunny BB Bunny BJlong pauseJ>medium moans? Mil9 Ja small co8 Bossy'F As Prince remar9s: &ho can doubt that someone or something intended KBossyF Q from the firstM Else 8hy did the communicator stop at Bunny every time and begin again+ e;press dissatisfaction+ pause as though pondering 8hat 8as the matter or ho8 to remedy it+ e;perience emotion 8hich e;torted moans from the medium+ and finally say Ksmall co8F as though to avoid the 8ord beginning 8ith BM If t8o minds 8ere engaged in the process+ the second receiving from the first+ 8e can see ho8 this second+ call it the KcontrolF or the mediumFs subconscious+ 8ould+ 8hen the Kpet BJF 8as reached+ conceive the picture of a rabbit and cling to the preference for some time despite the efforts of the first mind to dislodge it' >(3Ld+ pp' ()2G()-'? .o e;plain such incidents in terms of the super:ESP theory 8e 8ould+ I thin9+ have to postulate that the medium 8as at some level all the time a8are of 8hat she 8ished to communicate+ and chose to Kput it throughF in this obliHue fashion in order to heighten the impression that an e;ternal intelligence 8as indeed present and active in the business' But this is to attribute to the medium not Dust super:ESP but fantastic s9ill and subtlety as an impersonator and dramatist+ an e;tra assumption 8hich should clearly be avoided if possible' .here is no doubt+ as Prince in effect remar9s+ that an interpretation in terms of the overshado8ing hypothesis is far more straightfor8ard and natural' [ [ [ <(56< I turn no8 to the Kovershado8ingF aspect of the theory of overshado8ing' .he proposed process of Kovershado8ingF+ 8hatever its precise nature+ falls under the general heading of telepathyI and it is a 9ind of telepathy in 8hich the active endeavours of the overshado8ing person must play a decisive role in determining the mental processes of the overshado8ed person' &ithout doubt considerable difficulties confront these notions' .he most obvious one is that+ as I pointed out before+ 8e have only a little e;perimental evidence to support the idea that active KsendingF by a telepathic agent ma9es receipt of the message any more li9ely' $f course not many relevant e;periments have been doneI but it must also be remembered that %r #ouisa hineFs studies of spontaneous cases have >as I said before? led her to a similar >though disputed? conclusion'

#ommunications from the Li/ing

$f relevance in this connection are the various supposed cases of mediumistic communication from the living' .his is a topic 8hich seems to me to be potentially of great interest and importance+ and one that has been commonly neglected by English and American parapsychologists' A number of ostensible cases of such communications are scattered through the literature+ but only a fe8 attempts have been made to collect them together and analyse them >e'g' (5I 37?' 4or e;ample+ Sir #a8rence /ones tells us >7C+ p' 65? that his youngest daughter+ aged nine+ alive but asleep+ several times purported to communicate from a distance through the automatic 8riting of Miss 0ate &ingfield' $n the first occasion she 8as as9ed+ K&hat about the sailor froc9MF .hose present 9ne8 that there 8as a plan to buy her one but nothing of the outcome' .he ans8er came+ K&e 8ent to a shop' Mummie Dust said+

TAou get those things out' .hat is her tallness'U And they got themI nothing else to be done+ no cutting' .hey Dust sent them home' .hatFs 8hat I li9e'F .his turned out to be correct' .he trouble 8ith this case+ as 8ith a good many others+ is that if there 8as a deliberate attempt by the KagentF to send or Kovershado8F+ 8e 9no8 nothing of itJshe 8as asleep at the time' 4urthermore a clairvoyant e;planation can hardly be ruled out' .he nearest 8e can get among cases of Kcommunications from the livingF to a case of overshado8ing is perhaps one reported in the Journal of the SPR in (-36 by a %utch member of the Society+ %r /' E' Suringar >(LL?' In this case a %utch boy of fifteen+ 8ho desired to attend a home <(55< circle in a neighbouring house+ but 8as not allo8ed to+ apparently spelled through the ouiDa board operated in the circle substantial parts of a short poem in English 8hich he had passed the time in reading' &hile the poem 8as actually communicated+ he 8as do@ing' .he communication thus did not+ so far as one can tell+ represent a conscious Kovershado8ingFI but the boyFs thoughts had been very much oriented upon the sitters and the seance' In a substantial proportion+ though by no means all+ of the cases+ the purported communicator has been asleep+ in a state of dissociation+ in a coma+ or dying >see+ for instance+ (L7b+ pp' (6)G(6(?' >In at least one very curious case the ostensible communicator 8as an elderly lady in an advanced state of senile dementia+ 8hich 8ould usually involve e;tensive degeneration of brain cells' .he KcommunicationsF+ though disDointed+ 8ere rational R(53S'? Some+ li9e Bo@@ano+ have seen in this fact an indication that some part of the communicatorFs personality KproDectsF as in Kastral travellingF+ and influences the medium directly' Be that as it may+ the sad fact is that none of these living communicators 8as after8ards able to give an account of their endeavours and e;periencesI so 8e have little information bearing upon the Huestion of 8hether or not they could have been deliberately attempting to overshado8 the mediums' And+ as I said before+ there remains the alternative possibility that the medium got her information by her o8n active ESP+ that is by thought:reading or by clairvoyance' All in all there is at the moment little evidence in favour of overshado8ing or agent:active telepathy: this may 8ell+ ho8ever+ be due to the small amount of 8or9 done and the difficulty of designing conclusive e;periments' It seems to me that studies of attempted communication by the living 8ould be 8ell 8orth underta9ing+ and 8ould combine 8ell 8ith the recent gro8ing interest in out:of:the:body e;periences' Positive results 8ould lend plausibility to the theory of overshado8ingI negative results 8ould 8ea9en itI 8hile certain 9inds of results might altogether undermine the survivalist interpretation of mediumistic phenomenaJfor e;ample if a medium proved able to build up a fictitious communicator from fragments each one of 8hich 8as in the mind of a different living person' Such results 8ould also reflect bac9 upon the Huestion raised in Chapters Si; and Seven+ of Mrs EerrallFs possible role in bringing about certain of the cross:correspondences and literary pu@@les' <(5L< A second difficulty 8hich confronts the notion of overshado8ing >8here overshado8ing is regarded as a form of telepathic interaction? is this' In the most impressive cases of trance mediumship veridical communications from the supposedly overshado8ing communicators can come 8ith considerable fluency and can convey Huite detailed veridical information' .he KfluencyF and detail have fe8 if any parallels in the literature of spontaneous and e;perimental ESP' .he telepathy concerned does not >I argued above? have all the characteristics of Ksuper: ESPF but it is still pretty po8erful stuff' It seems inevitable+ therefore+ that 8e shall have to add to the theory of overshado8ing a postulate to the effect that after oneFs death oneFs

capacities for telepathically sending or overshado8ing+ and also for receiving by ESP 8hat may be called the KreturnF messages+ are greatly enhanced' .he most remar9able cases of trance mediumship illustrate 8hat may happen 8hen a telepathic agent+ 8ith his po8ers thus emancipated+ 8or9s upon a gifted psychicJone+ say+ at least as remar9able as the best of $styFs sensitivesJ8ho adds to these essential gifts the psychological Huir9+ 8hatever it may be >a tendency to dissociation+ perhaps+ or a liability to sin9 into unstructured reverie?+ 8hich ma9es her in addition highly responsive to suggestions conveyed by or implicit in the telepathic influences playing upon her' .he proposal that death can unleash a latent po8er to Kovershado8F may appear 8holly fantastic' But it seems to me that any survivalistic interpretation of the phenomena of trance mediumship is bound to involve itself in suppositions about the liberating effect 8hich death may have upon the decedentFs po8ers of ESP' 4or: >a? persons 8ho have in life sho8n no special gifts of telepathy >either as sender or receiver? seem to have made after death e;cellent mediumistic controls and communicators' >b? Should there be any form of survival of bodily death+ 8e can say for sure that 8e shall no longer possess our present sense organs' If our post:mortem state is not one of total isolation+ loc9ed in the prison of our o8n dreams and memories+ if 8e can sometimes communicate 8ith friends and relatives on earth+ or 8ith other deceased persons+ that communication 8ill by definition come under the heading of ESP' In sum: In Chapter Eight I posed the Huestion of 8hether or not the KcontrolsF of trance mediums can indeed sometimes be the deceased persons 8ith 8hom they claim identity+ possessing and operating the mediumFs nervous machinery much as she does herself' .he evidence+ I <(5C< concluded+ suggests that they cannot be regarded in this light' .hey are most probably Dust phases or aspects of the mediumFs o8n personality' !o8ever it is possible that these phases of the mediumFs mental life+ in addition to favouring the e;ercise of KordinaryF ESP+ may sometimes be directed or Kovershado8edF by the deceased persons 8hom they so to spea9 represent' .here are features of not a fe8 cases upon 8hich it 8ould be very easy to put such an interpretation' Certainly the super:ESP theory+ the theory that mediums in all instances simply put on the sho8 by means of their dramatic gifts and po8ers of ESP+ appears for reasons 8hich I detailed most implausible' $n the other hand I could not find much evidence for the 9ind of active:agent telepathy that might be involved in the supposed process of overshado8ing+ so that overall I feel a good deal more convinced of the shortcomings of the super:ESP hypothesis than I do of the tenability of the theory of overshado8ing' If further investigations fail to yield evidence for such active:agent telepathy 8e might perhaps instead e;plore the possibility that a deceased person may sometimes gain some degree of direct control over the mediumFs neuromuscular apparatusI a control+ ho8ever+ that never fully displaces that of the medium+ 8ho continually influences the conDoint output' A theory of this 9ind 8as occasionally put for8ard by Mrs #eonardFs controls >(2c+ pp' 3C(G 32CI (L7cI (L7i?' !o8ever I do not at the moment find it plausibleI for 8hy should the mediumFs influence so often intervene and override the controlFs Dust 8hen the latter is going to e;hibit literary and philosophical information greatly e;ceeding the mediumFsM And 8hy should it intervene to force the control to appear to give a blessing and a certificate of genuineness to perfectly preposterous KcontrolsF 8ho can be nothing other than fictions dreamed up by the mediumM I shall not attempt to supply ans8ers to these Huestions+ but they bring us conveniently to the topic of the ne;t chapter+ vi@' ostensible e;amples of obsessions and possession'

An ouiDa board sitting' .he pointer spells out 8ords letter by letter 8ithout conscious intervention by the sitters' >Courtesy of A' %' Cornell?

Mrs #eonora Piper >(2L7G(-L)? 8as the first mental medium to provide substantial evidence for paranormal faculties'

&illiam /ames >(253G(-()?+ the great American psychologist+ 8as the first person to investigate Mrs PiperFs mediumship'

$liver #odge >(2L(G(-5)? 8as one of Mrs PiperFs sittersI he handed her a 8atch belonging to a dead uncle and received some appropriate communications'

ichard !odgson >(2LLG(-)L? 8ent to Boston from England to investigate Mrs PiperFs mediumship+ and after his death became one of her controls'

Mrs Gladys $sborne #eonard >(223G(-C2? conveyed information 8hich could not have been 9no8n to her sitters+ through boo9 tests and pro;y sittings'

Mrs M' de G' Eerrall >upper? and her daughter !elen+ later Mrs Salter+ 8ere both automatists in the cross:correspondence 8ritings' Mrs Salter also analysed some of Mrs PiperFs and Mrs #eonardFs communications' >Courtesy of the Mary Evans Picture #ibrary and the S'P' '?

KMrs &illettF >Mrs Coombe:.ennant? supposedly received dictation from %r Eerrall and from Myers after their deaths' >Courtesy of /ohn !' Cutten?

4' &' !' Myers >(256G(-)(? 8as a founder of the Society for Psychical esearch+ proposed a theory of apparitions+ and 8as ostensibly one of the deceased people responsible for the cross: correspondences'

Automatic 8riting by Mrs &illett+ supposedly from Myers'

Mrs Eleanor Sidg8ic9 >(25LG(-6C? analysed the material from the cross:correspondences+ and 8as herself President of the Society for Psychical esearch in (-)2G-'

S9etch by 4rederic #' .hompson+ left 8ith Professor !yslop and dra8n 8hile he felt he 8as Kovershado8edF by the personality of the artist obert S8ain Gifford >see Chapter ((?'

Painting by Gifford >(25)G(-)L? 8hich sho8s a landscape 8ith gnarled+ 8indblo8n trees' <(57<

11 .=session and (ossession

I argued in Chapter Eight that the claims so freHuently made by the controls of mediums to operate the mediumFs neuromuscular apparatus directly+ much as ordinarily she does herself+ cannot >at least in the great maDority of cases? be ta9en at face value' Mediums as it 8ere play at being possessed' I do not mean that they are not in earnest+ or that they are conscious deceivers' I mean simply that the 8hole drama of communication and control+ though it may sometimes serve as a vehicle for paranormally acHuired information+ is a fiction spun from 8ho 9no8s 8hat strange threads 8ithin the deeps of the hidden self' Is there ever a reality corresponding to that 8hich the mediumistic trance merely simulates+ a possession that is not Dust play:actingM

In recent years possession+ 8hether considered as a variety of mental illness or as a mode of diabolic mischief:ma9ing+ has undergone a curious revivalJone that+ could they 9no8 about it+ 8ould have saddened and astonished for8ard:thin9ing Eictorian agnostics' &e even have+ once again+ clergymen 8ho are virtually specialists in e;orcism' .he form of possession 8hich they have principally to combat+ or rather perhaps the form 8hich most often ma9es headlines+ is the diabolic+ but cases of ostensible possession by deceased human beings also crop up' Eery fortunately it is only the latter 8hich 8e need+ for present purposes+ to consider' Closely related to cases of ostensible possession+ and in practice not easy to separate from them+ are cases of ostensible obsession' In cases of possession the supposed intruding entity displaces or partly displaces the victim from his body+ and obtains direct control of itJthe same sort of control+ presumably+ as the victim himself had' >It 8ill be understood here that I am tal9ing about the Ke;ternalsF of the phenomena+ not speculating as to their underlying cause'? In cases of obsession+ the victim remains in immediate control of his body+ but the supposed intruding entity influences his mind' It establishes a sort of parasitic relationship 8ith his mind+ 8hereby it can to an e;tent see <(52< 8hat he sees+ feel 8hat he feels+ enDoy 8hat he enDoys+ etc'+ and can also change the course of his thoughts and actions to conform 8ith its o8n desires' .he process is commonly+ but very vaguely+ loo9ed upon as one of reciprocal telepathy' .he victim may have a feeling of being Kovershado8edF by another personality+ and some 8riters have seen in obsession a possible e;planation for various forms of mental disturbance+ including phobias+ morbid cravings+ se;ual perversions+ sudden changes of character+ paranoid delusions+ aggressive outbursts and hallucinations' Cases both of ostensible possession and of ostensible obsession crop up from time to time in the annals of both Spiritualism and psychical research' Particularly popular 8ith Spiritualists have been the series of cases reported in detail by %r Carl &ic9land of Chicago in his 8ell: 9no8n boo9 Thirty Bears among the !ead >(-35?' &ic9land believed that many cases of mental illness 8ere due to obsession by earth:bound spirits of deceased persons' !is method of tac9ling these cases 8as to induce the obsessing spirits+ if necessary by electric shoc9s+ to leave the victimFs body+ to enter the body of a medium >to 8it Mrs &ic9land?+ and thence finally dislodge them by persuasion+ obDurgation and the help of spirit guides' %r &ic9land possessed an assertive personality+ a commanding voice+ and an electric shoc9 machine of terrifying dimensions' !is treatment seems often to have been highly effective' *nfortunately he sho8ed insufficient interest in the mundane business of chec9ing out the communicatorFs statements about themselves' In the great maDority of cases he seems simply to have assumed that because the treatment 8or9ed+ its rationale 8as fundamentally correctJthe psychotherapistFs classic error' !is copious records provide little solid evidence to support his theories' "one the less one here and there comes across cases of ostensible obsession that are of some parapsychological interest' 4or instance+ some curious e;amples 8ere reported to the 4irst International Congress of Psychical esearch+ held at Copenhagen in (-3(+ by %r E' Magnin of Geneva >-C?' Magnin gives+ among others+ the case of Madame M'+ aged L3+ 8ho suffered from a tendency to undergo spasmodic and violent falls' !er malady had resisted the efforts of four doctors' It chanced that one afternoon+ in MagninFs 8aiting room+ this lady encountered a clairvoyant medium 8hom she had never met before' .he clairvoyant after8ards told Magnin that she had seen near Madame M' an authoritarian+ brutal and 8ic9ed man' Magnin brought the ladies together+ and the medium+ in trance+ 8as controlled <(5-< by the purported spirit of the man she had Dust seen' !e claimed to be Madame M'Fs father+ called her K#ouiseF+ spo9e of a Huarrel immediately prior to his death >a Huarrel brought about

by his refusal to put on an overcoat before going out?' .he father mentioned KMauriceF >his son:in:la8?+ and K eneF >his grandson?' 4inally he 8as brought to a penitent frame of mind+ and agreed to leave his daughter' .he names and facts given+ though un9no8n to Magnin+ 8ere correct' &hen the medium a8o9e she gave an accurate description of the old gentleman and of the overcoat 8hich had precipitated the Huarrel >and hence the old manFs death?+ and she gave the date of his death as (7 %ecember (-(6' .he actual date 8as (- %ecember (-(6' Madame M'Fs symptoms disappeared'

!he !hom&son'+ifford #ase

.he most voluminously documented+ and probably the most e;traordinary+ of all the obsession cases 8hich have been subDected to serious investigation is that generally 9no8n as the .hompson:Gifford case' .he principal investigator+ Professor /' !' !yslop >(2L5G(-3)?+ formerly professor of logic and ethics at Columbia *niversity+ 8as secretary and e;ecutive head of the ASP + 8hich he had in effect re:founded in (-)7' A dedicated believer in survival+ he 8as none the less a stic9ler for the recording and publication of all possible details of seances+ case investigations+ etc'+ and his report on the .hompson:Gifford case occupies 5C- pages of the Proceedings of the (SPR for the year (-)- >7(aI cf' 7(c+ pp' 3)6G 36)?' As a result of his investigations+ he became convinced that certain symptoms of apparent mental disturbance may sometimes be due to the influence of obsessing spirits' !e subseHuently came upon further cases 8hich he thought supported this vie8+ and investigated them by the methods he had tried out in the .hompson:Gifford case' .hese methods involved consulting several different mediums+ sometimes 8ith and sometimes 8ithout the presence of the obsessed person' Each of the mediums 8ould clairvoyantly KseeF the obsessing entities+ be themselves controlled by them+ etc' If the statements made by or through the various mediums agreed 8ith each other+ and 8ith the patientFs symptoms+ !yslop 8ould diagnose a true obsession+ and might instigate a cure on this assumption' After !yslopFs death+ his procedures 8ere ta9en up by a colleague+ %r .itus Bull+ a neurologist practising in "e8 Aor9 >2CaI 2Cb?' It seems that Bull eventually too9 the further step of dispensing altogether 8ith <(L)< any direct contact bet8een patient and medium >(65?' !e 8ould act in effect as a pro;y sitter on behalf of the obsessed person' "o8 if under these conditions: >a? obsessing entities communicated and gave correct information about themselves' >b? un9no8n to the patient these entities 8ere tal9ed or caDoled into HuittingI and >c? the patient thereupon recovered+ 8e 8ould have a case presenting severe and obvious difficulties for the super:ESP hypothesis' I do not 9no8 8hether any of BullFs cases met these criteria' .he records 8hich have been published relate mainly to the earlier period' !e seems to have had+ li9e &ic9land+ a good success rate' *nfortunately+ and also li9e &ic9land+ he tended to accept the mere fact of cure as supporting his theory' !e did not go out of his 8ay to verify the communicatorsF statements about themselves' .o return to the .hompson:Gifford case: .he KobsessedF person here 8as 4rederic #' .hompson+ aged 6C at the beginning of the events concerned' .hompson 8as a goldsmith by

profession+ and had occasionally e;hibited some slight talent for s9etching' %uring the summer and autumn of (-)L he 8as freHuently sei@ed 8ith impulses to s9etch and paint in oils' &hile painting he often felt+ and remar9ed to his 8ife >she confirmed it?+ that he 8as an artist named obert S8ain Gifford >(25)G(-)L?+ 8hom he had met briefly a fe8 times+ but of 8hose 8or9 he 9ne8 virtually nothing' In /anuary (-)C he 8ent to an e;hibition of GiffordFs 8or9+ and there learned for the first time that Gifford had died a year previously' &hile loo9ing at one of the pictures he heard a voice say+ KAou see 8hat I have done' Can you not ta9e up and finish my 8or9MF After this episode+ the urge to paint became stronger+ and he began to have freHuent visual and auditory hallucinations' !e painted some of these visions+ and sold t8o or three of the resultant pictures >their resemblance to GiffordFs 8or9 8as commented upon?' .he visions 8ere especially of landscapes 8ith 8indblo8n treesI and one particular sceneJof gnarled oa9s on a promontory by raging seasJcontinually haunted him' !e did several s9etches of it+ and a painting+ 8hich he called K.he Battle of the ElementsF' .he paintings 8ere done in states of mind 8hich ranged from slight dissociation to more or less complete automatism' .hompson had al8ays been dreamy and prone to reverie' "o8 he became incapable <(L(< of attending properly to his 8or9+ and his financial position deteriorated' !e began to fear he 8as becoming insane+ and on (C /anuary (-)7 called on !yslop+ to 8hom a mutual acHuaintance had recommended he go' !yslop 8as at first inclined to thin9 him mentally disturbed+ but decided that it might be interesting to chec9 out the Gifford connection by ta9ing him to a medium' Accordingly he too9 him on (2 /anuary to visit a non:professional clairvoyant medium+ Mrs K athbunF' Mrs athbun spo9e of a man behind him 8ho 8as fond of painting+ and described this man in terms not incompatible 8ith Gifford' .hompson told her that he 8as trying to find a certain scene of oa9 trees by the sea' She described a group of oa9 trees 8ith fallen branches+ and said it 8as a place near the sea+ to 8hich one had to go by boat' .hompson 8as encouraged by this sitting to believe that he 8as not insane and carried on s9etching and painting his visions' Mean8hile !yslop too9 him to various other mediums >al8ays incognito?' .he most interesting sitting in this period 8as one 8ith the trance medium Mrs KCheno8ethF >Mrs Soule? on (C March (-)7' 4ull stenographic records 8ere made of 8hat her control said >she also 8rote occasionally?' Much Kcame throughF at this sitting to identify Gifford' !is characteristic clothes and mannerisms+ his fondness for rugs+ his love of hills and the ocean and of red and bro8n leaves+ the oil s9ins he 8ore 8hen boating and painting+ his li9ing for misty scenes+ and the unfinished canvases in his studio+ 8ere all unmista9ably referred to' Many of the statements made 8ere confirmed by Mrs Gifford' Gifford 8as represented as saying+ KI 8ill help you+ because I 8ant someone 8ho can catch the inspiration of these things as I did+ to carry on my 8or9'F .hompson soon after8ards decided that he 8ould set forth to try to locate the actual scenes of his visions+ 9eeping a day by day diary of his endeavours' $n 3 /uly (-)7+ before departing+ he gave !yslop a number of the s9etches 8hich he had done under the KGiffordF influence in the summer and autumn of (-)L' !e 8ent first to "onHuitt+ Massachusetts+ 8here Gifford had had his summer home+ e;pecting to locate the scenes in that neighbourhood' !e learned here >Mrs Gifford allo8ed him to see her late husbandFs studio? that more li9ely settings 8ere various of the Eli@abeth Islands+ off Bu@@ardFs Bay+ Massachusetts+ and especially "aushon

Island+ on 8hich Gifford had been born' !e thereupon set off for these islands' .he result of his tour may be summari@ed as follo8s: <(L3< (' .hompson discovered set up on an easel in GiffordFs studio a painting that corresponded in close and unmista9able detail 8ith a s9etch of his o8n+ made from a vision+ a s9etch 8hich 8as among those he had left behind 8ith !yslop' !yslop prints photographs of both in his paper+ together 8ith a letter from Mrs .hompson 8hich ma9es it clear that .hompson could not have seen the painting on any previous occasion' #ater on .hompson found the original scene on "asha8ena Island+ and painted it himself' Also in GiffordFs studio 8ere t8o other pictures 8hich !yslop describes as KidenticalF 8ith s9etches previously made by .hompson+ s9etches+ ho8ever+ 8hich 8ere not among those deposited 8ith !yslop' .he photographs of the Gifford pictures reproduced as !yslopFs figure ,I, are so small and so poor that one cannot properly assess the similarity for oneself' 3' .hompson found actual scenes corresponding to several of the s9etches he had left 8ith !yslop' !e photographed these scenes' .he photographs >as reproduced by !yslop? are not of good Huality+ and some outlines have been in9ed in' In one instanceJthat of a group of trees near "onHuittJthe resemblance bet8een the conformation of the trees in the s9etch and in the photograph is e;ceedingly close' In other cases+ ho8ever+ the resemblance is much less close+ and I should hesitate to put reliance on itI though it must be said that from all accounts similarities of colouring bet8een s9etch and scene+ 8hich cannot of course be assessed from a blac9 and 8hite photograph+ may have been impressive' 6' .hompson also located+ or believed that he had located+ other scenes from his visions' !e felt that he 8as led or guided to them' &hile e;amining and s9etching such a scene+ a group of trees on "aushon Island+ he heard a voice tell him to loo9 on the other side of the trees' !e did so+ and found GiffordFs initials carved there+ 8ith the year (-)3' !yslop later e;amined the carving >it 8as not recent? and photographed it' 5' $n the same island .hompson located and painted the group of gnarled oa9s on a promontory by the seas+ the group his earlier pictures of 8hich 8ere termed K.he Battle of the ElementsF' An early s9etch of this had been left 8ith !yslop' .he painting from the vision and the painting from the reality resemble each other closely' .hompson 8ent bac9 to the island 8ith !yslop and+ after much difficulty+ relocated the spot' !yslop too9 some photographs 8hich clearly sho8 relevant details of the t8isted and fallen branches' *nfortunately he 8as not <(L6< able to ta9e photographs sho8ing the 8hole of that side of the promontory 8hich is represented in the paintings+ but had instead to ta9e close:up shots of the oa9s from another angle' .hus the undoubted correspondences bet8een the actual scene and the visionary s9etches have to be 8or9ed out rather than being instantly obvious to the eye' It must be pointed out at this Duncture that as a lad .hompson had lived for a couple of years in "e8 Bedford+ 8hich is 8ithin stri9ing distance of the Eli@abeth Islands' !e maintained >and there 8as never any serious reason to Huestion his veracity on this or any other aspect of the case? that he had never visited the islandsI and the truth of this assertion 8as attested by his mother+ his sister and his 8ife' !yslop decided that in the light of these ne8+ and e;ceedingly curious developments+ he and .hompson >the latter incognito as usual? should have some further sittings+ and in April (-)2 he once again began to do the rounds of the mediums' *nfortunately they obtained nothing of

interest prior to the middle of May+ at 8hich point garbled versions of the stories lea9ed into the press+ and could have been pic9ed up and acted upon by the mediums concerned' Still+ a lot of material Kcame throughF 8hich could hardly have been the result of clandestine enHuiries' At sittings in /une Mrs Cheno8ethFs controls gave Huite a number of small but correct details about Gifford' Mention 8as made of >for instance? his habit of holding something Kli9e a cigaretteF >a little stic9? in his mouth 8hile paintingI of the fact that he had illustrated poetryI of his t8o studios+ to8n and country >identifying details of the latter 8ere given?I of his old:fashioned furniture and rush:bottomed chairsI of a bureau 8ith out8ard: spreading legsI of his habit of 9eeping large Huantities of his old brushes to paint roc9s and rough thingsI of a scene 8hich he had painted near his homeI of a 8hite lighthouse there 8ith a steady >i'e' not revolving? lightI and of the fact that he had lost a child and tried to put its face into pictures' At the sitting of L /une (-)2+ Gifford himself purported to control Mrs Cheno8eth+ and as9ed if .hompson remembered an incident 8hen he had stood on a bridge+ and loo9ing do8n into the 8ater sa8 there pictures li9e reflections+ 8hich had inspired him 8ith a great desire to paint' .hompson had in fact had such an e;perience 8hile standing on a bridge on "aushon Island' Gifford again ostensibly controlled+ and sho8ed a 9no8ledge of .hompsonFs hallucinations+ at a sitting on - %ecember (-)2 8ith another trance medium+ Mrs KSmeadF' .he purported Gifford 8rote Kocean yes yes yesF+ dre8 8hat <(L5< loo9ed li9e a pile of roc9s surmounted by a cross+ and then 8rote Kmy name is on it+ my name is on itF' $ver a month before the sitting+ .hompson had come across such a cross beside the seaJit formed part of the 8rec9age of a shipJand had seen on it GiffordFs initials+ ' S' G' &hen he approached the 8rec9+ the initials faded' !e 8as+ ho8ever+ so impressed+ that he painted the scene+ and described the incident in a letter to his 8ife+ 8hich 8as in !yslopFs hands #efore the sitting of - %ecember' "one of the mediums+ incidentally+ ever gave GiffordFs full name+ but Mrs Smead produced his initials+ first as ' G' S' and then as ' S' G' It does not seem to me that either the theory of fraud or the theory of chance coincidence can usefully be applied to the .hompson:Gifford case+ 8hether 8e thin9 Dust of .hompsonFs visions+ or of the 8hole comple; of other phenomena >the paintings+ the mediumistic sittings+ etc'? associated 8ith them' .8o sorts of accounts of .hompsonFs visions might be given from the point of vie8 of the super:ESP hypothesis' .he first 8ould reHuire us to suppose that+ for some appreciable time prior to GiffordFs death+ .hompson had been in close and freHuent >but unconscious? e;trasensory contact 8ith him >it 8ill be recalled that the t8o had met?+ and had stored up for subseHuent use the manifold images thus obtained' "o8 there is something to suggest that in certain cases of spontaneous ESP there may have been a delay of a fe8 hours bet8een the receipt of an e;trasensory impression and its emergence into consciousness' But I 9no8 of no case 8hich involves anything li9e the length of delay and the number of impressions 8hich one finds in the .hompson:Gifford case' I thin9 therefore that one should reDect this version of the super:ESP hypothesis' .he second possible version of the super:ESP hypothesis 8ould be the more orthodo; one 8hich 8ould postulate that .hompson acHuired clairvoyant 9no8ledge of the canvases still in GiffordFs studio+ learned telepathically >perhaps from Mrs Gifford? of GiffordFs favourite hunting grounds+ clairvoyantly investigated them+ and selected from them+ as the themes of recurrent visions+ the sort of spots 8hich might appeal to a painter' .he only thing I can say in favour of this fantastic hypothesis >for 8hich the annals of ESP provide no parallel? is that it may be less fantastic than its chief competitor+ the survival theory' .his does not seem to me a sufficient reason for accepting it'

As soon as 8e pass on to consider other aspects of the case+ both forms of the super:ESP hypothesis run upon further difficulties' .here is <(LL< firstly the problem of the style and techniHue of the paintings' .his is perhaps the least serious of the problems' .he resemblance of subDect:matter bet8een .hompsonFs paintings and GiffordFs 8as obvious to anyone' As to 8hether or not there 8as an underlying similarity of style and techniHue+ e;pert opinions differed+ and it is perhaps safer to say that fe8 e;perts could believe that the .hompson paintings 8ere the 8or9 of a man 8ho had only been painting a short time and had had virtually no formal training' Aet there could be little doubt that this 8as so' It 8as clear+ ho8ever+ that .hompson had al8ays had a talent for s9etching+ and 8e can hardly define the limits of the possible in respect of a sudden artistic flo8ering' A more serious problem is that of motive' .hompsonFs finances suffered severely because of his overpo8ering urge to s9etch and paint+ and he 8as a married man' "o such overpo8ering urge had previously crossed the threshold of his consciousness' &e could say that it had lain simmering in his unconscious for years prior to the death of Gifford+ and that the death >of 8hich .hompson remained una8are for a year? had been pic9ed up and unconsciously utili@ed as an e;cuse for letting it out' But these proposals about happenings in the unconscious mind are as unverifiable as stories about the other side of no8here+ and seem to me Dust the sort of barren speculations 8ith 8hich+ I argued in Chapter $ne+ 8e should try to avoid becoming entangled' 4urther vistas of comple;ity unfold if 8e ta9e into account the statements made by the various mediums' Although several of the sittings 8ere tedious and unsuccessful+ it certainly seems to me that at others correct information about Gifford came through+ information not infreHuently un9no8n to either of the sitters' 0no8ledge 8as also sho8n of the contents of .hompsonFs visions' .he mediums must+ it seems+ have telepathically pic9ed the thought of Gifford from .hompsonFs mind+ and then have telepathically and clairvoyantly located other sources of information about him' .here is no doubt that the super:ESP hypothesis+ applied to this case >as to others? is messy in a 8ay not to be eHuated 8ith mere comple;ity' If the survivalist theory 8ere tenable it 8ould immensely simplify things' .he trouble 8ith the survivalist theory is not e;actly messiness+ but rather conflict 8ith other areas of our 9no8ledge+ and an underlying vagueness upon certain crucial issues' Suppose that+ purely for the sa9e of argument+ 8e 8ere to accept a <(LC< survivalist interpretation of the .hompson:Gifford case' .he obvious Huestion 8ould then arise+ 8hat sort of relationship might be supposed to e;ist bet8een the obsessing entity >the deceased Gifford?+ and his 8illing victim+ .hompsonM .hompsonFs mental state 8hile under the Gifford influence varied from dreaminess and mild dissociation >to 8hich he 8as in any case liable? to a fairly complete automatism 8ith >probably? a good deal of amnesia+ not ho8ever Huite amounting to a trance' I have seen not a fe8 mediums in 8hat I should guess 8ere states from the same range' It might be proposed+ for the sorts of reasons mentioned in previous chapters+ that e;trasensory influences most readily 8ell up into consciousness or into action 8hen the subDect is in a dreamli9e and dissociated state of mind+ and it might also be proposed >though this is a considerably disputed point? that in some people such a state may be accompanied by a heightened responsiveness to suggestion' Combine these notions 8ith that of reciprocal telepathy bet8een the medium and the discarnate entityJone might suppose that the medium simply pic9s up 8hatever the discarnate entity clearly imagines+ or one might assign the latter a more active role of someho8 inDecting material into the formerFs dreamJ

and 8e arrive again at a vie8 of the process of communication very li9e the theory of Kovershado8ingF 8hich I outlined in earlier chapters' And it is very easy to see ho8 this theory might be applied in the .hompson:Gifford caseJprovided al8ays >and it is a big proviso? that 8e can arrive at a concept of telepathy 8hich 8ill fill the bill' .he only difference bet8een the .hompson:Gifford case and many cases of mental mediumship 8ould be first that .hompson 8as influenced only by one discarnate entity+ and second that the influence manifested itself both in sensory hallucination and in motor automatism' If 8e loo9 upon the .hompson:Gifford case in these terms+ there is no Huestion of its being an e;ample of true possessionJof the direct control of a living personFs neuromuscular apparatus by a discarnate person'

(ossession
Are there any cases at all 8hich even suggest a KtrueF possessionM A case 8hich is often cited as being at any rate a contender is that of #urancy Eennum+ the K&atse9a &onderF' .his case is described in a very rare pamphlet by E' &' Stevens >(L3?+ the doctor 8ho 8as in charge of this young lady' .he pamphlet 8as abridged and e;cerpted by 4' &' !' Myers+ 8ho also added details obtained by ichard !odgson from <(L7< intervie8s 8ith some of the principal participants >(()a+ I+ pp' 6C)G67)?' I shall dra8 upon the abridgment in my account of the case' #urancy Eennum 8as born on (C April (2C5+ at a place about seven miles from &atse9a+ Illinois' !er family moved to &atse9a on ( April (27(' .hey too9 a house about t8o hundred yards from that of a Mr A' B' off and his family' .he t8o families developed only a formal and distant acHuaintance' About the autumn of (27(+ the Eennum family moved a8ay from the vicinity of the offs+ and never again lived nearer to them than the Ke;treme opposite limits of the cityF' In /uly (277+ #urancy began to have fits or trances' It 8as generally thought that she had become insane' Mr off+ 8hose deceased daughter Mary off had had periods of insanity+ persuaded Mr Eennum to let him bring %r E' &' Stevens to see her' %r Stevens and Mr off visited #urancy on 6( /anuary (272' It appears that various deceased persons no8 purported to control #urancy and to spea9 through her' After being hypnoti@ed by %r Stevens+ she stated that one Mary off 8ished to come' Mr off said+ KAes+ let her come+ 8eFll be glad to have her come'F "e;t morning the girl began to claim to be Mary off+ 8ho had died+ aged eighteen+ in /uly (2CL+ 8hen #urancy 8as Dust over a year old' About a 8ee9 later+ Mrs A' B' off+ and her daughter+ Mrs Minerva Alter+ MaryFs sister+ hearing of the remar9able change+ 8ent to see the girl' As they came in sight Q Mary Ri'e' #urancy KcontrolledF by Mary offS loo9ing out of the 8indo8+ e;claimed e;ultingly+ K.here comes my ma and sister "erviePFJthe name by 8hich Mary used to call Mrs Alter in girlhood' As they came into the house she caught them around their nec9s+ 8ept and cried for Doy+ and seemed so happy to meet them' 4rom this time on she seemed more homesic9 than before' At times she seemed almost frantic to go home' $n the ((th day of 4ebruary+ (272+ they sent the girl to Mr offFs+ 8here she met her Kpa and maF+ and each member of the family+ 8ith the most gratifying e;pressions of love and affection Q $n being as9ed ho8 long she 8ould stay+ she said+ K.he angels 8ill let me stay

till some time in MayFI and she made it her home there till May 3(st+ three months and ten days+ a happy+ contented daughter and sister in a borro8ed body' .he girl no8 in her ne8 home seemed perfectly happy and content+ 9no8ing every person and everything that Mary 9ne8 8hen in her original body+ Q recogni@ing and calling by name those 8ho 8ere friends and neighbours of the family from (2L3 to (2CL Q calling attention to scores+ yes+ hundreds of incidents that transpired during her natural life' %uring all the period of her soDourn at Mr offs she had no 9no8ledge of+ and did not recogni@e+ any of Mr EennumFs family' $ne evening+ in the latter part of March+ Mr off 8as sitting in the room <(L2< 8aiting for tea+ and reading the paper+ KMaryF being out in the yard' !e as9ed Mrs off if she could find a certain velvet head:dress that Mary used to 8ear the last year before she died' If so to lay it on the stand and say nothing about it+ to see if Mary 8ould recogni@e it' Mrs off readily found and laid it on the stand' .he girl soon came in+ and immediately e;claimed as she approached the stand+ K$h+ there is my head:dress I 8ore 8hen my hair 8as shortPF She then as9ed+ KMa+ 8here is my bo; of lettersM !ave you got them yetMF Mrs off replied+ KAes+ Mary+ I have some of them'F She at once got the bo; 8ith many letters in it' As Mary began to e;amine them she said+ K$h+ ma+ here is a collar I tattedP Ma+ 8hy did you not sho8 to me my letters and things beforeMF .he collar had been preserved among the relics of the lamented child as one of the beautiful things her fingers had 8rought before #urancy 8as bornI and so Mary continually recogni@ed every little thing and remembered every little incident of her girlhood' Q Mr off as9ed Mary if she remembered moving to .e;as Rin (2L7S or anything about it' KAes+ pa+ and I remember crossing ed iver and of seeing a great many Indians+ and I remember Mrs eederFs girls+ 8ho 8ere in our company'F And thus she from time to time made first mention of things that transpired thirteen to t8enty:five years ago Q After a fe8 brief reappearances+ the #urancy personality returned completely on 3( May (272+ and remained in control thereafter+ apart from brief interventions from Mary 8hen #urancy visited the offs' #urancyFs health remained good+ and there 8as no return of the fits' .he simplest e;planation of this very curious case is clearly that of impersonation+ deliberate or hysterical' #urancy+ it might be suggested+ though not living close to the olfs+ might have pic9ed up gossip about them' After she 8ent to live 8ith them she 8ould have had all sorts of opportunities of pic9ing up trivial bits of information' &e have no verbatim reports of her conversations 8ith the offs+ reports in 8hich the hints+ leading Huestions+ etc'+ 8hich probably helped her+ could be detected+ and from 8hich the numerous mista9es 8hich she probably made could be disinterred instead of left buried and forgotten' All this is very true+ and perfectly arguableI yet I do not find it altogether convincing' &hen !odgson visited &atse9a in April (2-)+ he obtained from the 8itnesses >in this case MaryFs sister Minerva? such details as the follo8ing' #urancy+ as Mary off+ stayed at Mrs AlterFs home for some time+ and almost every hour of the day some trifling incident of Mary offFs life 8as recalled by #urancy' $ne morning she said+ K ight over there by the currant bushes is 8here cousin Allie greased the chic9enFs eye'F Allie 8as a cousin of Mary off+ and lived in Peoria+ Ill' She visited the offs in the <(L-< lifetime of Mary+ 8ith 8hom she played' .his incident happened several years before the

death of Mary off' Mrs Alter remembered it very 8ell+ and recalled their bringing the chic9en into the house for treatment' .hat does not sound the sort of fact li9ely to have been elicited by a leading Huestion+ or pic9ed up in casual gossip+ and it 8ould ta9e Huite a lot of forgotten mista9es to counterbalance it' If the case 8as not one of impersonation+ ho8 might 8e regard it >spea9ing still+ and simply for the sa9e of argument+ from a survivalistic vie8point?M &as it an e;ample of unusually sustained Kovershado8ingF+ basically li9e other cases of mediumship or obsession+ or 8as it a true case of KpossessionFM It is Huite unli9e most cases of mediumship in the length of time for 8hich the apparent control lasted+ in the completeness of the control over all aspects of mental and physical functioning+ and in the sustained manifestation of 8hat 8as apparently a 8hole and recogni@ed personality' Aet there are indicationsJinitial trances+ and ostensible control by other deceased personsJthat #urancy 8as basically of the mediumistic type' Perhaps she had also tendencies to8ards secondary personality >if that is indeed a different thing?' Some combination of these t8o ideas might suffice to e;plain the case 8ithout resort to the further hypothesis of possession' $f course if one turns to the super:ESP hypothesis the usual obvious difficulties ariseJthe e;tent of the ESP involved and the rapidity 8ith 8hich it must be supposed to operate+ together 8ith the length of time for 8hich it 8ould have had to have been almost continuously sustained+ and the motive for the charade' But before one reDects this hypothesis as altogether outrunning anything that 8e 9no8 about ESP one must recollect the obvious point that I have in effect made several times before+ namely that the Kovershado8ingF hypothesis itself postulates a form of telepathyJthat bet8een overshado8er and overshado8edJ8hich 8ould appear to have some of these debatable characteristics' Some people might be tempted to say that the case of #urancy Eennum 8as all a long time agoI and perhaps it didnFt happen+ and maybe it 8ould be as 8ell if that 8ere so' .here is ho8ever a very much more recent+ and even more remar9able+ case 8hich presents certain analogous features+ and 8hich has been studied by persons 8ho fully appreciate the standards of evidence 8hich must be applied in investigating such cases' I refer to the case of *ttara !uddar+ reported by Stevenson and Pasricha in the Journal of the (SPR for /uly (-2) <(C)< >(L5bI cf' (L5a?' *ttara is an unmarried lady+ born in (-5(+ and living in "agpur+ Maharashtra+ India' She is a part:time lecturer in the Postgraduate %epartment of Public Administration at "agpur *niversity' Early in (-75+ *ttaraFs normal personality 8as Huite suddenly replaced by a mar9edly different one+ 8ho called herself Sharada' Sharada remained in control for several 8ee9s+ and has reappeared since at least thirty times+ for periods ranging from one day to seven 8ee9s' Sharada appeared ignorant not Dust of *ttaraFs family and surroundings+ but of all features of modern life post:dating the Industrial evolution' She dressed+ acted and spo9e li9e a married Bengali 8oman+ and spent much of her time in religious e;ercises' She claimed to be the daughter of a certain BraDanath Chattopadhaya+ gave many names and other details of her relatives+ and sho8ed a 9no8ledge of various obscure villages and temples in Bengal' *ttara states+ and her relatives confirm+ that she has never visited Bengal' Most of the places mentioned by Sharada are in 8hat is no8 &est Bengal+ some L)) miles from "agpur' A to8n called Bansberia >north of Calcutta? figured prominently in SharadaFs

statements' It transpired that a family named Chattopadhaya still lives there' .he head of this family possesses a genealogy for the period (2()G6) 8hen it seems from other clues that Sharada lived' .his genealogy lists five of the men named by Sharada+ in relationships to her corresponding to those 8hich+ as a daughter of BraDanath Chattopadhaya+ she 8ould have had to them' *nfortunately it lists only men+ so it cannot directly confirm or disconfirm SharadaFs e;istence' .he relevant part of the genealogy 8as published in (-)7 in a Bengali maga@ine circulating in the area of Bansberia' Sharada claims to have KfaintedF after being bitten by a sna9e at the age of 33+ and to have 9no8n nothing since then until she Ka8o9eF to her present intermittent e;istence' .he oddest aspect of the case remains to be mentioned' Sharada at first sho8ed no 9no8ledge of Marathi+ 8hich is *ttaraFs native language >she has since learned a fe8 phrases?+ but spo9e fluent Bengali+ a language 8ith 8hich *ttara denies all acHuaintance' .here is absolutely no Huestion of SharadaFs competence in Bengali' Si; different 8ell:educated native spea9ers of Bengali 8ho have conversed 8ith her+ sometimes for long periods+ testify on this point' Pasricha has made a tape:recording of Sharada+ and the authors also possess another tape: recording 8ith partial transcript' <(C(< I have already commented on the importance of cases of responsive ;enoglossy and on the difficulties 8hich they present for the super:ESP hypothesis' It is accordingly of the first importance to inHuire ho8 far *ttaraFs claim to have no previous acHuaintance 8ith Bengali can be substantiated' &hile still at school she had had a fe8 lessons in reading the scripts of languages other than Marathi+ and these included Bengali' But she 8as taught to pronounce the letters of the scripts 8ith Marathi sounds rather than Bengali ones' !er father had a fe8 friends from the Bengali community in "agpur+ but none of them ever spo9e Bengali 8ith him because he had no 9no8ledge of it himself' *ttaraFs parents and t8o of her sisters denied that she had ever had any opportunity to learn Bengali' A brother 8ho had lived in $rissa+ and had pic9ed up some Bengali+ stated that he had never used it in her presence' Stevenson and Pasricha spent much time inHuiring about and intervie8ing Bengali:spea9ing persons 8ho might have communicated a 9no8ledge of Bengali to *ttara' .hey 8ere not successful' By 8ay of conclusion I can do no better than Huote Stevenson and PasrichaFs o8n conclusions: .he mar9ed alterations of personality in this case have some resemblance to mediumistic trances+ but the differences are greater than the similarities' Mediumistic trances are almost al8ays induced voluntarily+ 8hereas R*ttaraFsS personality changes occurred Huite involuntarily' Mediumistic trances usually last an hour or t8o at the mostI Sharada remained Kin controlF for days+ sometimes for 8ee9s' .he case also has some resemblance to cases of secondary personality+ but the usual secondary personality claims to be more or less contemporary and collocal 8ith the primary personality+ 8hereas Sharada described a life in another part of her country and about (L) years earlier' 4urthermore+ the usual secondary personality has no paranormal po8ers+ although there have been rare e;ceptions' SharadaFs ability to spea9 fluent Bengali constitutes+ in our opinion+ a paranormally acHuired s9ill'

.he case also resembles in some respects cases suggestive of reincarnation+ but in such cases the subDect usually begins to spea9 about the previous life he or she claims to remember bet8een the ages of 3 and L' Moreover+ such a childFs ordinary personality is rarely suppressed completely >as 8as R*ttaraFsS? during the narration of his or her claimed memories' >(L5a+ p' (L-3? .o this I can only add the follo8ing' If it is indeed true >as proposed in Chapter Seven? that the linguistic s9ills reHuired for fluent responsive ;enoglossy cannot be transmitted by telepathy+ this case >that is+ of <(C3< course+ if 8e accept the paranormal aspects of it? 8ould appear to leave us 8ith a choice only bet8een KtrueF possession and reincarnationI for both the super:ESP theory and the theory of Kovershado8ingF >8hich also involves telepathy? 8ould be ruled out' <(C6<

12 2eincarnation
.here can be no issue that more effectively separates optimists from pessimists than that of reincarnation' &ill the 8orld of the future be such that a rational man could possibly desire to be reborn into itM I must confess to being a pessimist' &hilst I can endure 8ith fortitude and even curiosity the thought that I may have been incarnated many times in the past+ the prospect of future incarnations disturbs me profoundly' I am inclined to apply to reincarnation in particular a remar9 made by the late Professor C' %' Broad >(2d+ p' L7? concerning survival in general: K!aving had the luc9 Q to dra8 an eel from a sac9 full of adders+ I do not 8ish to ris9 putting my hand into the sac9 again'F Eels+ it seems to me+ rare enough no8+ are li9ely in the future to be an endangered species' My pessimism is of no importance to the present discussion+ e;cept in so far as my readers need to be 8arned against it' It seems+ indeed+ not to be 8idely shared' In recent decades a gro8th of interest in oriental thought has brought a greater a8areness of reincarnationist philosophies' $pinion surveys suggest that in Europe and America belief in reincarnation is increasing' A Gallup Poll published in The !aily Telegraph for 3) April (-2( found that the percentage of Britons e;pressing a belief in reincarnation had risen from eighteen to t8enty: eight per cent since (-C- >cf' 35+ p' ()?' &hat concerns us at the moment+ ho8ever+ is not the e;tent of belief in reincarnation+ but 8hether that belief can be supported by appeal to empirical facts' 4or reincarnation is a form of survival+ and evidence for reincarnation is therefore evidence for survival' In his Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily !eath+ a massive survey of the materials collected by the SP in its first t8enty years+ 4' &' !' Myers 8rote >(()a+ II+ pp' (65G(6L?+ KQ for reincarnation there is at present no valid evidenceI and it must be my duty to sho8 ho8 its assertion in any given instance Q constitutes in itself a strong argument in favour of self: suggestion QF Myers goes on to comment on the <(C5< reincarnationist form of Spiritualism 8hich+ from the mid:nineteenth century on8ards+ spread in 4rance and Bra@il mainly through the influence of KAllan 0ardecF >on 0ardec+ see ()5?' 0ardec+ says Myers >(()a+ II+ p' (6L?+ Ktoo9 up reincarnationist tenets+ enforced them >as there is reason to believe? by strong suggestion upon the minds of various automatic 8riters+ and set them forth in dogmatic 8or9s 8hich have had much influence+ especially among #atin nations+ from their clarity+ symmetry+ and intrinsic reasonableness' Aet the data thus collected 8ere absolutely insufficient QF

MyersFs assessment of the evidence for reincarnation as it stood in his time seems to me largely correct' "or 8as there any dramatic upturn in that evidence during the first half of the t8entieth century >though see 3-I ((5I (67?' Anglo:American Spiritualism remained generally opposed to the idea+ and it received little attention from the SP and the ASP prior to the publication of Professor C' /' %ucasseFs ( Critical 3+amination of the Belief in a "ife after !eath >(-C(?+ and of Professor Ian StevensonFs case investigations+ 8hich I shall discuss shortly' >4or some reincarnationist communications through Mrs #eonard+ ho8ever+ see (L7h'? .oday the picture is very different' &e have a good deal of apparent evidence for reincarnation+ some of 8hich reaches a standard that reHuires its inclusion in any general survey of the evidence for survival' .he ostensible evidence for reincarnation may be divided into t8o broad categories' &e have+ firstly+ statements made by sensitives of a certain sort concerning the supposed past incarnations of their clientsJthe Klife readingsF of Edgar Cayce are the most famous e;amples' Secondly+ 8e have Huite numerous cases of persons claiming to have memories+ more or less detailed+ of their earlier incarnations' I shall not discuss evidence of the former category at all+ not because I thin9 that the sensitives concerned never give indications of possessing paranormal faculties+ but because searching for and evaluating these indications 8ould reHuire much effort and yield small re8ard' Evidence of the latter categoryJthe claimed memories of previous livesJmay for our purposes be further subdivided into three classes+ namely: evidence from hypnotic KregressionF into past livesI ostensible recollections by >unhypnoti@ed? adults of their supposed previous incarnationsI and childrensF ostensible memories of previous incarnations' <(CL<

H"&notic 2egression
.he best:9no8n of these classes is 8ithout doubt that of hypnotic regressions into past lives' I do not 9no8 8ho first thought of trying such e;periments' .hey are a fairly obvious development of some of the demonstrationsJma9ing hypnoti@ed subDects act the part of "apoleon+ act li9e a child of five+ etc'J8hich had become part of the staple repertoire of itinerant Kmagneti@ersF and KelectrobiologistsF by the middle of the nineteenth century' .his tric9 can be performed 8ith most moderately good hypnotic subDects' Spiritualists of the school of 0ardec 8ere certainly attempting hypnotic regression into past lives before the year (2-)+ and in (-(( the practice received some impetus from the publication of Col' A' de ochasF "es vies successives$ Col' de ochas proDected his subDects for8ard into future incarnations+ as 8ell as bac98ards into past ones+ but I have not heard of anyone 8ho+ on loo9ing into "es vies successives+ has found the story of his present life 8ritten there' Perhaps this is because the boo9 is very scarce' .he modern vogueJalmost cra@eJfor hypnotic regression dates from the publication in (-LC of M' BernsteinFs The Search for Bridey Murphy$ Since then+ and especially during the last fe8 years+ 8e have been assailed by numerous boo9s+ ne8spaper articles and .E and radio programmes on the subDect' Many of these have contained reports of ne8 cases' A school of fringe hypnotherapy is gro8ing up 8hich approaches behavioural disturbances in this life by see9ing out their causes in a previous one' Practitioners of this 8ay of thin9ing seem often to ta9e a KcureF as sufficient validation of their patientFs story+ and+ indirectly+ of

their o8n theoretical frame8or9' &e have here the psychotherapistFs classic error in yet another guise' It 8ill already be apparent that I have strong reservations about the hypnotic regression material' $ne must+ ho8ever+ at the very least admit that the subDects of these e;periments sometimes tell a good storyI a much better story than one 8ould ordinarily thin9 them capable of inventing' .he hypnotic induction procedure seems to release in them po8ers of creative imagination that they did not 9no8 they possessed' Perhaps this helps to e;plain the apparent successes of the reincarnationist hypnotherapies 8hich I mentioned a moment ago' But it also lays certain snares for the investigator' .he stories are sometimes so dramatic+ and so full of human interest+ that one canFt help 8ishing them to be true' And then one may be misled into accepting as confirmations of them evidence that 8ould not 8ithstand a really critical scrutiny' 4or instance one case that has become 8idely <(CC< 9no8n >73? relates to the supposed massacre in ((-) of a /e8ish family 8hich had ta9en refuge in the crypt of a church identified as St MaryFs+ Castlegate+ Aor9' .his church 8as not at the time of the hypnotic regression 9no8n to possess a crypt' SubseHuently one 8as unearthed+ and the story 8as suddenly Kmade to seem more li9ely' .he entire regression 8as no8 a credible account of 8hat might have happened in Aor9 in ((-)F >p' L6?' .he only evidence presented that the crypt really e;ists is+ ho8ever+ a secondhand statement to the effect that an un9no8n 8or9man discovered 8hat might have been a crypt belo8 the chancel' It 8as immediately bloc9ed up again before it could be properly e;amined'

#r"&tomnesia
Still+ the creation of a po8erful story concerning a previous incarnation+ 8hether fictional or other8ise+ reHuires some Huantity of accurate+ or at any rate convincing+ historical information' In some cases a good many Huite recondite historical facts have been incorporated into the story told by an hypnotically regressed subDect' &here do these facts come fromM .he most popular non:reincarnationist e;planation has involved cryptomnesia >latent memory?' >$n cryptomnesia in general see (L6D+ pp' 65LG65-I and (L69'? Buried in our mind+ this theory proposes+ are all sorts of memories not ordinarily accessible to the 8a9ing consciousness' Among them 8ill be memories 8hich the subDect does not recollect having acHuired from another source and is liable to consider his o8n' .he memories concerned may be memories of school history boo9s+ of historical films and plays and .E programmes+ of historical novels and serials in 8omenFs maga@ines+ of historical notes in local ne8spapers+ and so on and so on' .his could amount to Huite a lot of information' "o8adays the ma9ers of historical films ta9e pains to get the bac9grounds right+ and historical novelists commonly append bibliographies to their boo9s' All these buried memories may under certain circumstances find their 8ay out' .hey may brea9 into ordinary 8a9ing consciousness 8ith no a8areness of their source >various instances of apparent literary plagiarism have almost certainly originated in this 8ay?I they may emerge through automatic 8riting+ or in dreams or drug:statesI and they may be retrieved and embellished under hypnosis' Such is the theory+ and to some it seems so obviously correct that+ given that cryptomnesia occurs+ there is no need to 8orry further about <(C7< the e;planation of cases of hypnotic regression in 8hich verified historical details have been obtained' But this attitude is at best over:simple+ and it is over:simple on t8o counts'

.he first is that 8hile there undoubtedly is some evidence for cryptomnesia+ that evidence is small in relation to the 8eight of other material it is being used to support' Many modern 8or9ers in the field of hypnotism 8ould simply deny that hypnosis facilitates recallI properly designed e;periments reveal no such effect' .his is+ ho8ever+ not a denial that cryptomnesia may occasionally be e;hibited+ but only a denial that hypnosis is particularly conducive to the emergence of memories 8hose normal source the subDect has forgotten' As it happens+ the most freHuently cited e;ample of undoubted cryptomnesia+ the KBlanche PoyningsF case >6)?+ did ta9e place under hypnosis' KBlanche PoyningsF 8as the name given by a spirit contacted under hypnosis by a young lady referred to as KMiss C'F Blanche gave a great many e;ceedingly recondite historical and genealogical details about her life in the time of ichard II and !enry IE' SubseHuently it 8as discovered+ through a planchette board 8hich Miss C' operated in the 8a9ing state+ that almost all these details came from a novel 8hich had been read to her as a child+ namely Emily S' !oltFs Countess Maud$ .he contents of the novel+ in 8hich Blanche Poynings is only a minor character+ had+ ho8ever+ been substantially+ and one might add creatively+ rearranged' $ne can readily see ho8+ in different circumstances+ this material could have emerged as a reincarnationist fantasy' A 4innish psychologist+ ' 0ampman >7-I 2)?+ has obtained some comparable results from a series of e;periments 8ith schoolchildren 8hom he hypnotically KregressedF into past lives' By the simple techniHue of ta9ing the children under hypnosis to the occasion on 8hich they obtained the information on 8hich their reincarnationist fantasies 8ere based+ he 8as able to trace several fantasies bac9 to their sources in printed material' But this techniHue+ alas+ is by no means universally successfulJother hypnotists 8ho have tried the same stratagem have been met by denials that there is any such ordinary source' .he second reason 8hy one must hesitate before accepting the simple cryptomnesia theory is that the reincarnationist theory itself involves cryptomnesiaI only+ of course+ the Kburied memoriesF retrieved are memories of a previous incarnation rather than of this one' &hatever conditions favour the one sort of cryptomnesia 8ill presumably also favour the other' !ence 8e cannot argue that because <(C2< the subDect is in a state >hypnosis? believed >by some? to favour cryptomnesia+ cryptomnesia for boo9s read+ films seen+ etc'+ in this life+ must be the e;planation of the correct historical details 8hich he gives' *nless 8e are to rule out the reincarnationist theory >and the other 9inds of evidence 8hich ostensibly support it? upon purely a priori grounds+ 8e must find support for the cryptomnesia theory >cryptomnesia+ that is+ directed upon events of this life? from features of the actual regression cases it is intended to e;plain' .his conclusion is reinforced by the fact+ Dust pointed out+ that the evidence for cryptomnesia is not so strong as to lead us to regard it as a very freHuent occurrence' .he strongest support for the cryptomnesia theory 8ould be provided by a demonstration that in a given case: >a? all the information conveyed 8as to be found in a single source >a boo9+ an article+ a film+ etc'?I >b? the subDect 8ould have had access to that sourceI and >c? he had actually studied that source' $f these factors >a? and >b? may not be too difficult to establishJthere are various easily accessible indices of historical novelsJand any case 8hich falls foul of these t8o criteria must clearly be set aside as evidence for reincarnation on the grounds that a possible basis for

cryptomnesia 8as demonstrably there' Establishing >c? 8ould be tantamount to establishing the cryptomnesia hypothesis for the case in Huestion+ and this has not often been achieved' In some instances the subDect has been brought+ by hypnosis >as in the 0ampman cases mentioned above? or some other stratagem >in the Blanche Poynings case a planchette board?+ to recollect the source of information himself' Another possibilityJone for obvious reasons rarely actuali@edJis that the source of information should contain an error 8hich the subDect repeats' A rather nice e;ample of this has recently been unearthed by Mr Ian &ilson in a case for 8hich /oe 0eeton+ a leading British e;ponent of regression+ 8as the hypnotist >()L+ pp' 7G -I (73+ pp' (-CG3)7?' $ne of 0eetonFs subDects+ a young 8oman+ gave under hypnosis copious and consistent details of a trial at 8hich she+ as /oan &aterhouse+ had been accused of 8itchcraft' .he trial too9 place at Chelmsford in (LCC' 0eetonFs subDect+ ho8ever+ dated it as (LLCJthe date mista9enly put upon a Eictorian reprint of the very rare original pamphlet describing the trial' .he error has been copied by some >though not all? subseHuent 8riters' %irect support of these 9inds for the cryptomnesia hypothesis is <(C-< relatively uncommon+ and it is hardly freHuent enough to Dustify our e;tending the theory 8ithout more ado to cover all the regression cases in 8hich verified information has been produced' .here is+ ho8ever+ a substantial bloc9 of cases 8hich+ though 8e have no evidence of cryptomnesia in connection 8ith them+ cannot be accepted as providing adeHuate evidence of reincarnation' .hey must go on that large heap of Knot provensF+ 8here+ perhaps+ the maDority of cases belong' I have t8o sorts of case especially in mind here' .he first is that of casesJnot so freHuent as one might antecedently supposeJin 8hich a subDect claims to have been some famous historical figure+ e'g' "ell G8ynn+ Marie Antoinette or Bonnie Prince Charlie' &hen the supposed previous incarnation is+ li9e these+ a person concerning 8hom a great deal has been published+ it 8ill+ save in the most improbable circumstances+ be almost impossible to establish 8ith even moderate plausibility that the subDect could not some8here+ at some time+ have run across a boo9+ maga@ine article+ film+ .E documentary+ radio programme+ or Reader7s !igest rundo8n containing the relevant information' .hus it 8ill li9e8ise be almost impossible to reDect the cryptomnesia theory 8ith any certainty' Eery similar considerations apply to the second 9ind of case+ that of cases 8hich are thought to be verified >or almostP? by the multiplicity of correct bac9ground details given+ despite the fact that the central persons in the dramas >the supposed previous incarnations of the subDects? cannot be proved to have e;isted' Information about interesting places at interesting periods of their history gets very 8idely disseminated by novels+ plays+ museums+ .E+ local ne8spapers+ etc'+ and it is e;tremely difficult to be sure that the subDect of a regression e;periment has never come across it' A significantly high proportion of the published cases >including the celebrated Bridey Murphy case? fall into this category' .a9e+ for e;ample+ another of /oe 0eetonFs cases >()L+ pp' 53G75?+ the fascinating story told under hypnosis by Ann %o8ling+ a forty:seven:year:old 8or9ing class house8ife from !uyton >#iverpool?+ of her previous incarnation in the period around (26)G(2L) as Sarah &illiams+ a homeless 8aif from Everton >#iverpool?' Sarah &illiams sho8ed some 9no8ledge of the geography of nineteenth century #iverpoolI she referred unmista9ably to /enny #indFs visit to #iverpool in (2L)I she correctly named a chemistFs shop in Byrom StreetI she referred to Prince AlbertFs staying 8ith a /udge in #iverpool in (25CI as9ed for the name of Eictoria and AlbertFs ship+ she replied The Fairy, <(7)< 8hich 8as the name not of the royal yacht but of the tender in 8hich the royal couple made their inspectionsI she mentioned a demonstration of electric lighting given at #iverpool in (2L3I and she referred to 0itty &il9inson+ a social reformer of the time+ 8ho advocated setting up 8ash:houses for the

poor' All these verified historical details 8ere given in the conte;t of a very lively rendering of a distinctive personality and of the hardships of poverty in a nineteenth century city' Aet of Sarah herself no trace 8as found+ despite the fact that her death+ at least+ should by the (2L)s have been a matter of public record' A death certificate or obscure ne8spaper paragraph recording the manner of her murder 8ould at once have made the cryptomnesia hypothesis several orders of magnitude less li9ely' As it is+ many of the facts correctly given concern events 8hich 8ould have found their 8ay into local history boo9s and articles+ even into novels or .E programmes+ 8hich a local resident+ such as Mrs %o8ling+ could conceivably have come across' .o trac9 do8n all the potential sources and compare them 8ith the statements made by Sarah &illiams 8ould be an impracticable tas9+ perhaps an impossible one' .he case must be relegated to the Knot provenF categoryJnot proven both from the point of vie8 of reincarnation and from that of cryptomnesia' As for the dramatic force of the Sarah &illiams personalityJsome of the most convincing and dramatically effective personalities to emerge in regression e;periments have been 8ithout doubt totally fictitious' .his at least is a fact of great psychological interest+ and one 8hich deserves further study' &hen all necessary sacrifices have been made to the cryptomnesia theory+ ho8ever+ there remain one or t8o cases 8hich it cannot so readily s8allo8 up' .hese cases have+ for the most part+ some or all of the follo8ing characteristics: >a? .he e;istence of the supposed previous personality has been confirmed' >b? .he personality 8as an obscure one+ not li9ely to have achieved mention in novels+ films+ etc'+ >c? .he story is supported by verified bac9ground details of the 9ind 8e have Dust been considering' >d? .here does not appear to be any single source from 8hich all the relevant information could have come' A case that at first sight fills some of these reHuirements is described in /ess StearnFs The Second "ife of Susan ?anier$ /oanne MacIver+ a girl living in $rillia+ $ntario+ 8as hypnotically regressed by her father into <(7(< a number of supposed previous lives' $ne of these 8as as Susan Ganier+ allegedly born about (26L in St Eincent .o8nship+ $ntario+ about ninety miles from the spot 8here the MacIvers lived' In (25- >said Susan? she married .homas Merro8+ a farmer+ and lived 8ith him in the to8n of Massie+ $ntario' .homas 8as 9illed in an accident in (2C6+ but Susan lived on until (-)6' Susan Ganier 8as born before registration of births 8as introduced+ and no record of her death could be discovered' "one the less+ she correctly gave various recondite geographical facts about the district 8here she lived+ and some obscure but correct details of the life of that time' She named various persons in Massie 8hose e;istence 8as confirmed from public records' And an elderly gentleman+ Mr Arthur Eagles+ remembered Susan Merro8+ her family+ and some of her neighbours+ and 9ne8 about the death of her husband' .he trouble 8ith this case is that The Second "ife of Susan ?anier is 8ritten li9e a novel+ and it is by no means clear 8hat opportunities the subDect might have had to learn relevant facts by normal means' $f such cases one can only say that if there 8ere more of them+ and if they 8ere better recorded and investigated than they generally are+ they 8ould force us to reDect the

cryptomnesia hypothesis as totally inadeHuate' &hether they 8ould force us to accept a reincarnation theory instead+ rather than+ say+ some version of the super:ESP hypothesis+ is another Huestion' My o8n guess 8ould be that further cases fulfilling these criteria 8ill probably come to lightI but they 8ill be so small a solid residue from so great a flood of entertaining but inconclusive eye8ash+ that one 8ould be ill:advised to 8aste oneFs lifetime in attempting to induce them'

Non'h"&notic 2ecollections
&e come ne;t to my second class of alleged evidence for reincarnation from claimed memories of past lives+ namely ostensible recollections by >unhypnoti@ed? adults of their supposed previous incarnations' .his class includes a great assortment of varied spontaneous e;periences+ ranging from simple KparamnesiasFJfeelings that one has Kbeen here beforeFJto >in very rare instances? the emergence of comple; sets of KmemoriesF relating to a supposed past e;istence at a definite period and place' It is only cases at the latter end of the scale that 8ould concern us here' But I do not propose to linger long over them' Mr E' &' yallFs ostensible memories of his life in seventeenth century Somerset+ set forth in a manner reminiscent of a novel >(6L?+ have the <(73< curious characteristic+ on the freHuency of 8hich I have already commented+ that many of the bac9ground details are correct 8hile all the central characters appear to be fictitious' $n %r Arthur GuirdhamFs recollections of his incarnation as a Cathar in thirteenth century 4rance+ together 8ith the correlated past:life recollections of various of his >anonymous? patients and friends+ no8 all reincarnated as a KgroupF >L6aI L6b?+ I can offer no useful comments' "o one but an independent specialist in the history of that period could properly evaluate the mass of recondite details thus ostensibly retrievedJthey include verified names and family relationships+ details of Cathar dress+ practices+ symbols+ etc'+ and events in Cathar historyJbut such an evaluation 8ould only be profitable if it 8ere based upon %r GuirdhamFs original records rather than upon the story as he tells it in his boo9s' In his boo9s he seems more concerned to share his convictions 8ith persons antecedently sympathetic to them+ than to dent by signed statements and careful documentation the disbelief of the less romantically inclined'

$2eincarnated) #hildren
My third+ and final+ class of claimed memories of past lives+ is that of the ostensible past:life recollections of very young children' $ccasional e;amples of such stories found their 8ay into print in the &est during the first half of the present century' But far the most impressive case:investigations in this area+ indeed in any area of reincarnation research+ are those conducted since (-C) by Professor Ian Stevenson of the *niversity of Eirginia' In order to carry out his investigations on the spot+ Stevenson has engaged in freHuent and e;tensive travels' .he upshot has been a series of four substantial volumes >the series is still in progress?+ containing in all reports on fifty:t8o cases >(L6gI (L6hI (L6iI (L6D?+ and various shorter accounts of individual cases' Stevenson has fifteen or t8enty times as many cases on file' .he greatest strength of StevensonFs 8or9+ it seems to me+ is that he has a very Dust appreciation of the canons of evidence against 8hich such cases must be tried+ an appreciation 8hich he 9eeps at all times before his o8n mind+ and before the minds of his readers' .his is not to say that all+ or even many+ of his cases fully satisfy these canons+ nor does he claim that they do' .he point is rather that he puts before his readers+ as fully and as fairly as he can+ the materials 8hich they reHuire to form their o8n Dudgements' !e has himself deliberately

supplied most of the ammunition 8hich his critics have used against <(76< him' And he has pressed for independent replications of his research' StevensonFs methods of case:investigation+ li9e the layout of his case reports >to 8hich they are of course closely tied?+ 8ere developed at an early stage of his research+ and naturally reflect the matters upon 8hich it is vital to have information 8hen assessing a case of this 9ind' .he facts or alleged facts 8hich ostensibly lin9 a certain young child >call him the Kpresent personalityF? to a definitely identifiable deceased person >call him the Kprevious personalityF? may be of three sorts' .here are statements made by the present personality concerning his memories of his life as the past personalityI there are behaviours+ s9ills+ attitudes+ abilities+ and so forth+ sho8n by the present personality+ 8hich accord 8ith those of the previous personalityI and there are recognitions by the present personality of the previous personalityFs relations+ friends+ belongings+ house+ etc'J8hen the childFs parents find that the previous personality really e;isted+ they almost al8ays give 8ay to curiosity and the childFs demands+ and arrange for him to visit the previous personalityFs family' $bviously the first thing 8e need to 9no8 is Dust 8hat statements the child made+ 8hat relevant behaviours he e;hibited+ and at 8hat age he began to ma9e or e;hibit them' It is especially important to 9no8 8hat relevant things the child said and did before he first met the previous personalityFs family' After the first meeting there may be KcontaminationF of the present personalityFs memories+ especially if+ as not uncommonly happens+ he becomes a regular visitor in the previous personalityFs home' In only a fe8 cases >StevensonJ(L6h+ p' (55nJlists a do@en? has an investigator or independent person been able to ma9e a list of the present personalityFs statements before the first meeting has ta9en place' 4ailing such a list+ the investigatorFs best tactic is obviously to intervie8 in detail first+ of course+ the child himself+ and then as many persons as possible 8ho sa8 him before the first meeting+ heard statements from him+ observed his behaviour+ etc' .he separate intervie8ing of a multiplicity of 8itnesses may help to offset or resolve errors of testimony+ retrospective e;aggerations+ and tendencies to thin9 that the child made before the first meeting statements 8hich in fact he only produced after it' Another crucial issue is that of ho8 the first meeting bet8een the present personality and the previous personalityFs family 8as conducted' &ere the recognitions truly spontaneousM &hat cues could have been given by persons presentM &hat mista9es may have been overloo9ed in the e;citement of the momentM And so on' $nce again <(75< 8e have only a fe8 cases in 8hich an outside investigator+ alert to these possibilities+ has been present as recorder on the day itself' $nce again+ therefore+ 8e have generally to rely on detailed intervie8s 8ith eye8itnesses+ and cross:chec9ing of their statements' .he ne;t Huestion to arise is clearly that of ho8 far the childFs statements and behaviour agree 8ith 8hat is 9no8n of the previous personalityFs life+ death and characteristics' .o ascertain this it is obviously necessary to intervie8 members >as many as possible? of the previous personalityFs family+ to visit their home and its surroundings+ to consult public records and ne8spaper files+ and so on' .hese procedures may help to thro8 light on the remaining crucial issue+ namely 8hether the child could have learned relevant facts about the previous personality by normal means' &ith children as young as these+ cryptomnesic recollection of+ say+ a ne8spaper obituary notice seems outstandingly unli9ely' .he possibility that the child may have pic9ed up information through listening to adult gossip needs ho8ever to be thoroughly e;plored' In some cases the child is antecedently believed by the parents to be the reincarnation of another member of the family+ and then of course the danger is very real' But in many cases the parents deny having 9no8n anything about the previous personality prior to the childFs revelations' .heir denials have+ ho8ever+ to be chec9ed in the light of the

geographical situations of the t8o homes+ and of any ordinary lines of communication that can be discovered bet8een them' .he investigatorFs tas9 is here very much li9e that of a detective' And indeed he needs+ of course+ to be continually 8atchful for signs of fraud+ and of financial e;ploitation of the case' Given this bac9ground of comple; and interrelated problems+ one can readily see 8hy Stevenson lays out his case reports as he does' !e usually begins 8ith a short summary of the case+ indicating ho8 he first heard of it+ 8hen he first visited the families concerned+ 8ho participated in the investigation 8ith him+ and so onI he lists the people he intervie8ed+ 8ith or 8ithout the need for an interpreterI he sets out relevant geographical factors+ and considers possible normal lines of communicationI he presents his information about the life and death of the previous personalityI he tabulates the relevant statements and recognitionsI states 8hether they are correct or not+ and if they are correct+ gives his authority for saying soI he discusses any other relevant mattersI considers the behavioural aspects of the case >the behaviour patterns+ s9ills and attitudes 8hich the present personality appears to <(7L< share 8ith the previous one?I comments on the paranormal aspects of the caseI and lastly mentions later developments+ follo8:up visits+ etc'Jit is his general and prudent practice to 8atch a case over a period of years to see 8hat may come to light' I turn no8 to certain general+ or statistical+ features of StevensonFs collection of cases' It 8ill be convenient to mention these briefly under t8o headings+ namely features recurring in cases from all cultures studied+ and culture:bound recurrent features of the cases' Features recurring in cases from all cultures studied (' Most of the subDects are bet8een t8o and four years old 8hen they start spea9ing about their previous livesI i'e' they start as soon as they can spea9' 3' .hese memories come+ for the most part+ in the 8a9ing state' 6' *sually something li9e ninety per cent of the subDectFs statements about his previous life are correct' 5' In most cases subDects stop tal9ing about their previous lives bet8een the ages of five and eightI memories of them usually do not survive into adulthood+ though there are e;ceptions' L' In a high percentage of cases+ the previous personality met a violent+ and often an early death' C' Events connected 8ith+ or Dust preceding+ the death of the previous personality tend to be prominent among the subDectFs memories' 7' .he present personality is li9ely to be born 8ithin a fe8 9ilometres of the previous personalityFs home+ and to spea9 the same language' .here are many e;ceptions to the former part of this rule of thumb+ but the e;ceptions gro8 fe8er as the distance gets greater' It has+ of course+ to be borne in mind that verification of the previous personalityFs actual e;istence might become more difficult 8ith increased separation of the families concerned' #ulture'=ound recurrent features of the cases

(' eported cases are most common in regions 8here reincarnation is 8idely believed inI e'g' in India and Sri #an9a and in Southeast Asia+ or among the %ruses and Alevis of &estern Asia+ and .lingits of Alas9a' .his could obviously be e;plained in a variety of 8ays' 3' .hough in all cultures there is a high incidence of violent deaths among the previous personalities >higher than the norm of the country <(7C< concerned?+ the proportion varies from 62W in Sri #an9a to over 72W among the %ruse cases of Syria and #ebanon' 6' Previous lives as a member of the opposite se; are much more freHuently claimed in some cultures than in others' .hey are unheard of among the .lingits+ %ruses and Alevis+ occur in (6W of .hai cases+ 32W of Burmese cases+ and in as much as L)W of cases among the 0utchin of north8estern Canada' Such cases occur most freHuently in cultures 8hich believe them possible+ most rarely in cultures 8here such change is thought impossible' 5' Instances of reincarnation 8ithin the same family are very common in Burma and among the .lingits and the Es9imos+ and rare in other cultures' L' .he apparent interval bet8een the death of the previous personality and the birth of the present one varies a good deal from culture to culture+ the variations again being lin9ed to culturally determined beliefs on the subDect' .he median interval among the !aida of Alas9a and British Columbia is four monthsI among the %ruses si; monthsI among the Alevis monthsI in Sri #an9a and in India (2 monthsI and among the .lingits 52 months' .here appears to be once again a >not very e;act? lin9 8ith culturally determined beliefs on the subDect' In one or t8o cases the previous personality has not died until after the birth of the present personality' .he most remar9able such case is an Indian one+ that of a boy named /asbir >(L6g+ pp' 65GL3?' At the age of three and a half+ /asbir became so ill 8ith smallpo; that he 8as thought to have died' !o8ever he gradually revived and thereafter claimed to be Sobha am+ a recently deceased young man from a village about t8enty miles a8ay' .he case has some affinities 8ith that of #urancy Eennum+ described in the previous chapter+ but unli9e the #urancy Eennum personality+ the /asbir personality never returned' C' KAnnouncing dreamsF+ dreams in 8hich an e;pectant mother receives information as to the identity of the unborn child she is carrying+ are 9no8n in most cultures+ but are commonest among the Burmese+ the natives of north8estern "orth America+ and the Alevis of south central .ur9ey' 7' Also 9no8n in most cultures so far studied are birthmar9s corresponding either to those borne by the previous personality+ or else to the 8ounds from 8hich he met his death' .he correspondences are in some instances e;tremely close+ and have been verified by medical records or autopsy reports concerning the previous personality' Such <(77< cases are specially common among the Es9imos+ the .lingits+ the Burmese+ and the Alevis' !aving briefly described StevensonFs methods of case:investigation and case:reporting+ and touched on some relevant general features of the cases in his collection+ I shall no8 come do8n to a more concrete level by giving an outline of a sample case' 4or this purpose I have selected the case of S8arnlata >(L6g+ pp' C7G-(?' .his case is unusual in that the subDect claimed to remember t8o previous incarnations' I 8ill deal first 8ith the earlier and more important one' S8arnlata 8as born on 3 March (-52+ the daughter of M' #' Mishra+ an

assistant in the office of a district inspector of schools+ and lived during the period 8ith 8hich 8e are concerned in various to8ns in Madhya Pradesh+ India' 4rom about the age of three and a half she e;hibited ostensible memories of a previous life as Biya+ daughter of a family called Patha9+ in 0atni+ Madhya Pradesh+ and >it later transpired? 8ife of Sri Chintamini Pandey of Maihar+ a to8n north of 0atni' It is to be noted that the Mishra family never lived closer to 0atni than about a hundred miles' S8arnlata confided fragments of her apparent memories mostly to her brothers and sisters+ but also to some e;tent to her parents' She still retained her memories in (-L2 8hen she met Srimati Agnihotri+ a lady from 0atni 8hom she claimed to recogni@e from her previous life there' .his prompted M' #' Mishra+ S8arnlataFs father+ to 8rite do8n some of her statements+ 8hich he did in September (-L2' In March (-L- !' "' BanerDee+ an Indian parapsychologist+ spent t8o days 8ith the Mishra family investigating the case' !e noted do8n nine statements made by S8arnlata about the Patha9 residence' !e visited 0atni+ and guided by S8arnlataFs statements 8as able to find the house of the correct Patha9 family' !e 8as the first to establish the close correspondences bet8een S8arnlataFs ostensible memories of a past life+ and the life of Biya+ the Patha9Fs daughter+ 8ho had died in (-6-' In the summer of (-L- members of the Patha9 family and of BiyaFs husbandFs family travelled to S8arnlataFs house' .hey too9 considerable precautions to avoid giving S8arnlata cues+ and they made various attempts to mislead her' "one the less she 8as successful in recogni@ing them and 8as not misled' Shortly after8ards S8arnlata 8as ta9en to 0atni and Maihar+ 8here Biya had lived' She recogni@ed additional people and places+ and commented on various changes that <(72< had ta9en place since the death of Biya' !er father+ M' #' Mishra+ made 8ritten notes on some of the recognitions soon after they occurred' S8arnlata seems thereafter to have been accepted as Biya by the Patha9s and Pandeys+ and built up affectionate relationships 8ith the KbrothersF and KchildrenF of her previous life' Stevenson spent four days investigating the case in the summer of (-C(' !e intervie8ed fifteen persons from the three families concerned+ including S8arnlata herself' Interpreters 8ere in most instances not necessary' !e also had put at his disposal documents and notes about the case prepared by !' "' BanerDee >see above? and notes made by Professor P' Pal during his study of the case in (-C6' After he left he 9ept up a correspondence 8ith S8arnlata and her father+ and met S8arnlata again in "ovember (-7(+ by 8hich time she had obtained a BSc and an MSc 8ith distinction in botany' She stated that she had not lost her memories of her previous life' .his may have been because the Mishra family 8as completely tolerant of them' I shall no8 present a summary list+ heavily abridged from StevensonFs tabulation+ of the various statements and recognitions made by S8arnlata' .he first eighteen are statements made by S8arnlata before she met any members of her previous family' Most of them 8ere 8ritten do8n by her father' It 8as items C+ (6 and (5 8hich enabled !' "' BanerDee to find the Patha9Fs house 8ithout help 8hen he 8ent to 0atni in March (-L-' tem nformant Confirmed #y (' She belonged to a family named M' #' Mishra+ aDendra Prasad Patha9+ brother of Patha9 in 0atni S8arnlataFs father Biya 3' She had t8o sons+ 0rishna %atta M' #' Mishra Murli Pandey+ son of Biya' >Biya had

and Shiva %atta

6' !er name had been 0amlesh 5' !er name had been Biya

M' #' Mishra 0rishna Chandra+ S8arnlataFs brother

t8o sonsI the other 8as named "aresh' .he names given are ho8ever names of other persons in the family'? Incorrect' >.his refers to the other ostensible past life recalled by S8arnlata'? aDendra Prasad Patha9 Incorrect' >A KportmanteauF name+ containing correct elements'?

L' .he head of the family 8as !ira M' #' Mishra #al Patha9 <(7-< CG(5' .he Patha9 house 8as 8hiteI it had four stuccoed rooms+ but other parts 8ere less 8ell furnishedI the doors 8ere blac9I the doors 8ere fitted 8ith iron barsI the front floor of the house M' #' Mishra 8as of stone slabsI the family had a motorcarI there 8as a girlsF school behind the houseI a rail8ay line could be seen from the houseI so could lime furnaces' (L' !er family lived in Bhur9utia %istrict

aDendra Prasad Patha9' I' Stevenson >personal observation?' All items correct'

M' #' MishraI Murli Pandey+ M' #' Mishra S8arnlataFs son' >"ame should be Bharrati9uria'? aDendra Prasad Patha9' Incorrect' (C' She had had pains in her throat M' #' Mishra >She had had throat trouble+ but died and had died of throat disease of heart disease'? (7' She had been treated by %r S' Murli PandeyI >name should be S' E' M' #' Mishra C' Bhabrat of /abalpur Barat'? M' #' MishraI 0rishna Chandra' (2' She had once gone to a >Srimati Agnihotri 8as the lady from 8edding at .ilora village 8ith M' #' MishraI 0atni 8ho first confirmed some of Srimati Agnihotri and they had 0rishna Chandra S8arnlataFs past:life memories' See difficulty in finding a latrine above'? .he ne;t items+ items (-G36+ occurred 8hen the Patha9 and Pandey families first visited the Mishras in the summer of (-L- >see above?' >!ari Prasad Patha9 arrived unannounced and gave no name' M' #' MishraI S8arnlata at first called him !ira #ai (-' ecognition of !ari Prasad+ !ari Prasad Patha9+ but recogni@ed him as her brother of Biya Patha9 >i'e'+ BiyaFs? younger brother+ and called him KBabuF+ the name by 8hich Biya 9ne8 him'? 3) and 3(' ecognition of M' #' MishraI >.he t8o anonymous visitors along Chintamini Pandey+ husband of < Murli Pandey 8ith nine other men+ some 9no8n to (2)< Biya+ and of Murli Pandey+ her+ some un9no8n' She 8as as9ed her son to name them all' She told

Chintamini Pandey she 9ne8 him in 0atni and Maihar+ and loo9ed bashful as !indu 8ives do in the presence of their husbands' She identified Murli despite his maintaining for almost 35 hours that he 8as not Murli but somebody else'? >Murli 8as trying to pass off a friend 33' "on:recognition of stranger Murli Pandey he had brought 8ith him as his un9no8n to Biya' brother "aresh'? Murli Pandey' >.his 8as told to 36' Chintamini Pandey too9 (3)) Murli Pandey by Chintamini Pandey' rupees from a bo; in 8hich she Murli Pandey "o one e;cept he and Biya had >Biya? had 9ept money' 9no8n about it'? Items 35G5- >most of 8hich I omit? too9 place on S8arnlataFs visits to the Patha9 and Pandey families >see above?' .he items I have omitted relate to recognitions of relatives and servants 9no8n to Biya+ or to recognition of places+ rooms+ and features of houses altered since BiyaFs death' S8arnlata 8as often able to specify the relationship+ and to give other appropriate details' >Presented to S8arnlata as a BriD 0ishore specially difficult test' BriD 0ishore Patha9+ fourth 3-' ecognition of family co8herd Patha9 also tried to persuade brother of BiyaI S8arnlata that the co8herd had 0rishna Chandra died'? 63' InHuiring about neem tree aDendra Prasad Patha9' >.his tree aDendra Prasad formerly in compound of Patha9 had been blo8n do8n some months Patha9 house' before S8arnlataFs visit'? 66' InHuiring about a parapet at aDendra Prasad aDendra Prasad Patha9' >.his had bac9 of Patha9 house' Patha9 been removed since BiyaFs death'? aDendra Prasad Patha9I M' #' Mishra' >BriD 0ishore Patha9 tried to deceive S8arnlata by saying that 65' "on:acceptance of suggestion aDendra Prasad Biya had lost her teeth' S8arnlata that Biya had lost her teeth+ and Patha9I M' #' denied this and insisted she had gold statement that she had gold nails in Mishra fillings in her front teeth' .he Patha9 her front teeth' brothers could not remember this and consulted their 8ives+ 8ho verified S8arnlataFs statement'? <(2(< In addition to S8arnlataFs correct recognitions and statements+ certain aspects of her behaviour reHuire mention' &ith the Mishra family she behaved li9e a >some8hat serious? childI but 8hen 8ith the Patha9s she behaved li9e an older sister of her KbrothersF+ 8ho 8ere in fact forty years and more older than she 8as' .hey completely accepted her+ and the emotional bond bet8een them became very strong+ though it did not interfere 8ith her affection for her natural family' &hen alone 8ith the KchildrenF of her previous life >men much older than her? she rela;ed completely and treated them as a mother 8ould' "either aDendra Prasad Patha9 >BiyaFs second brother? nor Murli Pandey >her son? had believed in reincarnation before they met S8arnlata\Biya'

.he gap of nearly ten years bet8een BiyaFs death+ and S8arnlataFs birth+ is an unusually long one by the standards of such cases' S8arnlata had in fact some fragmentary ostensible memories of an intervening life at Sylhet in Bangladesh >then Assam?' She gave her name as 0amlesh+ and e;hibited some 9no8ledge of the geography of the district' A proper investigation 8as not possible' S8arnlata retained some memories of conDoined songs and dances she had supposedly learned during her Sylhet incarnation' .he 8ords of the songs 8ere in Bengali >S8arnlata spo9e only !indi?' Professor P' Pal+ a native of Bengal+ transcribed the songs+ and translated them into English' .8o out of three 8ere clearly derived from poems of abindranath .agore' .he accompanying dances 8ere of an appropriate style' &e have here an e;ample of ostensible recitative ;enoglossy >see Chapter Seven above?' .he Huestion 8hich naturally arises is 8hether S8arnlata could have learned the songs by ordinary means before the age of five 8hen she first began to perform them' Stevenson considers in great detail the possibility that she might have seen them in a film >a film in a language not her o8n?+ heard them on radio+ or other8ise 8itnessed a performance of them' !e thin9s it most improbable that she could have learned them normallyI but I do not have space to go into the details of his arguments' I have no8+ at least in a preliminary 8ay+ laid out the pieces of this pu@@le+ and 8e must no8 as9 into 8hat patterns the pieces can be arrangedI as9+ in other 8ords+ 8hat e;planation can be given of the apparently paranormal factors in the case' In tac9ling this Huestion I shall try+ so far as possible+ to pass occasionally beyond the case of S8arnlata and offer some general comments on StevensonFs findings' <(23< But the bul9 of his 8or9 is so large that any remar9s of mine are bound to be most inadeHuate' .he obvious starting point is 8ith those approaches 8hich attempt to normali@e the paranormal+ to demonstrate that+ despite all appearances to the contrary+ there is nothing in these cases 8hich cannot be e;plained a8ay in commonplace terms' .he stic9s 8ith 8hich upholders of this approach are 8ont to beat their opponents are+ in ascending order of po8er to bruise+ errors of memory combined 8ith retrospective e;aggeration+ genetic memory+ fraud and cryptomnesia' .he first t8o of these can be immediately dismissed+ both for StevensonFs published cases in general+ and for the case of S8arnlata in particular' "o doubt the testimony contains a sprin9ling of errors as to 8hat the subDects did or did not say prior to their first meetings 8ith the families of the previous personalities+ and no doubt there 8ould be a temptation to enrich the subDectFs supposed statements 8ith facts gleaned after the first meeting' But I do not thin9 that anyone 8ho seriously studies StevensonFs case reports 8ill conclude that this can be anything more than a very minor factor in promoting the correct statements and recognitions 8hich these subDects are said to have made' Certainly it cannot be an important factor in the case of S8arnlata+ in 8hich a substantial number of statements 8ere 8ritten do8n and passed on to an outsider before the first meeting of the t8o families' Mr Ian &ilson >(73+ pp' LCGL7? seems to thin9 that there may be an underlying 8ea9ness in some of the evidence collected by Stevenson because t8o persons 8ho assisted him in a number of case investigations in India and in Sri #an9a 8ere ardent believers in reincarnation' I should imagine that others of StevensonFs helpers may have fallen into this category+ and that Stevenson himself is not uninterested in reincarnationist philosophies' !o8ever the criticism stri9es me as Huite illegitimate' "either a personFs practical 8or9+ nor his arguments+ can be undermined by pointing to the hopes+ ho8ever strong+ that may as a matter of

psychological fact+ have inspired them' Practical 8or9 can only be demolished by pointing to fla8s in design+ method+ apparatus+ techniHue+ etc'I arguments can only be demolished by pointing to faulty assumptions or faulty logic' Any contrary claim must ultimately be self: defeating' 4or genetic memory there is+ so far as I am a8are+ virtually no acceptable evidenceI and in the vast maDority of StevensonFs cases+ the present personality 8as certainly not+ biologically spea9ing+ directly <(26< descended from the previous one' .he possibilities of fraud are a great deal harder to assess' $ne has for the most part to evaluate these possibilities for each individual case' In the case of S8arnlata fraud seems e;ceptionally unli9ely' .here 8as no evidence that either S8arnlata or her father benefited financially' !er father received a certain amount of publicity from the affair+ 8hich to some may appear a sufficient motive for fraud' But even so the problem remains of ho8 he could 8ithout attracting attention have obtained so much detailed and highly personal information about the private lives of the Patha9s+ and have successfully coached S8arnlata in it' "othing that Stevenson could find out about him from persons 8ho 9ne8 him gave any grounds for suspicion that he had perpetrated a hoa;+ and it 8ill be remembered that Stevenson remained in touch 8ith both father and daughter for many years' .here seem+ furthermore+ to be some general reasons 8hy fraud cannot be regarded as a li9ely e;planation of the apparently paranormal elements in cases of this 9ind' $ne is that cases in very different parts of the 8orld e;hibit closely similar features >listed above?+ features for the most part lac9ing in those fe8 cases in 8hich fraud has actually been detected' Cryptomnesia is an e;planation 8hich has li9e8ise to be assessed case by case' In the case of S8arnlata it seems to me almost inconceivable that cryptomnesia should be the ans8er' .he Mishra and Patha9 families denied any previous acHuaintance 8ith each other and had never lived nearer each other than about a hundred miles' .he chief possibility for a normal line of communication 8as that S8arnlataFs mother came from an area 8here the Patha9 family had business interests' !er o8n maiden name 8as in fact Patha9+ though she 8as entirely unrelated to the Patha9s of 8hom Biya had been the daughter' $ne of BiyaFs brothers had some acHuaintance 8ith a cousin of S8arnlataFs mother' .he Mishras had also passed through 0atni from time to time' !o8ever even if S8arnlata or her parents had heard something about the Patha9s of 0atni+ and then forgotten it >and there is nothing to suggest this? it 8ould certainly not have included the intimate details of 8hich S8arnlata sho8ed 9no8ledge+ nor could it have accounted for her e;tremely successful recognitions of many relatives and servants of her supposed previous life' In others of StevensonFs cases >not an over8helming number? the li9elihood of cryptomnesia seems greaterJthe t8o families concerned lived near each other or the parents of the present personality <(25< undoubtedly 9ne8 something about the life and death of the previous personality' But Stevenson very reasonably points out: >a? that many of his subDects 8ere only three or even younger 8hen they e;hibited their first apparent memories of a previous e;istenceI >b? unli9e the subDects in many of the classic cases of demonstrated cryptomnesia+ they 8ere not hypnoti@ed but in an ordinary 8a9ing stateI and

>c? that so far none of his cases has yielded clear evidence for cryptomnesiaJthere has been nothing 8hich unmista9ably lin9ed the subDectFs statements to some source of information to 8hich he undoubtedly had access' It seems to me e;tremely unli9ely that either fraud or cryptomnesia have been more than marginal factors in producing the correct statements and recognitions so freHuently found in the pages of StevensonFs case reports' Attempts to normali@e the paranormal in this area have not proved convincing' &e must therefore move on to consider those e;planations 8hich invo9e paranormal factors or processes' .he factors or processes most commonly invo9ed have been ESP+ obsession by the spirit of some deceased person+ and actual reincarnation' .he ESP theory proposes+ of course+ that the KreincarnatedF subDect obtains all his information about the previous personality by ESP+ in most cases almost inevitably telepathy 8ith the living' &hy data concerning that particular deceased person >and usually no other? should be selected as target material remains unclear' .he telepathy theory suffers from several obvious shortcomings: In the great maDority of cases the ostensibly reincarnated person sho8s no signs of having any special ESP abilities >S8arnlata+ ho8ever+ 8as once the percipient in a not very impressive case of apparent spontaneous ESP?I some of the reincarnated personalities have e;hibited s9ills characteristic of the previous personality+ and I have already argued that s9ills cannot be acHuired by ESPI in some cases the telepathically acHuired information 8ould have to have come from more than one sourceI and in a fe8 cases the information concerned seems not Dust to have been acHuired+ but to have been organi,ed in a pattern appropriate to the mind of the previous personality' .he last t8o points ma9e it apparent that 8e are once again confronted 8ith 8hat can only be termed a version of the super:ESP hypothesis' It is 8orth Huoting StevensonFs e;positions of these t8o points in connection 8ith the case of S8arnlata >(L6g+ pp' 657G652?: <(2L< .he Patha9 brothers 9ne8 the facts about the changes in the Patha9 house in 0atni and nearly all the other facts apparently remembered by S8arnlata about events at 0atni+ although they did not remember the gold fillings in the teeth of their sister+ Biya' But it is e;tremely unli9ely that they 9ne8 anything about the latrine episode 8hich S8arnlata told Srimati Agnihotri and it is eHually unli9ely that they 9ne8 anything about the money ta9en from Biya by her husband' !e had told no one about this for obvious reasons' "o8 it is possible that S8arnlata derived different items of information from different persons each acting as the agent for one or a fe8 items and no others Q But 8hat then becomes note8orthy is the pattern of the information S8arnlata thus derived' "othing not 9no8n to Biya or that happened after BiyaFs death 8as stated by S8arnlata during these declarations' &e must account someho8 not only for the transfer of information to S8arnlata+ but for the organi@ation of the information in her mind in a pattern Huite similar to that of the mind of Biya' E;trasensory perception may account for the passage of the information+ but I do not thin9 that it alone can e;plain the selection and arrangement of the information in a pattern characteristic of Biya' 4or if S8arnlata gained her information by e;trasensory perception+ 8hy did she not give the names of persons un9no8n to Biya 8hen she met them for the first timeM E;trasensory perception of the magnitude here proposed should not discriminate bet8een targets unless guided by some organi@ing principle giving a special pattern to the persons or obDects recogni@ed' It seems to me that here 8e must suppose that BiyaFs personality someho8 conferred the pattern of its mind on the contents of S8arnlataFs mind'

I am Huite at one 8ith Stevenson over his doubts concerning the ESP >or super:ESP? theory+ but since I have already d8elt much upon the aridity of that theory+ I shall pass on to discuss the possible survivalistic interpretations of StevensonFs cases' .he first of these interpretations+ the theory of obsession+ has been the favourite resort of Spiritualists hostile to the idea of reincarnation' .heir vie8 is that the earth:bound spirit of some disreputable deceased person becomes in some 8ay attached to a person still in the flesh' .hrough a process of reciprocal telepathy >the supposed process 8hich in previous chapters I called Kovershado8ingF? this psychic parasite may influence the thoughts and behaviour of his victim >usually for the 8orse?' It is very difficult to 9no8 8hat to say of this theory' &e cannot list the characteristics of a number of authenticated obsession cases+ and then see ho8 far the characteristics of our reincarnation cases match up to them' Many parapsychologists 8ould strongly deny that there are any authenticated cases of obsession' Perhaps the best 8e can do here is to argue as follo8s+ f there are indeed genuine cases of obsession+ the .hompson:Gifford case+ 8hich I described in the last chapter+ has as <(2C< good a claim to be one of them as has any other case' #et us therefore compare the e;periences of the obsessed or overshado8ed Gifford 8ith those of a typical child subDect in one of StevensonFs reincarnation cases' If the t8o are very different+ then the obsession theory 8ill have failed to get off the ground+ and 8e may properly leave it there until such time as further discoveries succeed in re:energi@ing it' It is immediately obvious that .hompsonFs e;periences differed from those of a typical reincarnation subDect in at least the follo8ing respects: >a? !e had a freHuent sense of an e;ternal presence Kovershado8ingF him' >b? !is paintings >e;hibition of a characteristic s9ill characteristic of Gifford? 8ere often done in a state of dissociation+ 8ith some degree of subseHuent amnesia' >c? Scenes for his paintings 8ere presented to him+ as if from an e;ternal source+ in visions' >d? .he overshado8ing presence seemed to communicate 8ith him as if from the outside through auditory hallucinations' >e? .he scenes 8hich came to him did not come as scenes from his o8n past' >f? Mediums into 8hose presence .hompson 8as brought pic9ed up the presence of the obsessing KGiffordF entity >so far as I 9no8 comparable e;periments have not been tried 8ith StevensonFs subDects?' >g? .hompson did not identify 8ith Gifford in the sense of coming to regard GiffordFs family and possessions as his o8n+ etc' More generally one might remar9 that the children in StevensonFs reincarnation cases do not+ on the 8hole+ present the signs of elaborating and maintaining a subconscious romance 8hich led Mrs Sidg8ic9 to8ards the theory of overshado8ing in regard to the controls and communicators of Mrs Piper' .here seem therefore to be grounds for saying that in at least one case the e;periences of a supposedly obsessed person 8ere very different from those of the subDects of StevensonFs

cases of ostensible reincarnation' .his appears to me a sufficient reason for consigning the obsession theory not to oblivion+ but indefinitely to the shelf' 4or since obsession is a state in 8hich mind and behaviour are ostensibly influenced from the outside+ the fundamental evidence for it could only be psychological evidence' It is beginning to loo9 very much as though+ having begun by <(27< e;pressing my very considerable distaste for the idea of reincarnation+ I have no8+ by eliminating all the obvious alternatives+ argued myself into a position 8here I am bound to accept it+ or at any rate to begin a serious attempt to ma9e sense of it' Can one indeed ma9e sense of this or any other form of the survival theoryM If+ after my death+ some recently born young person starts to e;hibit memories corresponding to my memories+ s9ills corresponding to my s9ills+ and so on+ 8ould it therefore follo8 that I am come againM .hese are the sorts of Huestions 8e shall have to discuss in the concluding chapters' Pending the results of this discussion+ I must admit that I do not find it easy to dissent from the very moderate opinion 8hich Stevenson e;presses at the end of his most recent study >(L6D+ pp' 6C-G67)?: Persons 8ho favour the certainties of religious traditions over the uncertainties of empirical investigations may prefer to remain 8ith the former until 8e have improved the latter' But other persons may 8elcome a gro8ing body of evidence that permits a rational belief in reincarnation+ even though this evidence falls far short of being decisive' And for the future+ there is the possibility that further and improved investigations of this type may develop stronger evidence of a Huality that 8ill permit a firmer conclusion to the most important of all the Huestions that man can as9 about himself: &hether human personality survives death' <(22<

1,

emor" and the -rain

My conclusions have so far been on balance favourable to some form of survival hypothesis' Certain mediumistic communications and certain ostensibly reincarnated personalities display so many correct and detailed apparent memories of a former e;istence on earth that ESP by medium or reincarnated subDect scarcely seems a possible e;planation+ unless+ indeed+ 8e are prepared to postulate ESP of an e;tent and comple;ity for 8hich 8e have no independent support' Even if 8e 8ere prepared to postulate such Ksuper:ESPF 8e 8ould still be unable to account for other aspects of the Kevidence for survivalF+ for the manifestation of s9ills+ personality traits+ purposes+ a 8hole point of vie8+ characteristic of the formerly living person' .he super:ESP hypothesis suffers from a large credibility gap' .o many the credibility gap of the super:ESP hypothesis+ and the disputes bet8een the supporters of that theory+ and those of the survivalist theory+ must seem matters of no conseHuence 8hatsoever+ li9e arguments bet8een rival schools of astrologers' .he findings of modern biological science strongly suggest >it 8ould be claimed? that such KmentalF phenomena as remembering+ thin9ing+ forming plans+ using language+ and all e;pressions of human KpersonalityF+ depend upon+ and at the bottom simply are+ aspects of the functioning of the brain' .here can therefore be no Huestion of human personality surviving the dissolution of the brain+ and no rational and scientifically educated person should 8aste time in studying

the supposed KevidenceF for survival' .he evidence for ESP may be marginally more 8orthy of credence+ but the margin is so small as to ma9e little difference' &e come here upon issues of immense difficulty and comple;ity' &hat is in Huestion is the nature of the relationship bet8een mind and brain+ and the 8idely held+ almost orthodo;+ contemporary vie8 that the mind is brain in action' "o8 these issues are too vast and too obscure to be adeHuately tac9led here+ perhaps any8here+ yet they cannot be altogether dodged for+ as I have Dust remar9ed+ a po8erful <(2-< current of opinion holds that only one sort of ans8er is possible+ and it is an ans8er 8hich puts the ostensible evidence for survival 8ith 8hich this boo9 is concerned 8holly out of court' 4aced 8ith the daunting necessity to say something+ ho8ever inadeHuate+ upon this crucial topic+ I have decided to adopt the follo8ing tactic' I shall discuss principally the Huestion of 8hether memory is entirely a function of the brain' 4or+ to put it some8hat over:simply+ if memories are to be eHuated 8ith aspects of the structure and operation of the brain+ oneFs po8er to remember could not survive the destruction and dispersal of oneFs brain' And since evidence for the survival of memory is a centralJindeed the centralJpart of the Kevidence for survivalF+ all evidence for surviving memory 8ould have to be dismissed or radically reinterpreted' 4urthermore+ it is li9ely that 8hat holds true of memory 8ill also hold true of the other facets of human personality 8ith 8hich 8e are principally concerned+ so that by investigating the issues 8ith respect to memory+ 8e may be able to reach conclusions of general applicability'

!he Nature of

emor"

A venerable vie8 of the nature of memory+ a vie8 going bac9 to classical times+ is this' Stimuli falling on our sense organs produce disturbances in our brains+ 8hich cause us to KperceiveF those stimuli' .he disturbances in our brains leave behind KtracesF+ minute changes in the structure of the brain' As a result of these changes+ brain activity becomes more li9ely to follo8 those same paths again+ ma9ing us liable to relive the original perceptual e;periences in a 8atered do8n form >Kmemory imagesF?+ even in the absence of the stimuli 8hich originally produced them' Such a revival of the original e;perience is especially li9ely to be triggered off by stimuli 8hose o8n traces are intermingled+ or KassociatedF+ 8ith those of the first stimulus' .oday this venerable theory is formulated in the terms of modern neuroscience and modern cognitive psychology' &e 9no8 that the brain contains thousands of millions of speciali@ed nerve cells >neurons?+ each sending out filaments 8hich ma9e connections >synapses? 8ith many other cells' By means of these filaments travelling regions of electrochemical disturbance >nerve impulses? are transmitted from one nerve cell to another' In an active brain immensely comple; patterns of nerve impulses are continually shifting and changing and re: establishing themselves' Some nerve impulses and patterns of nerve impulses seem to <(-)< originate spontaneously 8ithin the brain itself' But others are set going 8hen e;ternal stimuli stri9e the sense organs' Eolleys of nerve impulses rush do8n the sensory nerves 8hich pass from the sense organ concerned to the KcentralF nervous system and the brain' Such patterns of incoming nerve impulses are usually said to represent or encode the e;ternal stimulus >obDect or event? 8hich gave rise to them'

Against this bac9ground+ an account of memory is commonly developed along the follo8ing lines' .he incoming nerve impulses that KencodeF the e;ternal event must themselves someho8 change the properties of further neurons in such a 8ay that the changes could also be said to KrepresentF or KencodeF the e;ternal stimulus+ but in a different fashion' .hese changesJ8hich constitute the process of memory storage9 are usually thought to involve such alterations in the connections bet8een nerve cells as 8ill facilitate the revival or partial revival of the KstoredF pattern of nerve impulses' .he supposed process by 8hich the stored pattern is revived as needed+ and perhaps recirculated+ is 9no8n as retrieval$ It is KretrievalF that gives rise to the e;perience of remembering'

!he #oding'%torage'2etrie/al

odel

&e may call this vie8 of memory+ 8hich is endorsed by the conventional 8isdom of current psychology and brain science+ the coding8storage8retrieval model' Curiously enough >this is perhaps a significant point? this model 8as 8idely accepted for years+ indeed decades+ before there 8as any serious evidence in its favour' In fact it 8as accepted despite 8hat some regarded as 8eighty evidence against it' .he evidence against it 8as as follo8s' If memories are stored in the brain+ it is natural to as9 8hereabouts in the brain the store may be' It had been 9no8n for a long time that general deterioration of the brainJespecially deterioration involving atrophy of nerve cells in the cerebral corte; >the layer of Kgrey matterF on the outside of the brain?Jleads to a general loss of intellectual faculties+ including memory' But numerous attempts to sho8+ by e;periments 8ith animals+ that particular memories 8ere Kstored inF particular parts of the corte; 8ere largely unsuccessful' Established memories could survive the removal of considerable amounts of cortical tissueI and 8hen deficits 8ere produced they 8ere more obviously related to the amount of tissue removed than to its location' .here 8as little to suggest the e;istence of a memory:store+ or indeed of anything resembling memory:traces as usually conceivedJa fact 8hich greatly encouraged certain believers <(-(< in survival' .he coding:storage:retrieval model of memory 8as still largely an article of faith' !o8ever+ in the last couple of decades or so+ various findings have come to hand 8hich+ though they do not amount to the discovery of a memory store or of clearly locali@ed memory traces+ are at any rate consonant 8ith the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory' 4or instance: (' Electrical stimulation of the brain >especially of the temporal lobes+ the parts Dust in from+ and in front of+ the ears? by means of a small electrode sometimes produces the apparent reliving of a past e;perience 8ith an hallucinatory vividness' Some 8or9ers believe that the electrodes may activate a KretrievalF mechanism >but this interpretation of the findings is disputed?' 3' E;tensive damage to the front part of the temporal lobes has been found+ if it occurs on both sides of the brain+ to produce a frightful memory deficit' .he victim is unable to retain for more than a minute or t8o a memory of any ne8 event occurring+ ne8 person met+ ne8 place visited+ etc'+ after the date of his inDury' !e 8ill not even be able to 9eep trac9 of the plot of a film+ play+ etc'P .his has been interpreted variously as due to an inability to store ne8 material+ to a selective inability to retrieve material+ or to an inability to encode ne8 material' 6' .he brain may+ for our purposes+ be regarded as consisting of t8o maDor portions+ the brain stem+ 8hich is at it 8ere an up8ard and for8ard e;tension and enlargement of the spinal cord+

and the large t8in hemispheres+ 8hich overlie the brain stem and conceal it' .he hemispheres are connected by a large bundle of nerve fibres+ called the corpus callosum+ and if this is severed >producing a so:called Ksplit brainF? the t8o hemispheres can to some e;tent act independently' In e;periments 8ith animals it has been sho8n that each hemisphere can be taught different things+ and can learn to respond differently to the same stimulus' It is as though different memory traces have been diffusely laid do8n and separately stored in left and right hemispheres' Analogous findings have been obtained 8ith human patients 8hose brains have been KsplitF for the relief of epilepsy' 5' It has often been claimed that the inDection of certain substances into the brainJfor instance ones 8hich assist or inhibit the manufacture of protein in brain cellsJmay have a beneficial or inDurious effect on the ability to learn and retain ne8 material' Some 8or9ers thin9 that 8e must be tapping the molecular basis of memory <(-3< storageI but the proper interpretation of such findings has been much disputed' $n the face of it 8e seem to have here evidence for a coding:storage:retrieval model of memory+ in 8hich the coding+ storage and retrieval are all activities of the brain' If this approach to memory is correct+ it is clear that oneFs memories could not survive the dissolution of oneFs brain' It is ironical that the decades 8hich have seen the first seemingly solid pieces of physiological evidence in favour of the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory have also 8itnessed the beginnings of a strong and perhaps une;pected attac9 upon the presuppositions of that model' .his attac9 has come mainly from 8hat may seem an unli9ely Huarter+ namely certain philosophers interested in the philosophy of mind >(7I 3)I C3aI C3bI -2aI -2b?' .he issues are e;tremely comple; and difficult+ and I can here give only the barest outline of themI but they are of such obvious importance to the central problems of this boo9 that it is impossible to pass them by' eaders 8ho prefer not to embar9 at all on 8hat are to them uncharted seas 8ill find an interim summary on pages 3)3G6 and a concluding summary on pages 3(6G5' Before 8e tac9le these tric9y issues+ it is necessary to touch upon t8o commonly made distinctions 8hich 8ill be relevant to the discussion' .hey are as follo8s: (' .he distinction bet8een 8hat I shall call KpersonalF memory and 8hat I shall call KfactualF memory' By KpersonalF memory I mean oneFs ability to recollect events+ actions+ persons+ places+ etc'+ 8hich one observed oneself' By KfactualF memory I mean the ability to call to mind items of factual or propositional 9no8ledge+ such as the fact that platinum dissolves in molten lead+ or the fact that 0ing /ohn died of a surfeit of peaches and beer' It should be noted that factual memory does not necessarily involve personal memoryI one can recall a fact 8ithout recalling the occasion on 8hich one learned it' $n the other hand personal memories are al8ays also to some e;tent factual memories' .hus if one remembers the dome of St PeterFs one eo ipso remembers that St PeterFs is a Cathedral 8ith a dome' 3' .he distinction bet8een phenomena 8hich possess or e;hibit KintentionalityF and those 8hich do not' KIntentionalityF in this technical sense has nothing special to do 8ith intention' It is the property 8hich many mental states or events have of being KaboutF or <(-6< Kdirected uponF e;ternal obDects or states of affairs' .hus a hope is al8ays a hope for something or that something 8ill come to pass+ a belief is al8ays a belief that so and so is the case+ a memory is al8ays a recollection of something or a recollection that such and such is or 8as the case' A full specification of any such mental state reHuires a specification of the state of affairs 8hich

is the KobDectF of that mental stateI but these Kintentional obDectsF need not of course e;ist+ or have e;isted+ in the e;ternal 8orldJI can believe ardently in things that do not e;ist+ seem to remember something that never happened+ or hope for an event 8hich 8ill never transpire' .here is a large+ and highly technical+ literature about intentionality+ but for present purposes 8e need simply note that memory >at least the 9inds of memory 8e are here concerned 8ith? is essentially an KintentionalF phenomenon' &e can no8 consider some of the more obvious obDections to the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory' I shall ta9e these under t8o headings: (' $bDections to the idea that oneFs po8er to remember is due to oneFs having in oneFs brain coded KrepresentationsF or coded symbols of e;ternal events' 3' Problems that arise over the retrieval or tapping of these stored representations'

1. .=>ections to the Idea of Inner 2e&resentations

.he central problem confronting accounts of memory 8hich postulate stored KrepresentationsF of e;ternal events is that of clarifying 8hat+ in this conte;t+ could be meant by KrepresentationF' In the ordinary sense of the term KrepresentationF >as 8hen a map might be said to be a representation of a stretch of terrain+ or a grouping of pipe cleaners and ping:pong balls of a comple; molecule?+ one thing can be a representation of another only if someone creates or adopts it for that purpose+ or decides+ believes+ claims+ etc'+ that it is or shall be so' Creating+ deciding+ adopting+ believing+ etc'+ are all KintentionalF states of mind or KintentionalF mental events >i'e' they are KaboutF or Kdirected uponF conceived or imagined states of affairs e;ternal to themselves?' It is clear that the e;istence of such representations reHuires+ and cannot be used to e;plain+ memory and other KintentionalF phenomena' .hose 8ho e;plain memory >KfactualF and KpersonalF? in terms of inner KrepresentationsF+ and assume that such representations are embodied in the brain+ appear to be developing their o8n special or <(-5< technical concept of representation' .he essential features of this concept are that incoming stimuli >KinputsF? produce changes in the brain >one could use the old 8ord KtracesF for these?' .he traces in some >un9no8n? manner la8fully correspond to or parallel or KrepresentF some aspects of the inputs 8hich gave rise to them' $ne has+ I thin9+ only to spell out 8hat is involved in or implied by this concept of representation to see that it cannot possibly help us to understand the phenomena of memory' .he concept has commonly been developed in one of t8o general 8ays' .he simpler of these t8o 8ays has been in the past 8idely adhered to+ and provides an account of both KfactualF and KpersonalF memory' It proposes in essence that 8hen an episode of remembering ta9es place a memory trace >or stored representation? is KretrievedF or reactivated' .he effect of this retrieval is rather as though the input 8hich originally gave rise to the trace had been again received+ and had been processed through the system to the point at 8hich its nature and character 8ere deciphered' .he original perceptual e;perience is+ as it 8ere+ partly reinstated in the form of an imageI or it may be that a series of inputs have been assimilated to a single trace or representation+ in 8hich case retrieval 8ill give rise to a general or composite image+ more suited for carrying KfactualF than KpersonalF memories' .he supposed inner representations are usually thought of as either KvisualF or KverbalF' .hey are+

in short+ such that 8hen KretrievedF+ they yield a visual image of some person+ event+ or state of affairs+ or an auditory image of certain appropriate spo9en 8ords' .his version of the representational theory has of late found many critics even amongst psychologists' In the first place+ it hardly seems possible+ e;cept in the limiting case of certain highly KpersonalF memories+ to suppose that oneFs memory:9no8ledge of any given factual or personal matter consists in or is based upon the ability or tendency to evo9e or entertain a particular image+ or some image or images from a delimitable set+ such as inner visual or verbal representations might be supposed to generate' .a9e as an e;ample my memory of the fact that 0ing /ohn died of a surfeit of peaches and beer' I find that I can call the facts about 0ing /ohnFs death to mind through such images as those of a certain page of a certain elementary history te;tboo9I of an entry in the !ictionary of ;ational BiographyI of the voice of a former history teacher >8ith 8hom in fact I never studied the relevant period?I of a cro8ned figure rolling on grassI of a picnic hamper containing peaches and bottled beerI of loud intestinal <(-L< rumblingsI of a cartoon in Humours of HistoryI of the figures (3(C superimposed on a dish of tinned peachesI and so on' Several of these images are ludicrously inappropriate+ but they all appear to K8or9F+ and any one of them might come to mind or be deliberately summoned up in some circumstances' It is obvious that my 9no8ledge that 0ing /ohn died of a surfeit of peaches and beer does not derive from an ability to activate or retrieve a particular inner representation+ or a representation or representations from a limited set' I can create )hatever visual or verbal images seem at the time to constitute appropriate e+pressions of the underlying memory:9no8ledge' .he underlying memory:9no8ledge transcends any such limited set of visual or verbal images as the retrieval of inner representations mirroring episodes in past history lessons+ etc'+ might be supposed to give rise to' .here seem also to be possible episodes of KrememberingF in 8hich retrieved representations need not figure at all' If+ for instance+ I decline a meal of peaches and beer 8ith a Do9ing reference to 0ing /ohn+ it does not follo8 that I first had one of the images listed above+ or indeed any image at all' My action is itself as much an e;pression of the memory 9no8ledge as any visual or verbal image' Even if 8e set these difficulties aside+ many others still remain' .he partial reinstatement or reliving of a past e;perience >such as e+ hypothesi 8ould result from the retrieval of an inner representation? could not by itself constitute an act of remembering' An image representing some past scene that I had 8itnessed might occur to me at regular intervals 8ithout my ever reali@ing that I had gone through this e;perience before' And similarly I might freHuently find myself entertaining in my mindFs eye an image of a cro8ned figure clutching its stomach beside a table bearing tinned peaches and bottled beer 8ithout my once lin9ing it to the death of 0ing /ohn' .he occurrences of the images might indeed be due to modifications in my brain caused by past inputsI but their occurrence 8ould not constitute remem#ering$ A fully: fledged act of remembering 8ould have+ in addition+ to involve 8hat can perhaps best be called an KaffirmationF that the Kintentional obDectsF of the images >the events or states of affairs+ e;ternal to themselves+ that they are KofF+ KaboutF or Kpoint toF? really too9 place+ e;isted+ 8ere or are the case+ etc' But this element of KaffirmationF+ of saying to oneself+ Kthis is ho8 it 8as >or is?F+ is clearly that aspect of the 8hole episode in 8hich memory:9no8ledge is effectively deployed' And Huite obviously no account of the memory:9no8ledge displayed < (-C< in KaffirmationF can be given in terms Dust of revived or retrieved KrepresentationsFI for+ as I have Dust pointed out+ a representation does not yield memory:9no8ledge until an

affirmation has been made' .he theory of visual and verbal representations misses the essence of 8hat is involved in remembering' A closely related point is this' If I call to mind a visual image of a cro8ned figure+ glumly clutching its stomach+ and perhaps bearing the legend K/ohn: (3(CF+ or if I have a verbal image of the 8ords+ K0ing /ohn died of a surfeit of peaches and beerF+ I could still ma9e nothing of these images+ could KaffirmF nothing about them+ if I did not already -no) that 0ing /ohn died in (3(C+ and that these images referred to that 9no8ledge' Indeed+ unless I 8ere already furnished 8ith a great deal of bac9ground information in the light of 8hich the visual and verbal images concerned Kmade senseF+ I could not interpret them at all' I 8ould need to 9no8+ for instance+ 8hat a 9ing is+ that there 8as a 9ing called /ohn+ 8hat peaches and beer are+ 8hat eating is+ that overeating or bad food may lead to stomach disorders+ etc' All these essential items of bac9ground information+ 8ithout 8hich the images concerned could not be properly interpreted or understood+ themselves involve or constitute memory: 9no8ledgeI so that 8e cannot avoid postulating that into this one act of overt remembering there covertly enters a 9ind of memory:9no8ledge that does not reHuire to be embodied or presented in the form of retrieved visual or verbal images+ and cannot 8ithout regress be thought to reHuire such embodiment' I said a fe8 paragraphs ago that the attempt to give an account of memory in terms of inner representations has ta9en one of t8o general forms' .he first 8as the form 8hich 8e have Dust discussed and reDected+ namely the form 8hich supposes inner representations to be predominantly either visual or verbal' $bDections such as those I have Dust outlined+ together 8ith the fact that people find it easier to recall the KgistF or KmeaningF of+ say+ a film or a prose passage+ than they do the visual details or the e;act 8ords+ have led many cognitive psychologists to develop the idea of 8hat are called KabstractF or KprepositionalF representations >useful general accounts 8ill be found in+ for instance+ 6+ chapter 5I 72I 25?'

(ro&ositional 2e&resentations
Abstract or propositional representations are so called because they are held to embody abstract+ propositional 9no8ledge >9no8ledge that <(-7< so and so is or 8as the case? rather than the Huasi:perceptual information derived from the sense:organs embodied in visual and verbal representations' .hey are supposed to embody not Dust individual memories or pieces of memory:9no8ledge+ but the 8hole structure of our propositional 9no8ledge in particular areas+ including both conceptual 9no8ledge >K8hales are mammalsF? and factual 9no8ledge >K8hales s8im in arctic seasF?' .hey must thus be regarded as themselves structured+ though the nature of their neural embodiment+ li9e much else about them+ remains unclear' It is supposed that the underlying propositional structure can generate a great variety of different KsurfaceF e;pressions+ e'g' different sentences+ different actions+ different images+ and that conversely it mediates our understanding of many different statements that fall+ so to spea9+ 8ithin a given area of 9no8ledge' .he generation of the surface e;pressions from the underlying representations is said to be la8ful' It is KfactualF memory that propositional representations are primarily designed to e;plainI but some authorities >8ith 8hom I tend to agree? thin9 that even KpersonalF memories are really KfactualF or propositional >i'e' are recollections that such and such an event of a certain 9ind happened to one+ etc'? >see+ e'g'+ (3C?' Cognitive psychologists and psycholinguists commonly characteri@e propositional representations+ or interconnected net8or9s of such representations+ in a some8hat technical

manner by means of symbolisms derived from mathematics and formal logic' Something of the KfeelF of these characteri@ations may perhaps be gained in the follo8ing 8ay' Imagine something li9e an encyclopaedic dictionary in 8hich the entries are heavily cross:inde;ed' .hus the entries for K8haleF+ Ks8imF+ KmammalF+ KarcticF+ and KseaF 8ill be cross:inde;ed in such a 8ay as to indicate that >by definition? 8hales are mammals+ and that >as a matter of fact? 8hales s8im in arctic seas' Similarly the entries for KblubberF+ K8haleF+ KfatF+ Ks9inF+ etc'+ 8ill be cross:inde;ed in such a 8ay as to indicate that blubber is an insulating layer of fat found beneath the s9in of 8halesI and so on and so forth more or less indefinitely' "e;t imagine that all these cross:inde;ings+ instead of being 8ritten into the various dictionary entries+ are set out on one large sheet of paper+ 8ith 9ey terms+ or concepts+ li9e K8haleF+ KmammalF+ KblubberF+ Ks8imF+ etc'+ sho8n by small circles+ and their meaning:relationships and factual relationships indicated by connecting lines of different colours or of different 9inds and degrees of bro9enness' .his gives one a vague and some8hat misleading+ but still+ < (-2< I hope+ for present purposes sufficient+ idea of the sort of 8ays in 8hich propositional representations have commonly been characteri@ed' Some8here in the brain+ it is implicitly assumed+ there must be anatomical or physiological systems >propositional representations? 8hose structures and operations are in some sense mapped by the diagrams or symbol systems 8hose KfeelF I have been trying to convey' If an incoming statement or proposition so to spea9 harmoni@es or chimes in 8ith some part or aspect of this underlying+ physiologically embodied+ net8or9+ it 8ill be understood and accepted' Conversely+ the net8or9 8ill+ so to spea9+ generate or permit the generation of only such propositions as are embodied in the cross:lin9ages of the net8or9' Present versions of this approach deal principally 8ith statements+ and ho8 they are produced and understood+ but their proponents clearly hope to e;tend them to cover the generation of thoughts+ Dudgements+ images+ etc'+ in short to all the phenomena of KfactualF memory' I thin9 that some of the 8riters 8ho have adopted this sort of approach to the problems of memory >and of cognition in general? may loo9 upon their delineations of the KstructureF of Kpropositional representationsF not as speculations about supposed inner mechanisms+ but as a means of >an appropriate notation for? so to spea9 mapping the KstructureF of our propositional 9no8ledge >especially our memory 9no8ledge?+ of e;hibiting the 8ays in 8hich our concept of KblubberF is lin9ed to our concepts of KmammalF+ KseaF+ KfatF+ and so on and so on' &ith this enterprise+ though I doubt its point and long:term prospects+ I have no Huarrel' $thers+ ho8ever+ seem to regard themselves as 8or9ing out the groundplan of the inner mechanism through 8hich 8e understand 8hat is said to us and 8hat goes on around us+ and by means of 8hich 8e 9no8+ remember+ formulate propositions+ etc' Broadly spea9ing this enterprise could ta9e one of t8o forms+ both of 8hich appear to me to be Huite unintelligible' >a? It might be supposed that propositional representations+ once built up+ are simply stored a8ay and so to spea9 consulted 8hen needed' .his idea is Huite obviously regressive+ for it implies a further system 8hich does the consulting and understands the outcome thereof+ and this second system 8ould itself need to possess concepts+ intelligence and memory' >%espite the obvious regress+ some neuropsychologists are prone to tal9 as if they thought that certain brain lesions+ 8hich interfere 8ith the victimFs grasp of semantic and conceptual relationships+ 8ere damaging a store of this 9ind'? >b? A position that seems to be commonly+ if implicitly+ held+ is <(--< that Kpropositional representationsF are themselves the brain mechanisms of the understanding and production of propositional speech and thought >including thoughts and utterances 8hich 8ould be said to

manifest or e;press factual and perhaps also personal memory?' .he diagrams and symbol systems by means of 8hich propositional representations have been characteri@ed are then regarded as being in effect blueprints of these underlying mechanisms+ albeit blueprints of a very schematic and general 9ind' It is possible+ and+ as I remar9ed a moment ago+ Huite legitimate to regard diagrams of propositional representations as 8ays of summari@ing 8hat may perhaps be called the Kintellectual competenceF of a particular human being+ or of human beings in particular societies' Such diagrams map the organi@ation of a personFs 9no8ledge+ his grasp of the interrelationships of the concepts embodied in the ordinary speech of his society+ and so on' .o regard such mappings of someoneFs intellectual competence not as partial specifications of 8hat a supposed underlying mechanism 8ould have to accomplish+ but as specifications of the mechanism itself+ is+ on the face of it+ a gross confusion' It is li9e ta9ing a schematic dra8ing of a finished car for a blueprint of the production line 8hich assembled that car' Some people may+ I thin9+ have been misled into supposing other8ise+ for the follo8ing reasons' &hen the Kfinished productF 8hich has been mapped or delineated is competence in carrying out some rule:governed activity+ li9e playing chec9ers or tic:tac:toe+ or constructing grammatically correct sentences+ it is relatively easy to translate the map into a computer programme' .he computer can furthermore be made to run through moves formally paralleling the actions of a human being 8ho is KcompetentF in the rule:governed activity concerned' .he same holds true 8hen the competence being delineated is of the 9ind mapped by the diagrams favoured by believers in Kpropositional representationsF' It is tempting to suppose that 8hen 8e have programmed a computer to Kplay gamesF+ emit grammatical sentences+ spell out the relationships bet8een commonly accepted propositions in a certain area+ and so on+ 8e have in effect created machines 8hich 8or9 on the same sort of principles as 8e may supposed to be embodied in the brains of human beings 8ho possess these competences' .hese computers must therefore in effect contain mechanical embodiments of Kpropositional representationsF' Surely 8e may assume that the human brain is li9ely to contain something analogousM <3))< .he mista9e here consists in forgetting that 8hat has been programmed into the computer is still+ so to spea9+ only a KmapF or diagram of the competence concerned+ and not the competence itself' .he computer goes through certain changes in accordance 8ith its KmapF and prints certain signsI these signs can be interpreted #y an intelligent computer user as moves in a game of tic:tac:toe or chec9ers+ or as sentences follo8ing the rules of English grammar+ or 8hatever' But all the computer is doing here is as it 8ere putting up bit by bit for its userFs benefit a very detailed diagram of the sort of competence 8hich a person 8ho could really and truly play this game+ understand the connections bet8een these propositions+ etc'+ 8ould display' It develops many of the details as it goes along >KcomputesF them? from principles already built into it' "one the less it can no more be said itself to KpossessF the competence concerned than a computer 8hich can flash up road maps 8ith distances+ compute the shortest route from #andFs End to /ohn oF Groats+ etc'+ could be said to K9no8 the 8ayF from one place to another' 4or KcompetenceF in games+ and in comparable rule: governed activities+ does not consist in blindly going through motions into 8hich intelligent >and KcompetentF? persons can KreadF the moves of the games concerned' It consists in ma9ing the proper moves >or 8hat one conceives to be the proper moves? from the understanding that this is a game+ that it has rules+ that such and such are the permitted moves in this situation+ and that of the permitted moves some are+ in the current state of play+ KbetterF or more logical than others'

I conclude that the advocates of Kpropositional representationsF have so far given us only >partial? maps or diagrams of the intellectual competence displayed by persons possessing propositional or factual 9no8ledge' .hey have not yet begun to approach the Huestion of 8hat the underlying mechanism of this competence might be li9e' .hat it is possible to approach the Huestion at all remains at the moment a pious hope' Certainly it 8ill not be possible to approach it by invo9ing inner KrepresentationsF of the KstructureF of the intellectual competence concerned'

2. (ro=lems to do with $2etrie/al)

If a stored representation+ propositional or other8ise+ is to give rise to an episode of remembering+ it must+ in terms of the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory+ be KretrievedF+ and as it 8ere reactivated and partly recirculated through the system' "o8 if such a representation is to be retrieved from storage+ it must first be located+ <3)(< and this in turn reHuires that it be labelled+ tagged or coded in some 8ay >as is the case 8ith computer KmemoriesF?' $ther8ise the mechanism 8ould not be able to retrieve on demand the right representation from the store' And the retrieval mechanism must possess or K9no8F the various labels or tags' But >since the labels cannot be innate? this means that the mechanism must itself have a memory' And its memory cannot+ 8ithout regress+ be e;plained on the coding:storage:retrieval model' !ence this model can never give us an adeHuate account of memory' It might be replied that Kcontent:addressableF storage systems can circumvent this difficulty' .hese are systems in 8hich representations are retrieved because some element in the input >e;ternal stimulus? contains the label or KaddressF of the appropriate representation' .he short ans8er is that the e;ternal circumstances in 8hich an intelligent person might find it appropriate to retrieve a given fact are indefinitely numerous+ and are liable to an indefinitely large increase in number as time progresses' "o content:addressable system could match the range of possibilities here' .hese problems arise 8hatever 9ind of stored representations are in Huestion' Special to propositional representations+ ho8ever+ are a further set of problems of the follo8ing 9ind' Propositional representations are supposed inner or KdeepF structures 8hich generate a variety of different possible KsurfaceF e;pressions' .here must+ according to the theory+ be rules determining 8hich one of the possible surface e;pressions is generated on any particular occasion' But 8hat can these rules beM .a9e as an e;ample my memory of the interesting fact that platinum >melting point (77)]C? 8ill dissolve in molten lead at a much lo8er temperature' So far as I can tell this memory does not+ in my case+ lead to the generation of any special or KpreferredF image or imagesI ho8ever+ I might in some circumstances summon up various more or less appropriate images+ e'g' of someone stirring a greyish+ bubbling liHuid+ or the printed 8ords Kmelting point (77)]CF+ or of a voice saying+ KIt 8ill not melt+ but it 8ill dissolveF' In 8hat actions 8ill my memory:9no8ledge of this fact find e;pressionM Probably noneI or perhaps it may ma9e me nod my head sagely 8hen I come to read ' Austin 4reemanFs !r Thorndy-e ntervenes+ a detective story in 8hich the solubility of platinum in lead plays a part' But in 8hat actions might this 9no8ledge find e;pressionM &ell+ I might pass a remar9 during a coffee:brea9 conversation+ or 8rite something in an e;amination paper+ or ma9e a comment to my 8ife 8hile loo9ing at her 8edding <3)3< ringI I might 8rite notes to8ards a treatise on the oddities of natural philosophyI I might in some remotely conceivable circumstances engineer a crafty escape from a platinum:built *4$' And so on and so on indefinitely'

&hat+ then+ could be the KtransformationalF rules that relate the underlying propositional representation 8hich embodies the information about the solubility of platinum in lead to the various possible surface e;pressions 8hich it may generateM .he trouble is that it is Huite impossible to set limits on the number of possible surface e;pressions 8hich the propositional representation of a fact such as 8e are considering might have' $ne can create relevant images on demand+ in as much variety as the occasion reHuires' $ne 8ill+ 8ithin the limits of oneFs capacities+ utter 8hatever 8ords or carry out 8hatever actions an intelligent person 8ho 9no8s the fact in Huestion should utter or carry out in the prevailing circumstances >8hatever they may be?' And that+ I thin9+ is the point' .here is+ and can be+ no finite set of rules relating propositional representations to their surface e;pressions' Into the theory there must instead of rules surreptitiously be introduced an intelligence >a creative intelligence I might add? 8hose function is to understand and interpret the propositional representations and to direct thoughts+ utterances and actions in the light of them' And this intelligence+ I need hardly say+ is going to reHuire its o8n intentionality+ and its o8n memory 8ith its o8n retrieval system and its o8n intelligence to operate that retrieval system+ and so on for ever' In sum: a 8idely adopted approach to the e;planation of memory:phenomena consists in supposing that there are laid do8n in our brains coded traces or KrepresentationsF of past events or circumstances' An act of remembering occurs 8hen one of these coded representations is KretrievedF and so to spea9 put into circulation once more' I called this model of memory the Kcoding:storage:retrievalF model' It is of importance in the present conte;t because if our memories consist of KtracesF laid do8n in our brains+ then clearly our memories cannot survive the dissolution of our brains+ and a large part of the KevidenceF for survivalJthat involving evidence for the survival of memoriesJhas to be abandoned or radically reinterpreted' I argued+ ho8ever+ that the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory+ in any of the forms so far developed >and+ I should li9e to add+ in any form that could be developed?+ is Huite incoherent' A central part of my obDections 8as in essence this' According to this <3)6< model of memory >8hich is also a model of thought in general? 8e adDust our present thought and behaviour to the lessons of the past by retrieving and reprocessing or e;amining stored representations of past events >8e may also use these resources to represent present events and situations to ourselves?' But the stored inner representations on 8hich 8e can thus supposedly dra8 to assist us in our dealings 8ith the outer 8orld 8ould themselves constitute a 9ind of K8orldF of their o8n' &e 8ould have to learn our 8ay round this 8orld+ and learn to interpret and manipulate its contents+ Dust as 8e have to learn our 8ay round the outer 8orld' .o ma9e use of these inner representations 8e 8ould+ in short+ need already to have developed memory: 9no8ledgeI hence 8e cannot e;plain memory in terms of the retrieval of Kinner representationsF' I cannot of course deny that past e;perience may leave behind in the brain traces or representations 8hich+ 8hen reactivated >yielding+ perhaps+ a Kmemory:imageF? may cause or prompt us to remember' Such representations 8ould+ of course+ simply have the status of aides8mCmoire, and I need hardly say that an aide8mCmoire presupposes+ and does not itself constitute+ a 8or9ing memory' I am bound to say+ ho8ever+ that the idea that inner representations can have even this limited role is far from plausible' 4or an aide8mCmoire is normally something that I might 9eep in my poc9et to consult as needed' %o I then have a second aide8mCmoire in my head 8hich I li9e8ise consult as neededM I am never conscious of consulting it' $n 8hat occasions do I desist from my ordinary mode of recollection >8hatever that may be? and un9no8ingly turn to the inner aide8mCmoireA Is it 8hen I hesitate for a

moment and then rememberM &hat sort of code or language is the inner aide8mCmoire 8ritten inM %o I as the years go by develop different codes for different purposes+ corresponding to the different sorts of symbolisms >mathematical+ technical+ graphic+ linguistic? in 8hich 9no8ledge in different areas is customarily set do8nM $r is there one universal inner language or codeM If so is it innate >Kbuilt inF to the brain? or acHuiredM .hese Huestions+ and many others eHually vain+ arise from the Huagmires of the representational theory the moment one begins to ta9e the aide8mCmoire proposal seriously+ li9e an endless series of 8ill oF the 8isps inviting pursuit'

Im&lications for %ur/i/al

I must emphasi@e that I have so far said nothing directly to challenge the supposition that memory is entirely dependent upon brain <3)5< function+ a supposition for 8hich there is a great deal of empirical support' All I have done is challenge a 8idely received theory >or rather theoretical frame8or9? concerning the relationship bet8een memory and the brain' .he obDections to this theory+ the theory of inner representations >or coding:storage:retrieval model?+ do+ ho8ever+ bear indirectly upon the problem of survival in t8o 8ays' .he first of them is as follo8s' .he super:ESP hypothesis+ the chief alternative to the survival hypothesis+ seems inescapably committed to a KrepresentationalF vie8 of memory' 4or according to the super:ESP hypothesis+ successful mediums must obtain much of their information about deceased persons by so to spea9 riffling through the memory:stores of the living and KreadingF their contents' But if there are no representations there are no memory: stores and nothing KinF those stores 8hich mediums can telepathically e;amine' .he super: ESP hypothesis seems bound to collapse along 8ith the coding:storage:retrieval theory of memory' It collapses+ furthermore+ 8hether 8e suppose the KstorageF to ta9e place in the human brain+ or >as some have thought? outside itJin+ for e;ample+ a locali@ed Kether of imagesF+ a cosmic memory pool+ the KA9ashic recordsF of the theosophists+ or the mind of God' .he obDections to coding:storage:retrieval theories of memory 8ould in all cases be similar' .he second 8ay in 8hich the collapse of the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory 8ould indirectly affect the prospects of the survival theory is this' If memories are simply traces or representations in the brain+ they cannot possibly survive the destruction of the brain' Personal survival of death is therefore absolutely ruled out >if+ that is+ 8e set aside the idea of a bodily resurrection+ 8hich 8ould amount to the undoing or reversal of death+ rather than survival of it+ and is clearly not a candidate:e;planation for the sorts of phenomena 8e are considering?' If+ on the other hand+ the ability to remember+ 8hatever it may consist in+ is not based upon brain:traces or inner representations+ 8e are+ so to spea9+ licensed to speculate along other+ less fashionable lines+ some of 8hich may+ 8hile others Huite certainly 8ill not ma9e the survival theory once again a conceivable option for e;plaining certain mediumistic >and other? phenomena' In the remainder of this chapter I shall briefly e;plore the Huestion of 8hat the leading features of such an alternative approach to the problems of memory might be li9e' <3)L<

.ther ?iews of

emor"

Any such alternative approach must+ I thin9+ to begin 8ith emphasi@e a point that is not so much denied as underplayed by many proponents of representational theories+ the point+

namely+ that human memoryJat any rate the sort 8ith 8hich 8e are here concerned+Jand 8hich the representational theories are intended to e;plainJis essentially and before everything else a manifestation of human conceptual abilities' Eery roughly one might say that concept:possession involves the capacity to group obDects together in thought and to thin9 of individual group:members as members of the group' In its simplest form this capacity may simply involve grouping together a miscellaneous collection of obDects that one happens to find in a particular locationJas 8hen one says to oneself+ KI must tidy all that stuff a8ayPF More commonly one groups things together not in virtue of their spatial location but because they all possess a certain characteristic or set of characteristics' $ne groups+ say+ all KorangesF together in thought because they have similar 8eights+ colours+ te;tures+ are edible+ moist+ s8eet:tasting+ etc'I and 8hen one encounters an individual specimen possessing these characteristics one says of it+ KAh+ yes' $ne of thosePF $ne may divide the class of oranges into further subgroupsJSevilles+ /affas+ mandarins+ clementines+ etc'+Jon the basis of more specific characteristics+ or assimilate it to a larger groupingJKfruitFJby restricting oneself to a small number of more general characteristics' "o8 if one can say of an individual obDect 8hich one encounters >an orange?+ KAh+ yesP $ne of thosePF >oranges as a class?+ one is obviously in a sense transcending the here and no8I one is in thought assimilating the present specimen+ on account of certain characteristics 8hich it possesses+ to a group of other obDects not currently before one' $ne can go further and thin9 about either the group of obDects+ or some individual obDect considered as a member of the group+ in the total absence of either group or specimen' $ne can indeed thus KconceiveF them not Dust in their absence+ but even if they do not e;ist at all+ and never have e;isted >as 8hen+ for instance+ one ma9es out for oneself in thought a class of diminutive human:shaped creatures possessing butterfly:li9e 8ings and magical po8ers?' It is at once apparent that only a being 8ho e;hibits these KconceptualF capacities+ the nature of 8hich I have Dust+ very crudely+ tried to indicate+ could truly possess memories+ 8hether KpersonalF or KfactualF' If I am to be said to remember that 0ing /ohn died of a surfeit <3)C< of peaches and beer+ I must possess such concepts as those of 9ing+ peaches+ beer+ illness+ etc' I must be able to assign+ in thought+ certain obDects >those 8hich caused the 9ingFs death? to a class of things >peaches? mar9ed out in terms of certain characteristics >si@e+ taste+ colour+ gro8ing on trees+ etc'?' If I could not thin9 of these obDects as belonging to that class+ I could not thin9 of them as peaches, and accordingly I could not recall the fact that 0ing /ohn died of a surfeit of peaches and beer' Even if those very 8ords came into my mind+ I should not adeHuately understand their meaning+ and they 8ould therefore not constitute a true recollection of the fact concerned' It is obvious that a similar point could be made in connection 8ith all the other terms in the proposition >9ing+ death+ beerJthe proper name K/ohnF 8ould reHuire special treatment?+ and it is also obvious that the same problems arise in connection 8ith KpersonalF memories' I remember+ for instance+ the occasion on 8hichJa hero for the first+ and so far the only+ time in my lifeJI defied the fast bo8ler in a house match' I could not in any real sense have this recollection at all unless I possessed such concepts as bat+ ball+ delivery+ game+ etc'+ etc' $neFs capacity to remember is part and parcel of >and is indeed inseparably lin9ed 8ith? oneFs overall conceptual capacities' &e no8 reach our central Huestion+ namely that of ho8 memory:capacity and conceptual capacity in general+ might be lin9ed to brain function' It has been fashionable among physiologists and physiological psychologists to approach memory in 8hat may be called a

Kbottom upF manner' .hey have sought+ in other 8ords+ to account for memory phenomena by postulating that e;perience causes changes 8ithin or bet8een functional elements >nerve cells+ protein molecules+ etc'? in the brain' Since the overall pattern of relationship bet8een these elements >the KstructureF? is held to determine all levels of behaviour and mental functioning+ the changes 8ill produce corresponding alterations in these things+ changes 8hich constitute memory of facts or past events' I thin9 that there are reasons >8hich I cannot spell out here? for supposing that any theory 8hich attempts thus to derive the phenomena of memory entirely from the interactions of the elements of a system is bound to be a theory of the representational or coding:storage:retrieval sort' 4or if 8ithin such a system >of 8hich a digital computer appropriately programmed 8ould serve as a central e;ample? past functioning >input:output relations? is systematically to influence future input:output relations+ this can only be because of changes in the relations bet8een the elements of the < 3)7< system+ changes 8hich systematically reflect its past input:output:input history' Such changes 8ould almost certainly Hualify by definition as inner KrepresentationsF of past obDects or events' If+ therefore+ the doubts 8hich I have e;pressed about representational theories of memory are Dustified+ not Dust representational theories+ but all theories starting from supposed elements and the supposed la8s of their interactions must go by the board' &e must instead try out 8hat may be called Ktop do8nF theories+ theories according to 8hich the elements of a system sometimes act in conformity 8ith la8s 8hich characteri@e the functioning of the overall system+ and cannot be derived from the la8s 8hich govern the interactions of elements 8ith their fello8s' $ne might call the la8s or principles of the 8or9ing of such a system KsupervenientF la8s or principles+ because they supervene upon+ and so to spea9 override or overrule+ the la8s of the behaviour of the elements' >A corollary of this 8ould+ I thin9+ be that there must be a certain randomness or indeterminacy in the behaviour of the elements'? In the case 8e are considering+ the supervenient la8s or principles are those of the KconceptualF >or simply KmentalF? level of functioning+ 8hich include of course the Kla8sF of memoryI the la8s upon 8hich they supervene are the commonplace and commonly accepted chemical and physiological la8s 8hich govern the behaviour of brain cells' &e should have to suppose+ I thin9+ that 8hen+ during the development of the individual+ or the evolution of the species+ the overall spatio:temporal patterns of brain activity reach and pass a certain level of comple;ity+ the supervenient la8s appear+ and begin+ so to spea9+ partially to direct those patterns of activity+ the result being+ among other things+ characteristic changes in the organismFs behaviour' .he behavioural changes 8ill+ ho8ever+ not be constant from one individual organism of the species to the ne;t+ for different individuals 8ith different histories develop different conceptual capacities and different sets of memories+ and the supervenient Kla8sF or KprinciplesF of functioning 8ill differ correspondingly from one individual to the ne;t' .hus+ from a standpoint+ so to spea9+ at the level of brain cells and their summed individual activities and relationships+ memory >along 8ith other manifestations of conceptual capacities? 8ill involve supervenient principles of functioning+ principles differing some8hat in detail from one individual to the ne;t+ and not derivable from any amount of information concerning structural changes 8ithin and bet8een brain cells' <3)2< .he supervenient principles 8hich+ according to the hypothesis 8e are considering+ emerge and develop 8hen the overall spatio:temporal pattern of brain activity reaches a certain 9ind and degree of comple;ity+ might be supposed either:

(' to inhere in the stuff of the universe in 8ays 8hich contemporary physical science has as yet scarcely begun to glimpse+ and to be KreleasedF 8hen patterns of the right 9ind and comple;ity are generatedI or 3' to be created+ brought into being+ by comple; patterns of brain activityI or 6' to result from the interaction bet8een some influence outside the brain+ and brain activity of a sufficiently comple; 9ind >one might say that 8hen an active brain is blo8n upon by the cosmic 8ind+ or s8ims in the holomovement or the sea of hidden variables+ strange and unforeseen phenomena come into being?I or 5' to come from outside the brain and be permitted e+pression 8hen a brain e;hibits a certain 9ind of highly comple; activity:pattern' I do not thin9 that+ for present purposes+ it greatly matters 8hich of the above positions 8e adopt+ for+ 8ithout specifically adhering to any one of them+ 8e can ma9e some plausible further suggestions as to ho8 the supervenient level of function might be supposed to be related to the patterns of activity of brain cells' .hese suggestions are si; in number: (' It seems fairly clear that+ 8ithin certain modest limits+ there is no intrinsic or necessary lin9 bet8een specific instances of supervenient functioning >particular thoughts+ particular memories+ etc'? and the firing of particular sets of brain:cells' $nce the critical level of comple;ity of brain:activity has been passed+ the thin9ing of a particular thought is li9ely to be compatible 8ith the firing of any one of a very large number of possible subsets of brain cellsI and vice versa' .here are various 9inds of reason for saying this' $ne 9ind of reason is empirical: there are many e;amples in 8hich the po8er of conceptual thought has been gravely impaired follo8ing considerable loss of brain tissue+ and has subseHuently to a greater or lesser e;tent been reestablished' .here have also been many cases of early loss of brain tissue >sometimes as much as a 8hole cerebral hemisphere? or of congenital abnormalities leading to a similar result+ in 8hich conceptual functioning has developed to lie 8ithin normal limits' In both these sorts of case it seems inevitable that 8e should have to say that this+ that+ or the other thought >supervenient level of functioning? <3)-< no8 occurs in connection 8ith+ or is mediated by+ the activity of a set of brain cells other than the set 8ith 8hose activity it 8as once associated+ or 8ould have been associated had earlier circumstances been different' Another 9ind of reason is logical' According to the hypothesis 8e are considering >the hypothesis+ indeed+ to 8hich 8e have been driven by the brea9do8n of the coding:storage: retrieval model of memory? the supervenient level of functioning reflects bac9 upon+ and directs+ the neural events 8hich accompany it' .he supervenient level of functioning could not have this 9ind of autonomy+ and could not thus act as a factor or principle ordering neural events+ if each actual or possible supervenient >mental+ conceptual? event or state 8ere uniHuely related to the activation of one and only one set of brain cells' 4or if the supervenient level of function is to be thought of as bringing about changes in the pattern of neural events rather than as merely accompanying such changes+ it must+ so to spea9+ change first+ and bring the neural events into line after8ards' I do not+ of course+ 8ish to go to the opposite e;treme and suggest that the firing of any sufficiently comple; subset of brain cells is compatible 8ith the appearance of any 9ind of supervenient functioning 8hatsoever' .he particular 9ind of higher functioning that appears or emerges 8ill be constrained though not determined in detail by aspects or features of the

overall comple; spatio:temporal pattern of brain activity+ and it is not impossible that such constraints 8ill become stricter as the organism gro8s older' .hus dreams occur 8hen the brain e;hibits certain patterns of electrical activity >perhaps lin9ed to regenerative processes in brain cells?I the brain activity may constrain mental activity into a certain mode >dreaming? 8ithout determining the content of the dream in any detail' $ther >perhaps partly overlapping? patterns of brain activity may be particularly conducive to >say? rational+ or verbal+ or musical+ or depressive+ or action:oriented modes of thought' .he 8ay in 8hich mental states follo8 one another >their seHuence? may be determined through the KhigherF level of function constraining the Klo8erF+ or vice versaI or some admi;ture of both' 3' It seems li9ely that more comple; patterns of brain activity 8ill permit the appearance of more comple; 9inds of supervenient functioning >it 8ould+ ho8ever+ be no light tas9 to give an adeHuate definition of comple;ity here?' .his is+ I thin9+ basically a matter of observed fact >though one might find reasons for regarding it as <3()< antecedently li9ely?' As a human being gro8s to8ards mental maturity+ so the interconnections bet8een his brain cells gro8 immeasurably more complicated' .his in turn ma9es for an immense increase in the possible comple;ity and variety of spatio:temporal patterns of nervous activity' .he multiplication of lin9s bet8een brain:cells is generally regarded as due to+ or rather as constituting+ learning' I should+ ho8ever+ be inclined to suppose that much of this multiplication represents the basis for a general increase in the number and comple;ity of possible patterns of nerve cell activity+ and hence of possible modes of supervenient >mental? functioning+ and not the basis for the canali@ation of mental activity into determinate channels' 6' If+ as I suggested a moment ago+ there may be+ or may develop+ some+ though not a strict+ association bet8een certain general features of the overall pattern of brain activity+ and the emergence of certain modes of supervenient functioning >dreaming+ rational thought+ musical thought+ etc'?+ the follo8ing further issue arises' &hat happens 8hen circumstances reHuire the simultaneous production of more than one of these supervenient modes of functioning+ for instance the musical and the verbalM Suppose that the particular mode of supervenient function to emerge is related >as seems inescapable? to the pattern of activity+ of all or much of the brain' "o8 the )hole #rain cannot simultaneously e;hibit t8o different patterns of activity' But perhaps in so large and intricate a brain as that possessed by humans t8o different comple; patterns of activity might develop in t8o different parts+ say the left and right hemispheres+ thus permitting the simultaneous emergence of verbal and musical functioning' Could one then sing the "ational Anthem as distinct from having to choose bet8een humming the tune and reciting the 8ordsM "ot necessarilyI but probably one could do so provided that the patterns of activity in the t8o brain regions involved stood in 8hatever >presently un9no8n? spatio:temporal relationships to each other and to patterns of activity in the rest of the brain are necessary to ma9e them sub:patterns 8ithin an overall pattern of a 9ind upon 8hich this ne8 and KhigherF 9ind of functioning might supervene' $f course this e;ample is immensely oversimplifiedI but there is+ as is 8ell 9no8n+ a good deal of evidence for the Klocali@ationF of specific psychological functions KinF specific parts of the brain' %amage to the parts of the brain concerned leads to impairment of the psychological function' K%isconnectionF of t8o such parts >i'e' destruction of the nervous path8ays connecting them? 8ill impair performance in any <3((< tas9 that reHuired the integration of both the psychological functions concerned' >Conventional thin9ing on this last matter supposes that coded KrepresentationsF can no longer be shunted around as reHuired'? .he approach 8e are e;ploring 8ould lead us to ta9e a some8hat different vie8 of the effects of brain damage on psychological functioning' If >to return to my over:simplified e;ample?

that region of the brain in 8hich the KmusicF pattern had become established 8ere destroyed+ the KmusicalF function 8ould no longer supervene+ at least until that pattern had re:established itself else8here+ or the function become lin9ed to a some8hat different pattern' If the KverbalF region became KdisconnectedF from the KmusicalF region+ the t8o patterns might be thro8n out of gear in such a 8ay that the supervenient function 8ould be rendered at least temporarily incoherent+ and attempts to sing the "ational Anthem 8ould be dismal failures' .he suggestions I have so far e;plored concerning the possible relationship bet8een the postulated KsupervenientF level of functioning and patterns of brain activity have mostly concerned conceptual functioning in general' My final suggestions have more specifically to do 8ith memory' 5' I am not+ of course+ suggesting that once the KhigherF level of functioning has supervened+ memory >as an aspect of this higher level of functioning? is independent of+ or unaffected by+ activities and changes at cellular level' &e might ma9e some plausible guesses at the relations bet8een the t8o levels of functioning' 4or instance+ suppose that 8hen I first grasped that interesting point about the solubility of platinum in molten lead+ my brain 8as e;hibiting such and such a spatio:temporal pattern of activityJa pattern from a limited but still e;tensive range of possible patterns+ any one of 8hich might have permitted or underpinned my moment of understanding' .hereafter t8o tendencies come into play: >a? &hen I ne;t thin9 about+ remember+ e;ercise my understanding of+ platinum and lead >a higher level or supervenient activity?+ that pattern of brain activity 8ill be more li9ely to come into being than others from the same range >this might underlie the fact that an action 8hich+ 8hen first e;ecuted+ is carefully thought out+ may 8ith repetition become automatic?' >b? .he recurrence of that pattern of brain activity 8ill tend to bring me once again to thin9 about platinum and its solubility in lead >the combination of this tendency 8ith the preceding one might facilitate reinstatement of my 9no8ledge of the solubility of platinum <3(3< in lead as soon as my thought began to turn in the right direction?' .hese t8o changes may 8ell involve changes at synapses >the Dunctions bet8een nerve cells?+ giving some possible patterns advantages over others' L' I thin9 8e shall also have to suppose some 9ind of la8 of inertia 8ith regard to the formation of memories' "ot every ne8 piece of information that comes oneFs 8ay results in a change in oneFs conceptual eHuipment+ in the supervenient principles of functioning of 8hich I have spo9en' Indeed one 8ould not 8ish to have it other8ise+ for the disadvantages of having a perfect memory 8ould be considerable' .here must be a tendency for the KsupervenientF principles to remain as they 8ere+ or to subside again into their previous state+ unless there is some positive feature of the situation 8hich permits or promotes change' $ne must remember that the relationship bet8een Klo8erF and KhigherF levels of functioning is a t8o:8ay one' #o8er level events constrain higher level events as 8ell as vice versa' If lo8er level conditions >the pattern of electrochemical happenings in the brain cells? are not right+ changes in the supervenient principles 8ill not come about+ or the system 8ill Huic9ly subside again into the status 2uo$ .he effect of an epileptic fit+ an electric shoc9 to the brain or a blo8 to the head may 8ell be to precipitate Dust such a return to the status 2uo+ leading to complete amnesia >loss of memory? for events immediately preceding the traumatic happening' Perhaps a less devastating influence of the same 9indJsay a continued diffuse bombardment of the hemispheres by nerve impulses originating from the brain stemJis al8ays at 8or9 and needs

to be inhibited or modulated in some un9no8n fashion before any permanent change in the supervenient principles can get under 8ay' emoval of the modulating influence 8ould lead to a grave impairment in the ability to learn ne8 material+ an effect 8hich is of course produced by certain brain lesions' C' Memory 8ill of course also be impaired >along 8ith all other manifestations of conceptual capacities? by any factor 8hich interferes 8ith the comple; patterns of brain activity upon 8hich the KhigherF level of functioning supervenes' 4or instance the senile and pre:senile dementias+ 8hich involve a general deterioration of all intellectual faculties+ are mar9ed by an e;tensive degeneration of cortical nerve:cells+ a degeneration 8hich 8ould 8ithout doubt disrupt and ultimately abolish the intricate spatio:temporal patterns of brain activity necessary for the emergence of the KhigherF level of functioning' <3(6<

%ummar"
.his brief e;cursus on memory and the brain is+ of course+ to be ta9en 8ith a grain of salt' Its purpose is illustrative rather than e;pository' I argued in the first part of the chapter that the coding:storage:retrieval model of memory+ 8ith its assumption that memories are traces or representations in the brain+ and its conseHuent incompatibility 8ith survivalist theories of the sorts of phenomena 8e have been discussing in this boo9+ is Huite incoherent and must be abandoned' &hat I have been trying to illustrate in later parts of the chapter is that it is by no means difficult to dream up other+ and Huite different+ accounts of ho8 memory may be related to brain function+ accounts 8hich can accommodate basic facts about locali@ation of function in the brain+ the effect of brain damage on memory+ and so forth+ 8ith at any rate no greater implausibility than attends the >far from convincing? e;planations of the same facts given by proponents of the coding:storage:retrieval model' My o8n account is+ as I said+ intended to be merely illustrative' But it does have at least one feature 8hich >it seems to me? any longer and more serious account 8ould have to have' It places the phenomena of memory among a class of psychological phenomena 8hich cannot be e;plained in terms of+ but rather supervene upon+ the comple; patterns of electrochemical activity manifested by the brainJat least as these are conceived by contemporary science' 4rom the standpoint of the activities of oneFs brain:cells+ oneFs memories represent supervenient principles of ordering 8hich in part direct and constrain those activities' And since my personal and many of my factual memories are different from your memories+ it could be said that in a sense each brain has its o)n set of supervenient principles of ordering' "o8 if memories are not K8ritten inF to the brain+ but involve an emergent or supervenient level of function 8hich constitutes+ relative to the activities of nerve cells in the brain+ a principle or principles of ordering not derivable 8ithin the frame8or9 of conventional neurophysiology+ then possibilities remain open 8hich bear upon the tenabilitv of the survival hypothesis' .he principles of ordering 8hich supervene upon the Klo8er levelF functioning of each personFs brain have e+ hypothesi some degree of autonomy from the neural events 8hich they KconstrainFI and certainly memories KlostF after shoc9 or actual damage to the brain may sometimes reinstate themselves in 8ays that suggest that they are no8 sustained or underpinned by the activity of neural elements other than those 8hich originally sustained < 3(5< them' Could this autonomy e;tend so far as reinstatement in some other setting altogetherM I have tried to sho8 that this possibility cannot at the moment be effectively ruled

out on neuropsychological or neurophysiological grounds' $ne might 8ell demand very strong evidence indeed before conceding that the possibility may in fact be reali@ed' Aet I thin9 it might fairly be said that some of the evidence presented in this boo9Jand it is only a small part of the total evidenceJis at least e;ceedingly curious' <3(L<

13 .ut'of'the'-od" Ex&eriences and A&&aritions

I suggested in the previous chapter that memory+ and phenomena involving concept: possession+ must be regarded as manifestations of a level of function 8hich supervenes upon+ and cannot be e;plained in terms of+ electrochemical events 8ithin and bet8een brain cells+ at any rate as these events are currently understood' I suggested further that from the standpoint of the activities of the cells in a given individualFs brain+ his particular memories+ memory: 9no8ledge+ and conceptual abilities in general+ must constitute supervenient principles of functioning special to him' !is surviving the death of his brain 8ould involve+ amongst other things+ the continued operation of these principles in some other setting than that of the brain 8ith 8hich they 8ere originally associated' And evidence for survival+ such as 8e have been discussing in this boo9+ could reasonably be said to constitute evidence for such continued operationJfor the Ksupervenient level of functioningF approach to memory does not rule out this possibility in the 8ay that the Kinner representationF approach does' "o8 if 8e are to ta9e the survival theory seriously+ t8o further Huestions immediately suggest themselves' .he first is this' &ould the survival of the supervenient principles of functioning once associated 8ith a particular personFs brain involve or amount to or reHuire the survival of that person as a conscious individualM .his is an e;traordinarily difficult problem+ to 8hich I have no ready ans8er' In the case of mediumistic communicators one might try to develop an argument along the follo8ing lines' If 8e encounter and communicate 8ith a s9illed and purposive intelligence 8hich e;hibits an apparently coherent stream of memories+ then 8e must accept that 8e are dealing 8ith a conscious individual' 4or 8e have no other criteria+ and no other possible criteria+ for the presence of such an individual' .he presence+ e'g'+ of a moving and breathing body 8ould not be a sufficient criterion >some 8ould+ ho8ever+ 8ish to argueJmista9enly in my vie8Jthat it is a necessary one?' .he issue+ therefore+ that 8e <3(C< have to decide 8hen confronted 8ith the apparently surviving memories+ purposes+ etc'+ of some person no8 deceased is not 8hether they indicate the presence of a conscious individual+ but 8hether or not the conscious individual 8hose presence they indicate is some living and embodied human being+ e'g' a medium in a state of dissociation e;ercising her po8ers of super:ESP' If 8e are prepared to rule out the super:ESP hypothesis+ is there any remaining hypothesis other than that of survival that even begins to ma9e senseM .he only alternatives I can thin9 of are of the most nebulous 9ind' .he most freHuently canvassed has been the Kpsychic factorF theory developed+ though not necessarily endorsed+ by the late Professor C' %' Broad >(2a+ pp' L6CGLL(I (2c+ pp' 5(-G56)?' According to this theory+ 8hen a person dies something survives+ but it is a something much less than a 8hole person' In and of itself it is not sentient or purposive+ but it is none the less a vehicle for memory traces and perhaps for other 9inds of dispositions' It is capable under certain circumstances of entering into such a relationship 8ith the nervous system of a living person

as 8ill enable that person >medium+ percipient? to develop a transient and perhaps dissociated stream of consciousness 8hich 8ill e;hibit some of the memories+ purposes+ etc'+ once characteristic of the deceased person concerned' Broad seems to thin9 of Kpsychic factorsF as being spatially locali@ed entities+ but no doubt it 8ould be possible to develop versions of the theory 8hich made Kpsychic factorsF something li9e holograms+ i'e' not localised in themselves+ but capable of locali@ed manifestations' .he psychic factor theory 8ould+ I thin9+ run into considerable difficulties if the criticisms of trace theories of memory+ 8hich I presented in the last chapter+ are correct' 4or the insentient psychic factor 8ould have to be the bearer not of a store of inert memory KtracesF+ 8hich a medium might in some 8ay KreadF+ but rather of a 8hole comple; and interrelated set of conceptual capacities+ capacities 8hich >I have argued? cannot possibly be based upon inner traces or representations in any substance 8hatsoever+ but instead constitute principles in accordance 8ith 8hich the 8hole system behaves' !o8ever I cannot form a sufficiently clear idea of 8hat a Kpsychic factorF might consist in to critici@e the notion further' Cases of ostensible reincarnation raise some8hat similar issues+ though in one 8ay at least the issues are simpler' &hereas in cases of mental mediumship t8o Huestions are at sta9e+ namely: >a? 8hether or not there is at 8or9 in the communications a stream <3(7< of consciousness other than that >or those? of the medium 8ho no8 confronts us+ and >b? 8hether it is continuous 8ith that of a formerly incarnated person+ in reincarnation cases 8e have only to as9 8hether the consciousness of the incarnated person 8ho no8 confronts us is >in the same sense? continuous 8ith that formerly associated 8ith another body at an earlier period of time' Some people 8ould argue that >as a matter of logic rather than of fact? 8e can only reidentify something as the same thing 8e previously encountered if it can be sho8n or agreed to have had a continuous spatio:temporal history in the interim' !ence in reincarnation cases 8e cannot identify the present personality 8ith the previous one ho8ever accurate are the formerFs apparent memories of events in the life of the latter' >Analogous arguments are held to sho8 that KdisembodiedF survival is a meaningless notionI 8e could not lay do8n criteria by means of 8hich to decide 8hether or not a disembodied entity had a continuous spatio: temporal history+ or+ indeed+ a spatio:temporal history distinct from that of other such entitiesI hence a disembodied entity could not be reidentified as the erst8hile occupant of a formerly living body'? I do not agree 8ith these arguments+ but the relevant literature is considerable >see e'g' 6(I 5)I 5CI -(I ((-?+ and I cannot delve into it here' .he Kpsychic factorF theory could also be tried out on cases of apparent reincarnation' It 8ould involve saying that some part or element or aspect of the previous personality survives+ and+ coming someho8 to influence the nervous system of the present personality+ causes the present personality to have e;periences as of remembering events 8hich in fact belonged to the life of the previous personality' !o8ever the same obscurities beset the psychic factor theory here as beset it in connection 8ith mediumistic controls and communicators' In addition various further ad hoc assumptions 8ould have to be built into it to account+ for instance+ for the fact that the present personality is prepared to affirm that the Kpast lifeF e;periences he recalls 8ere his e;periences+ and for the fact that >in contrast to mediums? the

subDects of reincarnation cases are only influenced by one psychic factor+ or at any rate by no more than one psychic factor from a given period in the past' .here is+ besides+ a certain scarcely rational arbitrariness about attempts to apply the psychic factor hypothesis to at any rate the better reincarnation cases' 4or it is being proposed that something >a <3(2< formerly incarnated entity of a peculiar 9ind? 8as once conscious and possessed certain conceptual capacities+ memories+ etc'+ and that something >a presently incarnated entity? is conscious and possesses very similar conceptual capacities+ memories+ etc'+ >and furthermore claims continuity of consciousness 8ith the formerly incarnated entity?+ and yet that there is in fact no continuity of consciousness bet8een the t8o+ the apparent continuity being effected by the aimless intervention of an insentient psychic factor 8hose nature is un9no8n' .he second of the t8o further Huestions 8hich suggest themselves if 8e ta9e the survival hypothesis seriously is eHually difficult' It is as follo8s' I have spo9en of each personFs memories+ and his conceptual capacities in general+ as sets of principles of functioning 8hich supervene upon and constrain+ and are not reducible to+ the patterns of electrochemical activities e;hibited by assemblages of cells in his brain' If human personality does+ in any meaningful sense+ survive death+ it is these principles of functioning >different sets for different people? 8hich must survive and manifest again' But Kprinciples of functioningF cannot Dust e;ist in a void' .hey must be principles of something7s functioning' And if they can survive the destruction of the brain 8ith 8hich they 8ere originally associated+ then they cannot have been primarily+ but only derivatively+ principles of the operation of that #rain+ and must instead have been the principles of operation of something that so to spea9 )or-ed through that brain' &hat could this something beM A mind or soul as conceived in the tradition of &estern theological and philosophical thoughtM $ne of BroadFs Kpsychic factorsFM A portion of the %ivine mind or &orld:soulM Some 9ind of physical emanation or field of 8hose inner nature 8e have at the moment no in9lingM An aspect of the KholomovementFM &here did this something come fromM &as it created by the activities of the brain 8hen these pass a certain level of comple;ityM %id it result from the interaction of brain activity 8ith some influence e;ternal to the brainM %id it e;ist in its o8n right and merely manifest through the brain 8hen the activities of the latter reached a level of comple;ity that permitted it to do soM .o all these Huestions+ and many others+ I must confess myself stumped for ans8ers' Many+ indeed+ 8ould find the Huestions themselves ridiculous or unintelligible' Perhaps they are' I can only reply that so far as I can tell it is because of facts and arguments rather than of pre:e;isting bias that I find myself led to as9 them' I have discussed these t8o interesting Huestions in the abstract+ but <3(-< there are of course phenomena 8hich many 8ould assume bear immediately upon the ans8ers to them' Some 8ould say that the KcontrolsF of mediums have many times told us all that 8e can or need to 9no8 upon these matters' All such controls >so far as I 9no8? claim that they+ and other deceased persons+ are fully conscious individuals Dust as they 8ere before deathI indeed more so' And many controls have favoured us 8ith a great deal of purported information+ often of a scientific or pseudo:scientific character+ about 8hat it is that is supposed to survive the death of the body' A suggestion commonly made is that 8e have a second body >sometimes more than one? of a subtle and tenuous 9ind+ made+ it is sometimes said+ of matter at a higher rate of KvibrationF than the matter of our present bodies' .his second body >or KsoulF? is the true housing or vehicle of that ind8elling spar9 of the divine >the KspiritF? 8hich constitutes our animating intelligence both here and hereafter'

"o8 if a mediumistic control first gives us convincing Kevidence of identityF+ and then proceeds to favour us 8ith copious teachings about the ne;t 8orld and its inhabitants+ 8e might 8ell feel that 8hat he had to say+ containing as it does inside information+ must be 8ell 8orth listening to' .he snag+ alas+ lies in the considerations 8hich I advanced in Chapter Eight above' .here is every reason to suppose that+ 8hatever the ultimate source of the KevidentialF statements made by the controls of trance mediums+ those controls themselves are dramati@ations by some level of the mediumFs o8n mind' !ence it is entirely possible that any teachings the controls may deliver or purportedly scientific statements they may ma9e+ emanate from the medium in this 8orld rather than from the control in the ne;t' $ne 8ould not+ of course+ 8ish to reDect these statements out of hand because of this possibilityI one 8ould merely 8ish to test them in the same 8ay as one 8ould test any other purported statements of scientific factJby observation and e;periment' *nfortunately I have not as yet heard of any such statement 8hich has been sufficiently e;plicit and sufficiently in tune 8ith the tendencies of modern science to render it testable' .here are ho8ever certain phenomenaJcommon enough+ and adeHuately recordedJ8hich seem on the face of it to shed some direct light upon the t8o Huestions 8e have been discussing' .he phenomena concerned are those of Kout:of:the:bodyF e;periences >$BEs? and of apparitions' Cases falling under both these headings have from time to time been collected and published on a considerable scale by members <33)< of the SP and the ASP ' A comprehensive revie8 of this large literature does not fall 8ithin the scope of the present volume' eaders 8ho 8ish to embar9 upon a more e;tensive study of it may consult t8o boo9s in the present series+ Hauntings and (pparitions by Andre8 Mac0en@ie+ and Beyond the Body by Susan Blac9more+ or some of the Huite numerous other 8or9s on the same subDects >e'g' 2I L(I L3I ((LI (C3c?' I shall say Dust enough about these cases to indicate their possible bearing upon the Huestions 8ith 8hich 8e are here concerned+ and upon the problem of survival in general'

.-Es
$ut:of:the:body e;periences >$BEs? are those curious+ and usually brief+ e;periences in 8hich a person seems to himself to leave his body and to observe the 8orld from a point of vie8 other than that 8hich he 8ould have 8ere he still KinF his body' In some cases the e;perients claim that they Ksa8F and KheardF things >obDects 8hich 8ere really there+ events and conversations 8hich really too9 place? 8hich they could not have seen or heard from the actual positions of their bodies' $BEs are surprisingly commonI different surveys have yielded some8hat differing results+ but all in all I thin9 that one 8ould not be too far 8rong if one said that some8here bet8een one person in ten and one person in t8enty is li9ely to have had such an e;perience at least once >for a survey of the surveys see (6+ pp' 23G-6?' $BEs are most freHuent during sleep+ during unconsciousness follo8ing anaesthesia or a bang on the head+ and during stress' But they can occur during almost any 9ind of activity' Green >L6+ pp' C6GC5? cites a couple of cases in 8hich motor:cyclists+ riding at speed+ suddenly found themselves floating above their machines loo9ing do8n on their o8n bodies still driving along' Accidents did not ensue' I have been informed+ by an authority on aviation medicine+ that pilots of high:flying aeroplanes >perhaps affected by absence of vibration+ and uniformity of sensory stimulation? have similarly found themselves apparently outside their aircraft struggling to get in' $ne might 8ell struggle frantically under such circumstances'

"ot all $BEs occur spontaneously' Some people have+ by various techniHues+ cultivated the faculty of inducing them more or less as desired+ and a number have 8ritten detailed accounts of their e;periences' .hese accounts do not al8ays in all respects sHuare 8ith accounts given by persons 8ho have undergone spontaneous $BEs' 4or instance the great maDority of voluntary Kastral travellersF state <33(< that they find themselves still embodied+ but in a body 8hose shape+ e;ternal characteristics+ and spatial location are easily altered at 8ill+ and an appreciable number refer to an elastic Ksilver cordF Doining their ne8 body to their old one' A much smaller percentage of those 8ho undergo spontaneous $BEs mention being embodied+ and some specifically state that they found themselves disembodied' .he Ksilver cordF is Huite rarely mentioned' It is hard to avoid suspecting that many features of self:induced $BEs are determined by the subDectFs reading and his antecedent e;pectations' $BEs+ especially spontaneous ones+ are often very vivid+ and resemble everyday+ 8a9ing e;periences rather than dreams+ and they may ma9e a considerable impression on those 8ho undergo them' Such persons may find it hard to believe that they did not in fact leave their bodies+ and may dra8 the conclusion that 8e possess a separable soul+ perhaps lin9ed to a second body+ 8hich 8ill survive in a state of full consciousness+ perhaps even of enhanced consciousness+ after death' %eath 8ould be+ as it 8ere+ an $BE in 8hich one did not succeed in getting bac9 into oneFs body' Such conclusions present themselves even more forcefully to the minds of those 8ho have undergone the variety of $BE 9no8n as a Knear death e;perienceF or "%E' It is not uncommon for persons 8ho have been to the brin9 of death and returnedJfollo8ing+ say+ a heart stoppage or serious inDuries from an accidentJto report an e;perience >commonly of a great vividness and impressiveness? as of leaving their bodies+ and travelling >often in a duplicate body? to the border of a ne8 and 8onderful realm' At the border they are stopped by a KpresenceF+ or by a deceased friend or relation+ and sent bac9 again+ because+ so they are informed+ their time is not yet' .hey a8a9e to find themselves bac9 in their bodies' "%Es+ even more than $BEs+ have lately caught the public imagination+ especially in the *nited States >see e'g' (6+ pp' (53G(L3I ()3aI ()3bI (63?+ and recent surveys of patients 8ho have had close encounters 8ith death+ suggest that "%Es are much commoner than had previously been thought' *ndergoing an "%E may change a patientFs 8hole religious and philosophical outloo9' !e has+ it seems to him+ learned by e;perience 8hat it is li9e to die' A school of thought has gro8n up 8ithin parapsychology+ and around its fringes+ 8hich ta9es such ideas very seriously indeed' &e may refer to this school of thought as the KanimisticF school+ KanimismF being the vie8 that every human mind+ 8hether in its before death or <333< after death state+ Kis essentially and inseparably bound up 8ith some 9ind of e;tended 2uasi: physical vehicle+ 8hich is not normally perceptible to the senses of human beings in their present lifeF >(2c+ p' 66-?' An argument 8hich one commonly hears from members of the animistic school is this' $BEs and "%Es are+ so far as 8e can tell+ universal' .hey have been reported from many different parts of the 8orld and many different historical eras' .he e;periences of the persons concerned therefore must reflect genuine features of the human constitutionI for 8e cannot possibly suppose that they derive from a common stream of religious tradition or fol9:beliefJthe societies from 8hich they have been reported are too 8idely separated in space and time for that to be a possibility' .he most po8erful shot in the animistFs loc9er remains+ ho8ever+ still to be mentioned' .here are some casesJby no means a negligible numberJin 8hich a person 8ho is undergoing an

$BE+ and finds himself at or KproDectsF himself to a particular spot distant from his physical body+ has been seen at that very spot by some person present there' Such cases are generally 9no8n as KreciprocalF cases+ and I proceed ne;t to give an e;ample' .he follo8ing is an e;tract >3C+ p' 3-? from a statement sent to the ASP in May (-L7 by Miss KMartha /ohnsonF+ a 8oman of 3C from Plains+ Illinois' She describes a dream 8hich she had early in the morning of 37 /anuary (-L7' She dreamed that she had travelled+ by 8al9ing or floating+ to the home of her mother in northern Minnesota+ -3C miles a8ay' After a little 8hile I seemed to be alone going through a great blac9ness' .hen all at once 8ay do8n belo8 me+ as though I 8ere at a great height+ I could see a small bright oasis of light in the vast sea of dar9ness' I started on an incline to8ards it as I 9ne8 it 8as the teacherage >a small house by the school? 8here my mother lives Q After I entered+ I leaned up against the dish cupboard 8ith folded arms+ a pose I often assume' I loo9ed at my Mother 8ho 8as bending over something 8hite and doing something 8ith her hands' She did not appear to see me at first+ but she finally loo9ed up' I had a sort of pleased feeling and then after standing a second more+ I turned and 8al9ed about four steps' She a8o9e from her dream at 3'() A'M' >('() A'M' Minnesota time?' .he mother gives her account of her o8n e;periences in t8o letters to her daughter+ dated 3- /anuary (-L7 and 7 4ebruary (-L7+ from 8hich I e;tract the follo8ing: I believe it 8as Saturday night+ ('()+ 3C /anuary+ or maybe the 37th' It <336< 8ould have been () after t8o+ your time' I 8as pressing a blouse here in the 9itchen Q I loo9ed up and there you 8ere by the cupboard Dust standing smiling at me' I started to spea9 and you 8ere gone' I forgot for a minute 8here I 8as' I thin9 the dogs sa8 you too' .hey got so e;cited and 8anted outJDust li9e they thought you 8ere by the doorJsniffed and 8ere so tic9led' Aour hair 8as combed niceJDust bac9 in a pony tail 8ith the pretty roll in front' Aour blouse 8as neat and lightJseemed almost 8hite' RMiss /ohnson confirmed in correspondence that she had KtravelledF got up in this 8ay'S In this case+ the KtravellerF perceived correct details of the scene 8hich she visited+ so her e;perience can hardly have been Dust an hallucinationI and the body in 8hich she believed herself to be corresponded in hair style and clothing 8ith details of the form 8hich her mother sa8 standing by the cupboard' Surely 8e cannot avoid supposing that something >a duplicate bodyM? 8ent forth from Miss /ohnson 8hich acted as a vehicle for her consciousness+ or 8as perhaps in part a product of it+ and at the end of its voyage 8as actually seen by her mother and 8ould also have been seen by any other person 8ith the right 9ind of sensitivity 8ho happened to be on the spot' And is it not eHually obvious that had Miss /ohnsonFs ordinary physical body been destroyed during her KabsenceF from it she 8ould have been left+ so to spea9+ stranded+ but still conscious+ still a 8hole person+ and still the occupant of some 9ind of subtle or rarefied bodyM .hus the animist+ starting from his study of $BEs and "%Es+ comes up 8ith ans8ers to the t8o Huestions 8hich I posed at the beginning of this chapter' !e claims to have direct evidence that after death: >a? 8e remain the conscious individuals that 8e al8ays have beenI and

>b? that the KvehicleF of our surviving memories and other psychological dispositions is a surrogate body 8hose properties >other perhaps than that of being malleable by thought? are+ he 8ould admit+ largely un9no8n' In addition to ta9ing $BEs and "%Es as themselves evidence for survival+ the animist might 8ell feel able to offer the follo8ing argument for regarding a further class of phenomena as evidence for survival' .here is in the literature on apparitions >the topic 8hich I shall ne;t come to? a substantial sprin9ling of cases of apparitions of deceased persons+ some of 8hich have been seen by 8itnesses 8ho did not 9no8 the deceased in life' An e;tensive statistical investigation by the late Professor !ornell !art >C)a? strongly suggests that apparitions of the dead and the phantasms of living KproDectorsF in reciprocal cases <335< are+ as classes+ indistinguishable from each other in 8hat may be called their Ke;ternal characteristicsFJsuch as 8hether the figure 8as solid+ dressed in ordinary clothes+ seen by more than one person+ 8hether it spo9e+ adDusted itself to its physical surroundings+ etc' "o8 8e 9no8 that in reciprocal cases the phantasm of the proDector is in some sense a centre of or a vehicle for consciousness+ namely the consciousness of the proDector' Since apparitions of the dead and of living proDectors manifestly belong to the same class of obDects or events+ 8e may properly infer that since the apparitions of living proDectors are vehicles for the consciousness of the person in Huestion+ this must be true of apparitions of the dead also' !ence the consciousness of deceased persons survives and may either have+ or ma9e use of+ a 9ind of body'

A&&aritions
I 8ish no8 to approach the same ground again from a some8hat different starting point+ a starting point+ to 8it+ in the phenomena of apparitions+ some aspects of 8hich I have Dust briefly mentioned' Stories of apparitions >KghostsF? have been reported from all societies of 8hich 8e have adeHuate records' Modern surveys suggest that in 8estern society perhaps one person in ten 8ill >8hile sane+ sober and a8a9e? have seen a human figure or heard a human voice to 8hich no person present corresponded' >Sometimes the figure that is seen is also heard to spea9I only rather rarely is it additionally perceived by the sense of touch'? .he most commonly profferred e;planation of apparitions has+ historically+ been some version or another of the animistic hypothesis 8hich I have Dust discussed' .his theory is+ ho8ever+ reDected by the great maDority of modern parapsychologists+ most of 8hom regard apparitions as hallucinations+ as figments of the mind having no e;ternal reality' .heir principal reasons >(C3c+ pp' L6GC)? for holding this vie8 are as follo8s' Although apparitions+ 8ith a fe8 e;ceptions+ tend to loo9 and behave much li9e ordinary people+ they have a habit of suddenly vanishing into thin air+ leaving not a trace behindI they may perform feats 8hich physical obDects could not perform+ such as passing through doors and 8allsI they are apt to move instantaneously from one place to another' Sometimes they are accompanied by phantasmal and clearly symbolical appurtenances+ such as hearses or coffins' If they are seen to open a door or move an obDect+ the obDect 8ill after8ards be found not to have moved and the door to be still loc9ed and bolted' %oor:openings and obDect:movements <33L< 8ere part not so much of an hallucination as of a 8hole hallucinatory scene' .he hallucination theory of apparitions has clearly a good deal in its favour' But it also confronts certain difficulties' .he most obvious of these arise over the fact that in a not inconsiderable number of apparition cases the hallucinations concerned may be described as KveridicalF' By this is meant that they correspond in 8ays for 8hich 8e can offer no ordinary e;planation+ either 8ith some event e;ternal to themselves or 8ith the e;periences of another percipient or percipients' .he principal classes of veridical hallucinations are these'

&$ Crisis (pparitions$ .hese constitute by far the largest class of veridical hallucinations' .he percipient sees >or hears the voice ofJbut for simplicity I shall for the most part confine myself to visual cases? a person 9no8n to him+ 8ho then suddenly vanishes in an ine;plicable manner' SubseHuently it turns out that the person 8ho 8as seen died+ or under8ent some other unpleasant crisis+ at or about the time of the apparition' >By convention+ a KcrisisF apparition must occur 8ithin t8elve hours either 8ay of the crisis involved'? 3' Collectively Perceived (pparitions$ .8o or more persons simultaneously see the same phantasmal figure in the same place >hallucinations of all the other classes may in addition be collectively perceived?' 6' (pparitions of !eceased Persons *4Post8Mortem (pparitions71$ >By convention+ an apparition is classified as post:mortem only if the person it represents has been dead for at least t8elve hours'? Such hallucinations may be classed as KveridicalF if either: >a? the percipient did not 9no8 that the person he sa8 had diedI >b? the apparition+ though not 9no8n to the percipient+ 8as subseHuently identified by him >e'g' from a photograph? as that of a deceased person formerly connected 8ith the spot in HuestionI >c? the figure conveyed some information once 9no8n to the deceased person concerned+ but previously un9no8n to the percipientI or >d? the figure manifested some purpose characteristic of or appropriate to the deceased person+ but un9no8n to+ and not characteristic of+ the percipient' 5' Haunting (pparitions$ .he same figure is seen in the same locality on a series of different occasions by the same >or better still? different percipients' Such apparitions are usually assumed to be those of deceased persons+ but evidence of identity is often lac9ing' <33C< L' (pparitions of "iving Persons$ Such apparitions may be termed veridical if+ for instance+ the figure seen is that of a living person 8ho formerly freHuented that spot+ or that of a living person 8ho is about to arrive there >for preference une;pectedly?' $f each of these classes 8e have 8ell:authenticated instancesI instances+ at least+ 8hich seem to me to be 8ell:authenticated' I shall later on give e;amples from some+ but not all+ of these classes' eaders may care to follo8 up the references given above+ and study some of the testimony for themselves' "o8 if 8e accept that cases of these five categories do occur+ ho8 is the hallucination theory to accommodate themM .he ans8er is fairly obvious' .he hallucination theory must be supplemented by the introduction of the factor of ESP' .he percipient builds into his hallucination+ and as it 8ere fleshes it out 8ith+ information obtained by ESP' .hat is 8here the KveridicalityF comes from' .he form of ESP that has to be involved is+ in all categories other than the first+ usually that of telepathy' In some cases >apparitions of the dead+ haunting apparitions? 8e could invo9e either telepathy 8ith the living or telepathy 8ith the departed' 4or the moment I shall stic9 to the version that postulates only telepathy 8ith the living' &hen the hallucination theory is supplemented by introducing ESP+ 8e come up 8ith a variety of possible e;planations of the various categories of veridical hallucination' In crisis

apparitions+ the percipient learns by ESP of the death or impending death of the person involved' .he information is received by some unconscious or subliminal level of the personality+ and has some difficulty in finding its 8ay into ordinary consciousness' It manages to crash the barrier in the form of a Ksensory automatismF >see Chapter .8o above?' In collectively perceived apparitions+ one percipient becomes telepathically a8are of the otherFs hallucination+ and constructs a corresponding hallucination himselfI or perhaps both telepathically contact an outside source' In cases of haunting apparitions and of apparitions of the dead+ the present 8itness ma9es telepathic contact 8ith some living person 8ho remembers the deceased person 8ho died at that spot+ or perhaps he clairvoyantly scrutini@es a photograph album in 8hich that personFs picture is to be foundI and so on' It can all >if one does not analyse it too carefully? be made to sound most plausible' &hen proponents of the hallucination theory of apparitions have+ to their o8n satisfaction+ chased members of the animistic school off this <337< territory+ they are apt to pursue them bac9 into their o8n ground' In other 8ords they try to develop an hallucination theory of $BEs+ "%Es and reciprocal cases' .hey tend to argue along the follo8ing lines' It may be true that $BEs and "%Es are of 8orld:8ide distribution+ and that 8e cannot attribute the universal propensity to undergo such e;periences to the shaping influence of a common cultural tradition' But it does not follo8 from this that these e;periences therefore reflect some basic fact about the human constitution >e'g' that 8e are a compound of body+ soul and spirit?' ather do they reflect the fact that+ in fundamentals+ peoplesF minds 8or9 the same 8ay even in very different cultures' .he soul:theory of the human constitution is a very obvious one+ given certain stri9ing+ but not uncommon+ sorts of events >dreams+ hallucinations+ ESP+ loss of loved ones?' .hat the soul:theory emerges and shapes peoplesF e;periences in all Huarters of the globe is a fact no more surprising than the fact that certain recurrent themes crop up in fol9tales from 8idely separated cultures' And the e;periences >li9e the mythological themes? tend to emerge in certain situations >dreams+ drug:states+ hallucination? and in response to certain e;ternal stresses >8orry+ anaesthesia+ shortage of o;ygen in the brain follo8ing a heart attac9?+ usually stresses 8hich the e;perient can do nothing to relieve' $BEs and "%Es and certain sorts of related hallucinations are+ according to this vie8+ generated as a means of coping 8ith other8ise unendurable psychological pressures' Indeed if one e;amines numerous reports of $BEs and "%Es one can see Huite plainly that the underlying themes are heavily influenced by cultural factors+ 8hich 8ould hardly be the case if the e;periences 8ere insights into the nature of the soul and of the 8orld to come' .he self:induced $BEs of Kastral travellersF in our society differ+ as I have already pointed out+ in important respects from the spontaneous ones' .he self:induced $BEs of shamans and 8itch: doctors are 8ildly different from those of our o8n tame astral travellers >see 67+ passim1$ .hose undergoing "%Es in our society tend to find themselves moving to8ards a peaceful and harmonious realm of indescribable beautyI mediaeval "%Es contain horrific visions of hell+ as 8ell as visions of a heaven 8hich not everyone 8ould enDoy >3(+ II+ pp' (-7G3)3+ 33LG366?I an eighteenth century Vua9er finds himself approaching a realm resounding 8ith Ksongs of praise unto the #ord God and the #ambF >(CC?I and so on and so on' <332< &hat of those cases in 8hich a person 8ho has been Kout of the bodyF has apparently brought bac9 information 8hich he could not have obtained had he been at the location of his physical bodyM Since 8e have already argued that facts acHuired by ESP can be incorporated in various 9inds of hallucinations+ the proposal that such insights may also be incorporated in yet another bi@arre 9ind of hallucination should create no additional difficulty' As for

reciprocal cases: things are+ of course+ a little more complicated hereI still+ 8e can 8ithout too much difficulty develop an account along the follo8ing lines' .he KproDectionistF acHuires by ESP information about obDects and events at some distant spot+ and constructs therefrom an hallucination representing that scene as observed from a certain point of vie8' .he KpercipientF at that scene telepathically learns that the proDectionist is having an hallucination as of being at that spot' !e embodies this information in an hallucinatory representation of him' .hus 8e have disposed of reciprocal cases too' And indeed the animistFs theory that in such cases the proDectionist goes forth clad in a second and subtle body is obvious nonsense' Consider the follo8ing reciprocal case+ collected by "ils /acobson+ a S8edish psychiatrist much interested in unusual e;periences' .he t8o persons concerned had agreed to e;periment' I e;tract from their statements >76+ p' ((3?: /A0$B: Q .he day after our decision I drove my daughter to her Dob+ the time 8as C P'M' I 8as suddenly reminded of this agreement 8ith Eva' .hen I transported myself astrally to her home and found her sitting on the sofa+ reading something' I made her notice my presence by calling her name and sho8ing her that I 8as driving my car' She loo9ed up and sa8 me' After that I left her and 8as bac9 in the car 8hich I had been driving all the 8hile 8ithout any special a8areness of the driving Q EEA: I 8as sitting alone in the room in an easy chair Q Suddenly I sa8 /a9ob sitting in front of me in the car+ sa8 about half the car as if I 8ere in it 8ith him' !e sat at the 8heel: I only sa8 the upper part of his body' I also sa8 the cloc9 in the car+ I thin9 it 8as a couple of minutes before si;' .he car 8as not headed to8ards our house but in another direction Q Even if >8hich I doubt? one could tin9er 8ith the animistic theory in such a 8ay as to give a plausible account of ho8 KduplicateF bodies form their outer parts into the semblance of clothes+ one could hardly e;tend the supposition to cover their transforming themselves into the semblance of half a car+ complete 8ith cloc9 sho8ing the correct time' At this point a supporter of the hallucination theory 8ould no doubt feel that he had s8ept the supporters of the animistic theory completely <33-< off the field of play+ even off their favourite corner of itJthe one devoted to $BEs+ "%Es and reciprocal cases' And for my part I find it hard to dissent' At leastJI can at the moment find among the phenomena of $BEs and "%Es no strong grounds for disagreement 8ith the hallucination theory+ though I 8ould not be altogether surprised if some grounds for disagreement 8ere eventually to be unearthed' 4or instance some Huite intensive studies have recently been carried out in the *nited States >most notably by $sis+ Morris and ollJsee (6+ pp' 33)G335? of persons claiming to be able to travel out of the body at 8ill' Attempts have been made to ascertain: >a? 8hether such persons can Khome in onF and correctly identify target obDects placed in special screened localitiesI >b? 8hether+ 8hen they do so home in+ they can in any 8ay influence KdetectorsFJhuman+ animal or instrumentalJplaced around those targetsI and >c? 8hether success in >a? correlates significantly 8ith success in >b?' .he results to date have been eHuivocal and some8hat frustrating' I thin9 it 8ould be fair to say that 8hile occasional apparent successes have been reported under all three headings+ successes have not been

consistent or stri9ing enough for us to be able either to accept or to reDect them 8ith confidence' *nless future e;periments produce unmista9ably positive results 8e must+ I thin9+ continue to refuse credence to the animistic hypothesis'

%ummar"
I began this chapter by discussing t8o Huestions: >a? 8ould survival of a personFs memories+ and other conceptual capacities+ involve or amount to the survival of that person as a conscious individualI and >b? 8hat could be the nature of that 8hich survives+ the presumed KvehicleF of the surviving memories+ etcM After briefly discussing these Huestions+ I turned to the ans8ers to them given by a school of thought 8hose members I called KanimistsF+ and 8ho have interested themselves especially in $BEs+ "%Es and reciprocal cases' .hese ans8ers I have been unable to accept' So 8e are bac9 again to the beginning of the chapter' !as the 8hole e;cursus then been a 8aste of timeM I hope notI for in the first place the phenomena I have briefly and inadeHuately touched upon >$BEs+ "%Es+ reciprocal cases+ apparitions? are ones freHuently introduced into discussion of the problem of survival+ so that it is desirable that <36)< they should have been at least mentionedI and in the second place I propose to use 8hat I have said in this chapter as a Dumping:off ground for a further e;position of the hallucination theory of apparitions and its possible bearing upon the problem of survival' <36(<

14 A&&aritions of the Dead

In the previous chapter I e;plained 8hy it is that most parapsychologists regard apparitions as having no obDective reality+ as being hallucinations constructed by the mind of the beholder' So compelling are the reasons for this vie8 that 8hen presented 8ith cases in 8hich the figure has for instance conveyed to the percipient information 8hich he did not previously 9no8+ parapsychologists+ reluctant to admit that some being e;ternal to the percipient might have been obDectively there+ have tended to suggest that the percipient obtained the information by his o8n ESP+ and+ for obscure psychological reasons+ dressed it up before his o8n mind in the form of an hallucination' I adopted the standpoint of the hallucination theory in order to cast doubt upon its main rival+ the animistic theory' &ith deplorable perverseness+ I am no8 going to raise doubts about the hallucination theory' .he doubts I shall raise concern principally the applications of the theory to certain sorts of post:mortem apparitions' >It may or may not be the case that analogous doubts could be raised concerning its application to other sort of cases'? .he post:mortem apparitions in Huestion belong to 9inds 8hich have often been thought to constitute evidence for survivalJthe apparition has been of some recogni@ed or subseHuently identified deceased person+ has in one 8ay or another conveyed information 8hich the deceased person might be e;pected to have possessed+ but of 8hich the percipient 8as una8are+ has manifested purposes characteristic of the deceased person+ but not necessarily of the living percipient+ and so on' So+ 8hile not letting the Huestions raised in the last chapter drop altogether out of sight+ I shall

in e;ploring the hallucination theory be presenting some further 9inds of ostensible evidence for survival' .he hallucination theory of apparitions has+ as I pointed out in the previous chapter+ to be supplemented 8ith proposals to the effect that in a substantial number of cases the occurrence of the hallucination+ or <363< its contents+ or both+ are supplied by the percipientFs o8n ESP' &ithout this assumption the theory can give no account of the various 9inds of Kveridical hallucinationsF 8hich I listed in the previous chapterI unless+ indeed+ it 8ere simply to find grounds for denying that they ever occur+ a stance 8hich+ for the reasons I s9etched in Chapter $ne+ seems to me indefensible' .he upshot+ as I hope shortly to illustrate+ is that the hallucination theory is forced to postulate the occurrence of ESP of e;traordinary comple;ity' In fact the hallucination theory becomes Dust one of the many guises of our old friend >or enemy? the super:ESP hypothesis' I shall+ in 8hat follo8s use the terms Khallucination theoryF and Ksuper:ESP hypothesisF more or less interchangeably' &hat one may call the KstrongF form of the super:ESP hypothesisJthe form against 8hich I have directed a good many arguments in earlier parts of this boo9Jinvo9es either clairvoyance or telepathy 8ith living persons' .his 8ould involve oneFs saying+ in the current conte;t+ that the percipients of veridical apparitions get all their information either through clairvoyance or through telepathy 8ith living persons' It is also possible to frame 8hat one may call a K8ea9F form of the super:ESP hypothesis+ a form 8hich admits the possibility of telepathy 8ith the departed' .he theory of Kovershado8ingF 8hich I discussed in Chapters "ine and .en 8as in effect a theory of this 9ind' Applied to veridical hallucinations+ the 8ea9 form of the super:ESP hypothesis 8ould allo8 us to say that the information 8hich percipients embody in their hallucinations may sometimes come through telepathy 8ith the dead' I shall argue+ 8ith special reference to three classes of apparition+ that both the strong and the 8ea9 forms of the super:ESP hypothesis are ali9e untenable' .he three classes of apparition concerned are as follo8s: (' Certain cases of seemingly purposive post:mortem apparitions' 3' Collectively perceived apparitions >8ith special reference to a post:mortem e;ample?' 6' !aunting apparitions >again 8ith special reference to a postmortem e;ample?'

1. (ost' ortem A&&aritions Exhi=iting (ur&ose

.he first class of case 8hich I shall discuss consists of post:mortem apparitions 8hich convey information previously un9no8n to the percipient+ and convey it+ perhaps in a characteristic manner+ in <366< pursuit of a goal presumably favoured by the deceased+ but not consciously entertained by the percipient' Such cases on the face of it are bound to strain the KstrongF form of the super:ESP:cum:hallucination hypothesis+ for they suggest rather forcefully that the contents of the e;perience 8ere someho8 imposed on the percipient by an outside agency' #et us try out the strong form of the super:ESP hypothesis upon the follo8ing series of abridged case:reports' a' A young man o8ns a to8 boat 8hich he runs to help support his family' .he engine 9eeps brea9ing do8n' $ne night the young man is lying a8a9e 8orrying about it' !is lately

deceased father comes through the closed bedroom door' .hey have a conversation about the engine+ and the father correctly advises him ho8 to set it right >(3-+ pp' (LLG(LC?' $ne might simply suppose here that Kdeep do8nF the young man already 9ne8 the ans8erI for obscure psychological reasons it found its 8ay into consciousness in the form of an hallucination' >b? A man >8ho had had other visions? sees an e;alted or angelic spirit >identity un9no8n? 8ho tells him that his sister is in need+ and that he is to send her a certain sum of money' !e complies+ and after8ards finds that at that time she had been in great difficulties+ and had been praying for help >())?' !ere one might propose that the percipient learned by ESP of his sisterFs distress+ 8hich he 8ould naturally 8ish to relieve' !is psychological Huir9s 8ere such that the ESP+ instead of ta9ing a direct route >an intuition+ a KcallF in his sisterFs voice?+ 8as dressed up in the form of a visit from a spiritual being' >c? Mr /' P' Chaffin+ 8hose father had died nearly four years previously+ dreams on a number of occasions that his father appears at his bedside' $n the last occasion his father is 8earing his old blac9 overcoat+ and sho8s him the poc9et+ saying+ KAou 8ill find my 8ill in my overcoat poc9et'F >.he percipient 8as not clear 8hether this e;perience 8as a dream or a 8a9ing apparitionJthere are in fact a number of cases in 8hich the former has passed into the latter'? Mr Chaffin searches the poc9et of this coat+ and finds therein a roll of paper 8hich reveals the location of a hitherto unsuspected second 8ill >(6-a?' &ith this case the ESP hypothesis must move to8ards the super:ESP hypothesis' &e have to say that Mr /' P' Chaffin learned by ESP not Dust 8here a clue to the 8ill 8as+ but that there 8as a 8ill at all' .his involves his KreadingF 8hat 8as 8ritten on the rolled up paper in the overcoat poc9et+ a tas9 reHuiring ESP of a degree hardly paralleled <365< in any e;perimental investigation' 4or obscure psychological reasons+ his unconscious mind dressed up the information as though it 8ere coming from his late father' >d? A naval officer+ #ieutenant !'+ and his 8ife are assigned ne8 Huarters in a house 8hich they share 8ith another family+ the Gs' $n four occasions he clearly sees+ for up to fifteen minutes+ the figure of a man >previously un9no8n to him?+ 8hich seems as though about to spea9+ but vanishes into thin air 8hen approached' $n one occasion the figure bloc9s light from electric light bulbsI on another+ t8o dogs are alarmed prior to its appearance' It transpires that the ghost closely resembles Mrs G'Fs late father+ 8ho had never been to the house' #ieutenant !' pic9s out his photograph from among about t8enty others >LC?' .he ESP hypothesis has no8 to become the super:ESP hypothesis' $ne might suppose that Mrs G'Fs thoughts 8ere d8elling much upon her late father' #ieutenant !' telepathically KreadF those thoughts+ and e;ternali@ed the information in the form of an hallucinatory figure of the old gentleman' But there are numerous problems' Can 8e ma9e sense of the idea that one might telepathically KreadF or KperceiveF events in someone elseFs mind+ 8hen it ma9es no sense to tal9 of reading or perceiving them by any form of sense perceptionM 4urthermore the ESP that is here being postulated is of a very remar9able degree+ and 8as e;ercised by a person 8ho had had no other such e;perience to 8ea9en his scepticism' &hat+ ne;t+ of the behaviour of the dogsM .hey become e;cited immediately #efore #ieutenant !' first sa8 the figure+ and could not therefore have pic9ed up his astonishment' Can 8e really suppose that

they too both happened to read Mrs G'Fs mind at that momentM #astly+ there is the Huestion of motive' In most+ though not all+ cases of spontaneous ESP+ the e;perient might be supposed to desire to have the information that is conveyed to himI and sometimes the presumed telepathic agent might be supposed to 8ish to convey it' In this case+ ho8ever+ #ieutenant !' had no motive to 8ish for information about Mrs G'Fs father+ nor had Mrs G' any motive for 8ishing him to receive it' >e? Mrs P'+ a lady 8ho has once before had an hallucinationJa non:veridical one ho8everJ is lying in bed 8aiting to feed her baby' A lamp is burning' Suddenly she sees a tall man+ dressed in naval officerFs uniform+ come to the end of the bed' She rouses her husband+ 8ho also sees the figure' It spea9s reproachfully to her husband' !e then leaps out of bed' .he figure moves a8ay+ transiently bloc9ing the light from <36L< the lamp+ and vanishes into the 8all' Mr P' tells her the apparition 8as that of his father+ 8ho had been dead fourteen years' #ater she learned that her husband 8as prevented by this vision from ta9ing financial advice 8hich 8ould have proved ruinous >(()a+ II+ pp' 63CG63-?' $n the super:ESP hypothesis 8e 8ould have to tac9le this case as follo8s' Mr P' 8as or had been brooding or dreaming about his long:dead father+ 8ondering 8hat he 8ould have thought about his great financial difficulties+ etc' .here is no evidence of this+ but 8e might suppose that he 8as brooding unconsciously' Mrs P' read her husbandFs mind+ and constructed therefrom an hallucination of his father standing in a certain spot' &hen she roused Mr P'+ he telepathically pic9ed up her vision and e;ternali@ed a corresponding one himself' .he purpose apparently manifested by the phantomJto reprove Mr P'J8as really Mr P'Fs o8n' In his heart of hearts he 8anted to stop himself from the course of action he 8as about to embar9 on+ but his psychological Huir9s 8ere such that he could best do so by manufacturing the monitory hallucination of his deceased father' .hat Mr and Mrs P' should on this one occasion alone have e;hibited reciprocal ESP of so e;traordinary an e;tent may be e;plained on the grounds that 8orry facilitates ESPJor upon any other grounds one can dream up' It cannot+ I thin9+ be denied that the super:ESP theoryFs account of these cases+ especially >c?+ >d? and >e?+ is ad hoc and convoluted to the last degree' In fact a flat:earther in full cry could hardly support his hypothesis 8ith more tortuous argumentation+ or 8ith proposals less open to direct test' It is+ of course+ correspondingly difficult to prove the super:ESP theory 8rong' &e donFt 9no8 the limits >if any? of ESP+ or of the dramatic inventiveness of the unconscious mind' But still+ isnFt it obviously simpler to suppose that in each of these cases there 8as at 8or9 some further agency+ to be identified 8ith a still surviving portion of a formerly incarnate human being+ 8hich someho8 shaped the e;perience of the percipient or percipients in accordance 8ith its o8n persisting 9no8ledge and persisting purposesM .hat 8ay 8e can avoid such bi@arre notions as that persons hitherto not 9no8n to be psychically gifted can suddenly develop po8ers of ESP comparable to+ if not e;ceeding+ the most remar9able that have ever been e;perimentally demonstratedI that t8o people 8ithout any conscious thought of doing any such thing can at an unconscious level telepathically lin9 up 8ith each other and hammer out the details of an <36C< hallucinatory figure 8hich both shall seeI that animals may to some e;tent share in this processI that the information thus acHuired 8ill be dressed up by processes un9no8n and presumably unconscious and presented to the conscious mind Huite indirectly in the form of dramatic but really irrelevant interventions by deceased personsI and that the purposes promoted by the hallucinatory episodes+ even 8hen ostensibly more appropriate to the supposed deceased person+ are really those of the living percipient or of some other living person 8hose mind telepathically influences his' All these proposals+ and

many others that seem li9ely to emerge from the super:ESP theory+ appear in the present state of our 9no8ledge to be Huite untestable against any actual or conceivable findingsI and 8e ought therefore in accordance 8ith the pragmatic principle laid do8n in Chapter $ne that one should+ 8hen one can+ avoid a li9ely dead end+ refrain if possible from adopting them' .he problem+ of course+ is 8hether or not any form of survival theory really is going to prove itself more straightfor8ard and more open to empirical test than the super:ESP hypothesis' &hilst a survivalist theory might be thought to simplify Huestions of motive+ and of the tortuous paths ta9en by alleged ESP+ it does not free us from the necessity of postulating ESP+ sometimes Huite comple; ESP' 4or ho8+ other than through a process that 8ould fall under the catch:all heading of ESP+ could a discarnate entity communicate 8ith living persons >sometimes 8ith t8o or more of them at once?M &e have here+ of course+ 8hat I called the K8ea9F form of the super:ESP hypothesisJthe one that permits telepathy 8ith deceased persons' Suppose 8e attempt to apply this version of the theory to case >e? above' .hen 8e should have to suppose something li9e the follo8ing 8eb of telepathic relationships' Mr P'Fs father+ the late Mr P' senior+ learns through telepathic contact 8ith his son that the latter is in danger of accepting unsound financial advice' !e 8ishes to avert the impending catastrophe and perhaps tries in some 8ay to influence his son' !o8ever he manages at first only to influence his sonFs 8ife+ 8ho never 9ne8 him' !e telepathically conveys to her not a 8arning about her husbandFs financial rashness+ but information as to his o8n appearance+ information 8hich she e;ternali@es into an hallucination of him' 4rightened+ she a8a9ens her husband+ Mr P' Dunior' !e too pic9s up the telepathic influence from Mr P' senior+ and li9e8ise e;ternali@es it in the shape of an hallucination' Either because Mr and Mrs P' are in telepathic rapport 8ith each other+ or because Mr P' <367< senior is a telepathic KsenderF of great s9ill and po8er+ the t8o hallucinations >KhisF and KhersF? are made to coincide 8ith each other in location+ dress+ speech+ movements and disappearanceI they do not >so far as 8e can tell? get Kout of synchronyF 8ith each other' It 8ould+ of course+ be possible+ from the point of vie8 of the K8ea9F super:ESP theory+ to analyse the supposed net8or9 of telepathic relations in this case in various other 8ays' But I do not thin9 any of them 8ould be appreciably simpler than the one I have adopted' And the one I have adopted involves postulating telepathy of a detail and comple;ity for 8hich no e;perimental investigation provides the remotest parallel' .he 8ea9 form of the super:ESP hypothesis is here scarcely simpler than the strong'

2. #ollecti/el" (ercei/ed A&&aritions

Collective percipience is not too uncommon+ and may ta9e place 8ith apparitions of all classesJcrisis+ post:mortem+ visual+ auditory+ etc' I have already cited one case of a collectively perceived post:mortem apparition' !ere are e;tracts from the 8itnessesF statements in another >2+ pp' (6-G(5(?' .8o girls are staying one night in a #incolnshire farmhouse about t8enty years prior to the time of 8riting >(2-(?: &e retired to rest about the usual farmhouse hours' &e slept in an old:fashioned four:post bedstead+ at about four feet from the 8all' In the centre of the 8all+ at the side of the bed+ 8as a cupboard' &e had been in bed about half a hour 8hen I loo9ed to8ards the door of the cupboard' I sa8 a little+ ruddy:faced old lady+ 8ith a frilled 8hite cap on her head+ a 8hite hand9erchief folded round her nec9+ and a 8hite apron+ as if she 8as sitting 8ith her hands folded in her lap' It

seemed almost as if it 8ere a painting on the doorI it loo9ed e;actly as if it 8ere living' I gave a sudden start+ and said to Miss Vuilty+ K%id you see anythingMF and her ans8er 8as the same+ K%id you see anythingMF I related to her 8hat I had seen+ and Miss Vuilty had seen e;actly the same as myselfI our rest 8as disturbed for the night' $n relating our story+ the ne;t morning+ it proved the e;act li9eness of the farmerFs mother+ 8ho had lived there before him+ and died in that bedroom' S' M$$ E .he other 8itness+ Miss Ellen Vuilty+ gives fuller details of the room and of the surrounding circumstances' !er account of 8hat she sa8 is as follo8s: Standing bac9 in the 8all I had seen a little old 8oman+ 8ith a 8hite muslin hand9erchief neatly arranged on her shouldersI a 8hite bordered cap fitting close to a s8eet+ calm face+ her arms folded+ and an apron of the same material as the 9erchief' <362< It is very tempting to say of this case+ and others li9e it+ that it t8o or more persons >and cases 8ith more than t8o percipients are by no means un9no8n? simultaneously see the same thing in the same place+ then 8e have evidence that that thing is obDectively there' In fact KevidenceF may be the 8rong 8ord' Perhaps it 8ould be more appropriate to say that part of 8hat )e mean by calling a thing or event KobDectiveF is that more than one person can observe it' &e must also mean that different percipientsF vie8s of the obDect are mutually interrelated in such a 8ay that the rules of perspective are not violated' And this condition also seems to hold in most instances of collective apparitions' .here are e;amples in 8hich a figure has been seen full:face by a person confronting it+ in right profile by a person to its right side and in left profile by a person to its left side >(3?' .here are even a fe8 cases of a ghost being apparently reflected in a mirror >e'g' 2+ cases LC and C)?' I do not 9no8 of any case in 8hich a phantasm perceived by several persons in a slightly scattered group has simultaneously appeared full:face to each of them' !o8+ then+ could 8e set about undermining the proposition that 8hen an apparition is collectively perceived there really must be something obDectively present at the spot in HuestionM 4irst of all one might soften up this thesis by pointing out that even if some sort of entity is obDectively present+ it is a very odd sort of entity+ one that could be called KobDectiveF only in an attenuated or Pic98ic9ian sense' If si; people are in a position to perceive it+ three may do so and three not' It leaves no physical traces' $ne might ne;t point out that collectively perceived apparitions as a class do not differ in e;ternal characteristics from other sorts of apparitions+ many of 8hich must+ for the reasons already given+ be loo9ed upon as purely hallucinatory' So far+ so good' .he crunch for the non:obDective >or pure hallucination? approach to crisis apparitions comes 8hen it has to give an account of the fact that the hallucinations suffered simultaneously by the various percipients of a collective apparition are so remar9ably ali9e' Some 8riters >L3+ pp' 5(G52? have tried to lessen the impact by suggesting that the 8itnessesF statements often lac9 enough details for us properly to Dudge the e;tent of the similarity+ and that+ 8hen details are given+ these may not in fact agree' Perhaps the hallucinations of the different percipients have merely a common theme+ elaborated by each person in his o8n 8ay'

I cannot say that I find this argument convincing' .he differences bet8een the statements of the separate 8itnesses of a collective <36-< apparition seem to me generally not to e;ceed 8hat one might e;pect had a real obDect or event been involved+ and the similarities are sometimes numerous and detailed' >E;amples of both agreement in detail+ and occasional disagreement+ may be seen in the sample statements 8hich I Huoted a moment ago?' !art and !art+ in an e;tensive revie8 of relevant material+ reach the same conclusion' .hey cite eleven of the cases in their sample and conclude >C(+ p' 35L?: K!ere then are eleven cases+ in each of 8hich t8o or more percipients >in so far as their accounts relate the facts? sa8 the same figure in the same RspatialS location+ 8earing the same clothes+ 8ith the same facial e;pressions and doing the same things' Although these are perhaps the most stri9ing cases+ much the same thing might be said of the other collective perceptions of apparitions'F If this 8ay of avoiding the problem be reDected+ those 8ho deny the obDective reality of collectively perceived apparitionsJand in particular of collectively perceived post:mortem apparitions+ 8hich are those of especial concern to us at the momentJseem stuc9 8ith one or other of t8o possible theories+ vi@' the theory of super:ESP involving only the living >the KstrongF form?+ and the theory of super:ESP including telepathy from the dead >the K8ea9F form?' .he first of these theories may be briefly e;pounded+ 8ith special reference to veridical post: mortem apparitions+ as follo8s' $ne of the t8o >or more? percipients pic9s up by means of ESP the information that is to be e;ternali@ed in the form of the hallucination' #et us say >using the specimen case given above? that she telepathically obtains from the farmerFs mind a picture of his late mother+ or that she clairvoyantly perceives a photograph of her+ shut 8ithin the massive covers of the family album' .hen the second percipient pic9s up all this information telepathically from the first percipientI or else she too+ marvellous to relate+ happens to scan by ESP the mind of the farmer of the photograph of the farmerFs mother at Dust the moment 8hen the first percipient did the same thing' 4inally the >unconscious? minds of the t8o percipients have someho8 to ma9e contact 8ith each other to ensure that 8hen+ as a result of all this ESP+ they each construct an hallucination+ the t8o hallucinations are reciprocally adDusted to allo8 for differences of perspective+ etc'+ 8hilst the main details of both are 9ept constant' .o say that this is a tall order is a great understatement' I do not thin9 that there are any e;amples of e;perimental ESP of anything li9e this detail and comple;ity+ and precious fe8 such e;amples of <35)< spontaneous ESP other than apparitions' It is possible that some instances of ostensible spontaneous ESP in dreams till the bill' But even so+ the follo8ing difficulty remains' In a sample of cases studied by !art >C)a+ p' 3)5?+ there 8ere 5C in 8hich there 8as a second person in a position to have seen the apparition if the apparition 8ere li9e a real obDect' In 3C of these 5C cases the second person did see it' .hese figures are supported by the findings of the 8ell:9no8n Census of !allucinations >it polled (7+))) persons? conducted in the early days of the SP >(5C?' .he census obtained 326 cases of visual hallucinations in 8hich the percipient had a 8a9ing companion+ and -) cases of auditory hallucinations >voices?I -L of the former hallucinations and 65 of the latter 8ere shared' .he census committee issued certain 8arnings about the possibility that real obDects and real sounds might have been thought hallucinatoryJthe percentage of collectivity 8as higher in outdoor casesJbut even so 8e must recogni@e that if a person has an hallucination of the 9inds 8e are considering >i'e' ones not due to insanity+ drugs+ fever+ hypnosis+ etc'?+ there is an appreciable probability that any companion he has 8ill share it' .his remains true 8hether or not the hallucination is other8ise veridical >i'e' is a crisis case+ etc'?' It follo8s that if 8e

regard the sharing of an hallucination as due to ESP e;ercised by both percipients+ 8e are in effect proposing that ESP abilities of an e;traordinarily high order are very 8idely distributed among the population at large+ and could presumably be tapped e;perimentally if only the right circumstances could be hit upon' $f this+ alas+ there is+ so far as I 9no8+ no evidence at all' "or is there much evidence that 8hen spontaneous ESP ta9es forms other than the hallucinatory >the intuitions+ realistic dreams and unrealistic dreams of #ouisa hineFs classification?+ there is any great li9elihood that it 8ill be shared' .here are some convincing cases of shared or reciprocal dreams+ but they only constitute a minute fraction of the total dreams dreamed' If one of t8o people sharing a bed sees an apparition+ it is Huite li9ely that the other person+ if a8a9e+ 8ill see it also' It is immensely unli9ely that they 8ill share a dream+ even though it be precognitive' .his must surely count as evidence against the theory of super:ESP involving only the living' 4urthermore it is far from clear 8hat+ at least in the present state of parapsychology+ could count as evidence for it' .he unconscious minds of the percipients are supposed to get together to arrange the details+ perspective+ etc'+ of their reciprocally related hallucinations' .his is a process unobservable in principle' In the <35(< e;ample I Huoted+ 8e had to suppose that one or another or both of the girls clairvoyantly observed a picture of the farmerFs mother+ or telepathically found one in the farmerFs mind' .here 8as no actual evidence that such a picture e;isted+ or that the farmer had been especially thin9ing about his late mother' Perhaps the girls dug the image out of the farmerFs unconscious mind >or out of the memory: stores in his brain?' "o further evidence 8hich might thro8 a light on such proposals seems at the moment 8ithin the realms of possibility' Surely >follo8ing the Kavoid dead endsF principle 8hich I proposed in Chapter $ne? 8e must dismiss the theory of super:ESP involving only the living as one 8ith 8hich+ in the present state of our 9no8ledge+ 8e can get no further' Suppose+ then+ 8e admit discarnate agency into our theori@ing+ and instead try out that approach to collectively perceived apparitions 8hich I called the Ktheory of super:ESP including telepathy from the deadF' .his theory 8ould enable us to say that the girls got the information about the farmerFs late mother through telepathic contact 8ith the lady herself+ and not through some more circuitous channel' But does this supposition really helpM It lands our theory 8ith e;tra dead8eight in the form of the idea of a discarnate human being+ a notion that is at best far from easy to elucidate' And 8e are still left not Dust 8ith telepathy of a degree that might 8ell be called Ksuper:ESPF bet8een the t8o girls+ and bet8een the girls and the deceased lady+ but 8ith a problem over ho8 the girls could have gleaned from the old ladyFs mind the sort of detailed image of her that they actually sa8' If the old lady had been brooding about her former home+ her mind 8ould presumably have been filled 8ith memories of 8al9ing around the rooms+ loo9ing out of the 8indo8s+ etc'+ not 8ith third:person pictures of 8hat she herself 8ould have loo9ed li9e 8al9ing or sitting or standing there' Suppose+ as in a number of cases+ that the collectively perceived apparition had been that of an animal+ such as a cat >2+ cases -7 to ()(?' Could 8e seriously suppose that the various 8itnesses built up their similar hallucinations of it by e;ternali@ing the information gleaned from telepathic contact 8ith its surviving spirit+ as the latter relived in recollection the pleasures of pro8ling around the house or garden concernedM .his theory has all the difficulties of the previous one+ plus some e;tra problems of its o8n' .he ESP 8hich proponents of the hallucination theory are forced to invo9e in order to account for cases of collective percipience is so comple;+ so devious+ so detailed+ and so unsubstantiated by any <353< independent empirical evidence+ that one might 8ell be tempted to revert to the supposition that some entity of a 9ind not as yet understood is obDectively

present at the spot 8here the apparition is seen' But no amount of evidence for the obDective presence of such an entity could possibly resuscitate the crude animistic theory 8hich I discussed in the previous chapter'

,. Haunting A&&aritions
Aet another class of veridical apparition story 8hich might be thought to provide evidence for KobDectivityF is that of haunting apparitionsI cases+ that is+ in 8hich the same+ or apparently the same+ figure is seen+ or the same voice+ etc'+ heard+ in the same locality on a series of occasions by the same+ or different >and preferably independent? percipients' .he archives of the SP contain a number of such cases in 8hich the statements of the various 8itnesses have been obtained' I shall no8 summari@e and Huote from the statements in one sample case >(33a+ pp' 37)G37C?' It is not+ evidentially spea9ing+ one of the very strongest+ but it has the advantage of being relatively short' It also has the advantage that although the four percipients sa8 the same+ or a very similar+ figure+ none had previously heard of the e;periences of the others' .he 8itnesses concerned 8ere %r !'+ the proprietor of the haunted house+ his daughters Miss G' !' and Miss A' !'+ and a cousin+ Miss /' A' A' .he first three accounts date from the latter part of (226' (' Some time bet8een (2C6 and (2CL+ %r !' >8e have this from his )ife7s statement+ apparently confirmed by him? 8as going upstairs about -')) P'M' !e 8as Krather startled to see on the landing >a fe8 steps higher? a little child+ 8ho ran before him into my RMrs !'FsS room' My little boy B'+ about t8o or three years of age+ 8as at that time sleeping in a small childFs bed at my bedside' %r !' follo8ed and spo9e+ calling the boy by name+ but he gave no ans8er' .he gas 8as burning on the landing outside my room+ but there 8as no light inside Q !e lighted a candle+ searched my room+ and also sa8 the boy 8as unmista9ably asleep' !e e;pected to find one of the other children+ as the figure appeared to be taller than that of the boy'F 3' Early one morning in /anuary (277+ Miss G' !' passed the door of the room in 8hich the youngest sister slept' .he door 8as open' K.a9ing hold of the handle+ I 8as about to shut it >the door opened in8ards?+ 8hen I 8as startled by the figure of a child+ standing in a corner formed by a 8ardrobe 8hich 8as placed against the 8all about a foot and a half from the door8ay' .hin9ing it 8as my sister+ I e;claimed+ T$h+ M'+ you shouldnFt startle me soPU and shut the doorI but in the same instant+ before I had time to Huit my hold of the handle+ I opened it again+ feeling sure that it could not be my sisterI and+ sure enough+ she 8as in fact asleep in bed so far from <356< the door that it 8ould not have been possible for her to have crossed from the door to her bedside in the short space of time 8hen I 8as closing the door' In the corner 8here the child had been there 8as nothing+ and I felt that I must have seen a ghost+ for I 8as suddenly sei@ed 8ith a feeling of horror 8hich could not have been caused by anything imaginary' .he child had a dar9 comple;ion+ hair and eyes+ and a thin oval faceI it 8as not 8hite+ as 8hen seen by Miss A'+ but it gave me a mournful loo9 as if full of trouble' !ad it been a living child+ I should have imagined it to be one 8ho enDoyed none of the thoughtlessness and carelessness of childhood+ but 8hose young life+ on the contrary+ 8as filled 8ith premature cares' Its age might be about nine or ()I its dress I could not distinguish+ as I only seemed to see its head and faceI the e;pression struc9 me mostI so vividly did I see it that if I 8ere able to dra8 I could+ I believe+ give an accurate representation of it+ even no8 after about five years'F

6' Miss A' !' >later Mrs A'?+ Miss G' !'Fs eldest sister+ had a similar e;perience only a fe8 minutes later' #oo9ing into Miss G' !'Fs empty room she sa8 Ka little figure in 8hite standing near a tableF' It made her so nervous that she ran from the room' 5' Miss /' A' A'Fs statement concerned an e;perience in /uly (27-' It first appeared in ;otes and Dueries for 3) March (22)' She 8as 8o9en one night about daybrea9 by her bedroom door being opened and shut and then opened again' KAlmost at the same time that the door opened for the second time+ I 8as a little startled by the rustling of some curtains belonging to a hanging 8ardrobe+ 8hich stood by the side of the bedI the rustling continued+ and I 8as sei@ed 8ith a most uncomfortable feeling+ not e;actly of fright+ but a strange unearthly sensation that )as not alone$ I had had that feeling for some minutes+ 8hen I sa8 at the foot of the bed a child about seven or nine years old' .he child seemed as if it 8ere on the bed+ and came gliding to8ards me as I lay' It 8as the figure of a little girl in her night:dressJa little girl 8ith dar9 hair and a very 8hite face' I tried to spea9 to her+ but could not' She came slo8ly up to the top of the bed+ and then I sa8 her face clearly' She seemed in great troubleI her hands 8ere clasped and her eyes 8ere turned up 8ith a loo9 of entreaty+ an almost agoni@ed loo9' .hen+ slo8ly unclasping her hands+ she touched me on the shoulder' .he hand felt icy cold+ and 8hile I strove to spea9 she 8as gone' I felt more frightened after the child 8as gone than before+ and began to be very an;ious for the time 8hen the servant could ma9e her appearance'F L' In the early part of (22L %r !' reported hearing a number of series of 9noc9s in the house+ for 8hich he could offer no normal e;planations' It does not appear that anyone else heard them' Mrs !' believed the apparition to be that of a little girl+ /' M'+ 8ho had died in the house in (2L5' She remembered her as having Kfine dar9 eyes+ blac9 hair+ oval face+ and a pale olive comple;ionF' .his child had died in the room in 8hich Miss A' !' sa8 the figure' At the time of her death this room 8as in the ne;t:door house' .he houses 8ere subseHuently Doined together+ and the other three appearances 8ere not in the part of the house in 8hich the child had lived' <355< It is unusual to find a case in 8hich there are even these rather limited grounds for identifying the apparition 8ith a particular deceased person >for a some8hat comparable case see 2L?' .here are in the literature+ ho8ever+ a number of cases in 8hich the apparition has been seen more freHuently+ and in 8hich the 8itnessesF testimony is fuller and more recent' .he obvious interpretation of such cases >obvious+ at any rate+ to persons uncontaminated by the sophistries of parapsychologists? is certainly the animistic one+ the suggestion that in the house in Huestion there is actually to be found+ at least from time to time+ a persisting and peculiar Huasi:physical entity+ to be identified or lin9ed 8ith some no8 deceased human being 8ho formerly d8elt there' But the obDections to be offered to the animistic theory in this conte;t are in essence the same as+ and Dust as insuperable as+ the ones I have run through in other conte;ts+ and I shall not pursue them further' 4ran9 Podmore+ 8ho first published the case I have Dust outlined+ 8as strongly averse to any form of the survivalist and subtle body theories+ and instead developed various forms of the super:ESP hypothesis' !e applies it to this case as follo8s >(33a+ p' 37C?' It is not difficult to trace the probable genesis of the first appearance' A hard8or9ing country doctor+ 8ho has on various occasions in his life e;perienced hallucinations+ visual and

auditory+ coming home late one evening+ after a long dayFs 8or9+ sees a figure bearing a vague resemblance to one of his childrenJa purely subDective hallucination' .he later appearances+ if in fact there 8as no communication of %r !'Fs e;perience+ are more difficult of e;planation' .he t8o earlier may have been the result of hereditary predisposition to hallucination' But it seems at least possible that all three 8ere due to thought:transference+ 8ith %r !'+ or perhaps Mrs !'+ on 8hom the first appearance seems to have made some impression+ as the agent' In this 8ay also the general resemblance 8hich appears to have e;isted bet8een the various appearances may be most readily accounted for' .his e;planation may seem far:fetched and improbable: the critic should be reminded that 8e have much evidence for the operation of telepathy bet8een living minds+ but 8e have very little for the e;istence or the agency of disembodied spirits' .his sort of hypothesis 8ould become even more involved if it 8ere applied to cases in 8hich+ as sometimes happens+ a haunting apparition continues to manifest in a particular house through several changes of occupancyI or+ indeed+ manifests not in a house at all+ but in+ say+ a particular stretch of road >-L+ pp' ((5G(36?' $ne 8ould have to suppose that someone+ not present at the spot+ is continually <35L< brooding over and in8ardly revolving events 8hich once happened thereI someho8 persons no8 occupying or passing through that place become telepathically lin9ed to this distant person+ and e;ternali@e the information thus gained in the form of hallucinatory figures' .he figure seen is usually not that of the distant telepathic agentI but+ depending upon the direction 8hich his broodings ta9e+ may represent a person or persons+ or even >as Podmore postulates? a frightening hallucination from his past' .his accounts for the occasional cases in 8hich various different figures are seen' &hat one says of cases in 8hich the apparition 8ears clothes from a past era is not made clear' PodmoreFs description of his hypothesis as Kfar:fetched and improbableF seems entirely Dustified' It is also cumbersome and utterly ad hoc$ In no case that I 9no8 of is there any actual evidence to relate the recurrent manifestation of a post:mortem apparition in a particular spot to the distant broodings of some living person formerly associated 8ith that spot' .he telepathic lin9s bet8een the distant agent and the various percipients must be supposed to be established simply by the fact that the various percipients are in a locality once 8ell:9no8n to the agent' Aet if lin9s of such strength really can be established in this 8ay+ 8hy do not+ for e;ample+ the successive long:term occupants of a particular prison cell enDoy lives regularly enriched by telepathic contact 8ith previous inmates no8 freeM 4urthermore in some cases haunting apparitions have been collectively perceived+ so that 8e have to add to the above difficulties+ those difficulties+ already discussed+ raised for the super:ESP hypothesis by e;amples of collective percipiency' 4inally there is the Huestion of motive' In very many+ though by no means all+ cases of spontaneous ESP+ the e;perient has some reason for being concerned 8ith the 8elfare of the person to 8hom his e;perience relates' In the great maDority of e;amples of haunting apparitions+ the ghost+ if identifiable 8ith any plausibility+ has been that of a person 8ith 8hom the percipients had no 9ind of special connection' .he various difficulties 8hich confront the super:ESP hypothesis as applied to haunting apparitions are+ it seems to me+ in no 8ise diminished if 8e substitute for the telepathic agency of some un9no8n living person+ that of a deceased person 8ho once flourished at the place in Huestion' Perhaps+ indeed+ this proposal 8ould help us over cases in 8hich the ghost 8ears the clothes of a past age' But to counterbalance this+ 8e are again confronted 8ith the problem of 8hat sort of information telepathic contact 8ith the mind of a brooding or <35C< dreaming deceased person might be supposed to yield' Primarily+ one 8ould suppose+ the

information 8ould concern 8hat it felt li9e to 8al9 through a certain house+ e;amine the furniture+ etc'+ etc' $nly secondarily 8ould it have to do 8ith 8hat the telepathic agent loo9ed li9e as he or she moved from room to room' If+ indeed+ the supposed telepathic agent 8ere a deceased cat >and cats are certainly place:loving animals?+ I have no idea 8hat sort of information one might glean' I suspect a lot of it 8ould have to do 8ith the smell of food in the 9itchen' I find it hardJindeed impossibleJto resist the conclusion that no account of haunting apparitions can be given in terms of telepathic or clairvoyant lin9s bet8een the various persons successively associated 8ith the haunted spot+ not even if one e;tends the range of permissible lin9s to include persons no8 deceased' Something in+ or about+ or to do 8ith the place itself plays a crucial role in generating the phenomena' .his conclusion perhaps receives support from the follo8ing additional circumstances >into 8hich I do not have the space to enter fully?' A house 8hich is troubled by a haunting apparition is not unli9ely to be troubled also by other 9inds of disturbances' .hese include the appearance of luminous patches+ balls of light+ etc'I the turning of doorhandles and opening of doorsI tugging at bedclothesI loud bangs on doors or seHuences of ine;plicable rapsI movement or displacement of small obDectsI and above all imitative noisesJsounds as of the dragging of furniture+ the dropping of 8eights+ the brea9ing of croc9ery+ the opening of dra8ers+ etc'+ also footsteps+ voices+ groans+ etc'+ all 8ithout any determinable cause' In some casesJgenerally called KhauntingsF >5L+ Chapters ()G(3+ (L?Jphenomena of these 9inds may ta9e place 8ithout any recurrent apparition+ or 8ith only occasional tantali@ing glimpses of shado8s+ misty figures+ etc' It is 8orth noting that+ unli9e apparitions and person:centred poltergeists+ hauntings tend to be primarily nocturnal' .ennyson captured the essence of hauntings in some memorable lines: A footstep+ a lo8 throbbing in the 8alls+ A noise of falling 8eights that never fell+ &eird 8hispers+ bells that rang 8ithout a hand+ %oor:handles turnFd 8hen none 8as at the door+ And bolted doors that openFd of themselves: And one bet8i;t the dar9 and light had seen Her+ bending by the cradle of her babe' .he issue 8hich such cases raise for our immediate purposes is this' <357< Cases of hauntings shade 8ithout perceptible brea9 into cases of haunting apparitions' &e clearly have here not t8o classes of case but only one' But the phenomena of hauntings include some that are ostensibly obDective and physical' It is as though KhauntedF houses+ in addition to being visited by elusive phantoms+ are the playgrounds of unseen but physically locali@ed agencies of limited intelligence and mischievous proclivities' !o8 does this fact+ if fact it be+ bear upon the theory that apparitions are purely hallucinatory+ that 8hen one is seen nothing is KobDectively thereFM .he ans8er of many parapsychologists has been to deny that the ostensibly physical phenomena of hauntings are really physical at all' If they are not susceptible of ordinary e;planations+ then they must be hallucinatory+ Dust as the figures seen are hallucinatory' .his proposal greatly increases the pressure inside that over:stretched balloon+ the super:ESP theory' 4or 8e have no8 to say not Dust that the apparitions are hallucinations generated by comple; processes of ESP involving past and present occupants of the house+ but that the

footsteps+ noises+ door openings+ raps+ etc'+ all of 8hich+ one might add+ may be collectively perceived+ have a similar origin' I have argued at length else8here against this position >5L+ Chapter ()?+ and 8ill not recapitulate my arguments here' I shall simply point out that cases of hauntings+ 8hich shade at one end into cases of KpureF haunting apparitions+ shade at the other into cases so mar9ed by physical phenomena that they have often been classified as poltergeists+ despite the fact that they have not centred around any obvious poltergeist KagentF' "o8 if there is indeed a tendency for the places freHuented by a haunting apparition to be also the scenes of peculiar physical happenings of the 9inds indicated+ this must surely strengthen the vie8 that haunting apparitions either are+ or are in some 8ay produced by+ locali@ed and obDective entities or factors' 4or neither haunting apparitions nor KdisturbedF houses are so common that 8e can regard the relatively freHuent associations or overlaps bet8een the t8o sorts of phenomena as due to chance' &hatever produces the one set of phenomena must also be instrumental in producing the other' And in KhauntingsF the apparently physical effects sho8 every sign of being obDective and locali@ed+ and of having a locali@ed source' #et me no8 summari@e the general conclusion to be dra8n from the preceding discussion of the three classes of case 8hich I singled out for special scrutiny in this chapter' <352< .he hallucination theory+ 8hen combined 8ith 8hat I called the KstrongF form of the super:ESP hypothesisJthe one 8hich does not admit telepathy 8ith the deadJseems to me Huite untenable' It is forced not Dust to postulate ESP of an e;tent and comple;ity for 8hich there is no other 8arrant+ but also to ma9e utterly ad hoc assumptions about psychological processes and peculiarities in both percipients and presumed agents >KsendersF?' .he brea9do8n of the KstrongF form of the super:ESP hypothesis 8ould seem on the face of it to open the door to the survival hypothesis' 4or in certain cases >including some more remar9able than those to 8hich+ for reasons of space+ I have had to confine my illustrations? information un9no8n to the percipient+ but 9no8n to the deceased person+ has been conveyed+ and purposes more appropriate to the deceased person than to anyone living have been manifested' If 8e are not able to e;plain these facts in terms of the strong form of the super: ESP hypothesis+ 8e must surely turn to some form of survival theory' .he obvious snag here is this' If the information and the purposes concerned are communicated from the dead to the living+ or obtained from the deceased person by the living one+ the process of communication must be one 8hich 8e can only call ESP' &e have turned+ in fact+ to 8hat I called the K8ea9F form of the super:ESP hypothesis' But earlier in the chapter I e;plored this version of the theory in several different conte;ts+ and each time reached the conclusion that it is scarcely+ if at all+ more tenable than the KstrongF form' $ne further theory I 8ill unhesitatingly reDect' It is 8hat may be called the retrocognitive or Kplaybac9F theory of haunting apparitions and of post:mortem apparitions in general' .he idea is that the percipients of such apparitions are simply 8itnessing a playbac9 of a past scene or scenes' Perhaps that scene is someho8 imprinted or recorded on the physical locality in 8hich it happenedI perhaps there is a recurring 9in9 or loop in space:time at that point' But either 8ay the upshot is much the same' .he percipients Ktune:inF+ or slip out of present time for a moment+ and 8itness a past event+ scene+ or seHuence of happenings' "o8 there are certain cases 8hich+ if accepted+ might be interpreted in this 8ayJI refer to such phenomena as apparent visions of past battles+ etc' But I donFt thin9 post:mortem

apparitions can+ in general+ be so interpreted' 4or although some such apparitions act in a some8hat @ombie:li9e and automatic manner+ rather as though they <35-< 8ere in a trance+ they are none the less not al8ays 8holly repetitive in their behaviour+ and sometimes seem responsive to persons in their vicinity+ on rare occasions even spea9ing' So I 8ill set the playbac9 theory aside' Must 8e then once more try out the animistic theory that 8e earlier on reDectedM .here are certainly some features of these cases that seem Huite strongly to suggest the presence of some sort of locali@ed entity: the fact that 8hen an apparition >post:mortem or other8ise? is collectively perceived+ each percipient 8ill see it in the appropriate perspectiveI the fact that if one person in a particular spot sees an apparition >post:mortem or other8ise? any other person present stands a far greater chance of seeing it also than he does of telepathically participating in another personFs e;perience under any other circumstances 8hatsoeverI the fact that haunting apparitions are+ as a class+ not distinct from KhauntingsF+ in 8hich phenomena of an obDective 9ind do seem to occur' But the difficulties 8hich confront the animistic hypothesis remain as intractable as ever' &e seem to have reached a complete impasse' <3L)<

15 A !heor" of A&&aritions
I have no8 discussed the chief categories of KveridicalF post:mortem apparitions+ and I have considered each of them in relation to the t8o maDor sorts of theory of such apparitions+ namely the hallucination plus super:ESP hypothesis and the animistic theory' .he super:ESP theory has usually been given an anti:survivalistic turn+ but many+ perhaps most+ forms of survival theory have also had to postulate 8hat is in effect super:ESP' In either case 8e are in 8hat seems to me a total dead end' .he animistic theory has+ so far as I 9no8+ al8ays been lin9ed to the survivalist position' .a9en at face value+ it is not Dust a dead end but a road to a realm of fantasyI and if that sounds li9e a contradiction+ it nicely reflects the theory' All in all this is a baffling and dispiriting state of affairs' Aet I+ for one+ can find no e;cuse for dismissing the phenomena+ nor any 8ay of lulling myself into the belief that they do not occur' In this unhappy situation it appears 8orth briefly considering one further theory+ a theory 8hich may 8ell seem to some even more fantastic than those I have Dust reDected' It is the theory developed by 4' &' !' Myers >LL+ II+ pp' 377G6(CI (()a+ Chapters C and 7?+ 8ho found himself+ even so early as (22C+ in very much the dilemma that I have Dust mapped out' .he starting point of his attempt to resolve the dilemma is reciprocal cases li9e those discussed in Chapter 4ourteen' !e proposes that 8hen a voluntary or involuntary KproDectorF vie8s a distant scene as if from a point 8ithin or confronting that scene+ and obtains correct information about it+ there may be an actual modification of space at the spot 8here he conceives himself to be' .his portion of space may be modified Knot materially nor optically+ but in such a manner that persons perceptive in a certain fashion 8ould discern in that part of space an image appro;imately corresponding to the conceptionF of his o8n aspect latent in the proDectorFs mind >(()a+ I+ p' 3C2?' Myers is most insistent that he is not postulating the going forth of an etheric <3L(< body or KmetaorganismFI he clearly held+ ho8ever+ and later uneHuivocally stated+ that there is in such cases Ka real transference of something from the agent+ involving an alteration of some 9ind in a particular part of spaceF' .his KsomethingF

8ould not itself be that 8hich is directly perceived 8hen the proDectorFs phantasm is seenI rather it 8ould be+ as it 8ere+ the seed 8hich by some un9no8n means causes non:optical perceptions of the phantasm to burgeon in appropriate perspective around it as if they emanated from a Kradiant pointF' If the agentFs latent conception of himself at that moment included such accessories as a hat+ a horse+ or half a motor car+ these too could emerge as features of the phantasm' Cases in 8hich a voice is heard can be treated analogously' .hose other 9inds of veridical apparitions of the living in 8hich the proDector brings bac9 no recollection of his supposed e;cursus >for instance KarrivalF cases+ in 8hich the figure arrives on the scene Dust before its original? Myers treats more or less as imperfect e;amples of the foregoing' !e supposes that there is some 9ind of e;cursus+ but that the proDector fails to remember it+ because the e;cursus is of a dissociated or dream stratum of the personality >according to Myers such dissociated or KsubliminalF mental activity is going on in us all the time?' In some cases the phantasm of a particular living person has been repeatedly seen' Myers describes such persons as having a Kpsychorrhagic diathesisF+ literally a capacity to let the soul brea9 loose' It is hardly surprising that this term has not caught on+ but the fact is fairly 8ell supported >I once myself 9ne8 Huite 8ell a personJa member of the SP PJ 8hose double had formerly been often seen and heard?' Myers does not apply his theory e;tensively to crisis apparitions+ many of 8hich+ he seems to thin9+ may be KordinaryF hallucinations+ but he proposes that it can be of help in those crisis >and other? cases in 8hich either: >a? there is collective percipienceI or >b? the figure is seen by a bystander and not by the KintendedF or appropriate person' &ith regard to cases of the former 9ind Myers says >(()a+ I+ p' 3C6?: K&hen t8o or three persons see 8hat seems to be the same phantasm in the same place and at the same time+ does that mean that that special part of space is someho8 modifiedM $r does it mean that a mental impression+ conveyed by the distant agent Q to one of the percipients is reflected telepathically from that percipientFs mind to the minds of <3L3< the other Q percipientsM Q I observe as telling against that other vie8+ of psychical contagionJthat in certain collective cases 8e discern no probable lin9 bet8een any of the percipient minds and the distant agent'F &ith regard to cases of the latter sort Myers says >(()a+ I+ p' 3CC?: KIf in such a case a bystander perceives the invading figure+ I must thin9 that he perceives it merely as a bystanderJnot as a person telepathically influenced by the intended percipient+ 8ho does not in fact perceive anything 8hatsoever'F It 8ill by no8 be obvious ho8 Myers can apply his theory to postmortem apparitions' A post: mortem apparition in 8hich the phantasm appears intelligent and purposeful+ conveys information+ etc'+ is different in only one important respect from the conscious proDection of a purposeful living agent >as in Ke;perimentalF cases?Jthat respect is+ of course+ that the agent+ having died+ is no8 permanently detached from his body' As for haunting apparitions+ KI am inclined+F says Myers >(()a+ II+ p' 7L?+ Kto lay stress on the parallel bet8een these narratives of haunting and those phantasms of the living 8hich I have already classed as psychorrhagic$ In each case+ as it seems to me+ there is an involuntary detachment of some element of the spirit+ probably 8ith no 9no8ledge thereof at the main centre of consciousness' .hose Thaunts by the livingU+ as they may be calledJ8here+ for instance+ a man is seen phantasmally standing

by his o8n fireplaceJseem to me to be repeated+ perhaps more readily+ after the spirit is freed from the flesh'F !aunting apparitions may be due to the dreams of the departed' Myers says of his theory+ not 8ithout Dustice+ that it Ksuffers from the comple;ity and apparent absurdity inevitable in dealing 8ith phenomena 8hich greatly transcend 9no8n la8sF >(()a+ I+ p' 3C5?' !e also says of it that it does in its 8ay colligate a good many cases of odd and varying types' .his claim+ too+ is hard to deny' But before attempting to assess the theory I shall propose certain revisions of it >8hether maDor or minor 8ill depend on oneFs point of vie8?' .hey have the effect of 8hittling do8n its basic assumptions' .hus the theory I shall actually assess 8ill not be MyersFs theory+ but another and related hypothesis' .he revisions 8hich I propose are as follo8s: (' #et us ta9e as a basic assumption+ or rather perhaps as a basic fact+ that some people+ under certain obscure circumstances+ can produce an effect at a spatial location more or less distant from their bodies+ such that persons appropriately positioned+ and endo8ed 8ith <3L6< a certain form of peculiar sensitivity+ 8ill see at that location a phantasm corresponding in appearance+ position and orientation to some conception latent in the agentFs mind' .hat conception may be+ but need not necessarily #e+ the agentFs conception of himself' After all+ if an agent can generate a phantasm of himself seated on a horse+ or driving a car+ 8hy should he not+ under some circumstances+ generate a phantasm Dust of the horse+ or Dust of the car+ or indeed of some person other than himselfM .hus a collectively perceived crisis apparition might be generated by the dying person 8ho is its originalI but it might, on the other hand+ be generated by a living person >probably one of the percipients? in response to e;trasensorially acHuired information about his death' &e could even+ perhaps+ devise along the latter lines some e;planation of the occasional stories of animal apparitions+ or of bi@arre or grotesHue non:human or super:human apparitions+ 8hich most parapsychologists 8ould not dare to compromise their scientific respectability by investigating' It 8ould+ of course+ similarly be possi#le to try to e;plain a8ay all cases of veridical apparitions of the dead in this 8ay+ i'e' as generated by a conception latent in the mind of some still living person 8ho is merely brooding about the deceased person concerned' .hus the theory could e;plain such apparitions in either survivalist or non:survivalist terms' Its general tendency is+ ho8ever+ as Myers holds+ survivalistic+ for the follo8ing reasons' In cases of veridical postmortem apparitions+ the generator of the phantasm cannot >or usually cannot? on MyersFs theory be among the percipients of it' 4or to the e;tent that the apparition is KveridicalFJto the e;tent+ in other 8ords+ that it contains details and conveys information un9no8n to the 8itnesses+ represents a person 8ith 8hom they 8ere not acHuainted+ ostensibly pursues a goal 8hich they do not consciously entertain+ etc'Jit cannot >assuming+ that is+ that 8e refuse to credit them 8ith po8ers of super:ESP such as 8e have Dust reDected? represent a conception in the mind of any of the percipients' If anyone other than the deceased original of the phantasm generates that phantasm it must be some person not present at the time and place of its appearance' But this vie8 does not seem easy to defend: >a? $ften no plausible candidate for the role clearly emerges' .here is no person 8ho is 9no8n to be still brooding over+ d8elling upon+ or grieving over the deceased+ 8ith peculiar intensity+ or 8ho has some po8erful motive for attempting to generate a phantasm of some person other than himself'

<3L5< >b? Cases in 8hich a person has apparently generated a phantasm+ visible to others+ of some one other than himself+ are fairly rare+ and I do not 9no8 a single one in 8hich the supposed generator has not been himself among the percipients' 3' If 8e allo8 the possibility that someone might generate a phantasm of a person other than himself+ 8e must also abandon the idea+ at first sight so natural+ that some aspect of the personality necessarily ma9es an e;cursion to the spot at 8hich the apparition is seen and there plays a causal role in its genesis' If the figure need not be that of the person 8ho produces it+ this idea loses its intuitive plausibility+ and moreover it did not in the first place accord very 8ell 8ith cases in 8hich the presumed proDector retained no memory of his e;cursion' I should be inclined to regard the generation of the phantasm as usually the product+ or more probably the unsought byproduct+ of psychological processes in a distant agent' Among these psychological processes is certainly the state of 8hat used to be called Ktravelling clairvoyanceF+ or seeming to see a distant scene as if from a point 8ithin that scene' $f course it might be the case that during successful travelling clairvoyance+ some conscious entity of un9no8n 9ind does sometimes leave the proDectorFs organism+ and that it is round this spatially locali@ed entity that the phantasm is seen' But even 8ere this so+ I should still be inclined to suggest that the phantasm is generated at the proDected entityFs o8n location because the proDectorFs latent conception of himself is of a clothed and embodied person at the spot 8here he no8 is' .o see the phantasm is not to see the proDected entity+ nor is the phantasm in any sense the vehicle of consciousness' It is possible >I do not put it more strongly? that the distinction Dust propounded bet8een the local modification of space >the Kphantasmogenetic focusF? 8hich causes certain persons to see an apparition+ and the temporarily or permanently disembodied proDector 8ho produces the local modification of space+ but sometimes is and sometimes is not himself at the site of that modification+ might be usefully applied to some of the more bi@arre cases of haunting' $ne might suppose that 8hen in a certain house the occasional appearance of a phantasm is part of a comple; of odd and probably nocturnal happenings+ some of 8hich are almost certainly physical+ there is present+ or occasionally present+ on the site a locali@ed entity+ perhaps identical in some 8ay 8ith an element in the personality of some formerly living human being+ 8hich #oth induces a KphantasmogeneticF <3LL< modification of a portion of space+ perhaps of that portion surrounding itself+ and, by accreting energy to itself and deploying it in some 8ay not yet understood+ is able to cause the paranormal physical effects' .he phantasm+ the figure seen+ 8ould of course not be itself directly instrumental in producing the physical phenomena+ not even if it 8ere seen apparently effecting them' If it 8ere photographed+ nothing 8ould appear on the film+ or at any rate >since one 8ould not 8ish to rule out the physical detection of a putative energy source? nothing much resembling 8hat the percipients reported' All this is the 8ildest speculationI but it is at any rate consistent 8ith the range of alleged phenomena 8hich 8e have to e;plain' 6' Although Myers emphasi@es that apparitions are not material obDects+ nor yet Huasi: physical meta:obDects li9e etheric bodies+ he none the less undoubtedly believed that the Klocal modifications of spaceF 8hich constitute or underlie his postulated Kphantasmogenetic centresF are modifications in a realm of being >the KmetetherialF? other than the physical 8orld 8ith 8hich ordinary sense perception acHuaints us' $ther distinguished 8riters in the field >for instance !' !' Price+ (36? have developed similar ideas' "one the less I thin9 8e shall+ at least in the foreseeable state of our 9no8ledge+ be 8ell advised to steer clear of such notions' .hey raise at the moment no issues that can be scientifically investigated+ and 8ill lead only to dead ends of the 9ind 8hich+ I proposed in the first chapter+ 8e should try to avoid' 4or

present purposes it is enough if 8e accept as a fact+ or postulate for the sa9e of argument+ that certain persons in certain circumstances are able so to modify a certain region of space that other persons+ visiting that region+ may see there a figure corresponding to some latent conception in the agentFs mind' But+ it might be as9ed+ are the percipients systematically hallucinated+ or is there really some peculiar+ but publicly accessible+ obDect 8hich they all perceiveM IsnFt the tendency of the theory+ 8ith its tal9 of local modifications of space+ to suggest that there is indeed some peculiar 9ind of obDect >call it a Kthought:formF? 8here an apparition+ at any rate a collectively perceived apparition+ is seenM Can 8e prove or disprove this suggestion+ and 8ith it therefore the theoryM I thin9Jalthough I have not space to elaborate the point hereJthat this argument misconceives the logic of the situation' It is Huite li9ely that 8e 9no8 as much about the characteristics of apparitions as 8e ever shall' &e 9no8 that in some 8ays they resemble physical obDects+ and in other 8ays they do not' .hey generally loo9 and sound and <3LC< behave much li9e ordinary physical obDects+ and may be seen in appropriate perspective by several persons simultaneouslyI on the other hand they do not last very long+ they do not affect physical obDects around them+ and they may not be perceived by everyone in a position to perceive them' *nder these conditions+ the Huestion 8hether they are hallucinations or KrealF obDects is surely no longer a factual oneI it is a matter of 8hich 8ay of spea9ing+ 8hich linguistic convention+ it is simpler to adopt+ and 8hich coheres best 8ith our fashions of discourse upon related matters' .he issue is philosophical rather than factual' Shall 8e tal9 of an agentFs capacity to create a sort of radiant point around 8hich persons are liable to suffer systematically related hallucinationsM $r shall 8e tal9 of an agentFs capacity to create a 9ind of obDect that does not affect physical instruments and is perceptible only to people 8ith a certain 9ind of non:optical sensitivityM .he former 8ay of tal9ing leaves the systematic relatedness of the hallucinations 8ithout a rational basisI the latter leaves the presence or absence+ or the perceptibility+ of the obDect+ more than a little arbitrary' My guess >and presumably MyersFs too? 8ould be that on the 8hole the shortcomings of the second 8ay of tal9ing 8ould be easier to live 8ith than those of the first' But perhaps 8e can simply dodge ma9ing a choice' 5' &hichever 8ay of tal9ing 8e adopt+ 8e are confronted 8ith the follo8ing further problem' .he process of Knon:opticalF perception by 8hich Myers thin9s 8e become a8are of apparitions 8ould seem+ at least 8hen the apparition is veridical+ to fall under the general heading of ESPJit involves the acHuisition of information 8ithout the use of the 9no8n sense:organs' But it does not fall readily under the heading of KtelepathyF nor yet under that of KclairvoyanceF' .he Klocal modifications of spaceF 8hich bring about apparitions may be caused #y Kconceptions latent in the mindF of the agentI but by no stretch are they those conceptions or literally part of the agentFs mind' Apparitions are only the effects of the agentFs mental activities+ Dust as are+ say+ his paintings or his poems' !ence the KperceptionF of them cannot be classed as telepathic+ for it does not amount to direct and non:inferential 9no8ledge of 8hat is in the agentFs mind' Since clairvoyance is defined as e;tra:sensory 9no8ledge of physical events or states of affairs+ 8e cannot say that the Knon:optical perceptionF concerned is a form of clairvoyance' &e seem to have here a form of ESP that can be labelled neither as telepathy nor as clairvoyance' At least this proposal consorts 8ell 8ith the fact >mentioned in the <3L7< previous chapter? that apparitions are not infreHuently shared by those in a position to share them+ 8hereas ESP manifesting in other forms is rarely shared' &e need a ne8 8ord

for this further form of ESPI but I 8ill not ta; my ingenuity+ nor add to parapsychologyFs e;tensive verbal lumber+ by trying to invent one' .hat completes my account of MyersFs theory of apparitions >in a slightly doctored version?+ and it is no8 time to attempt an assessment' Its strong point is clearly that it can account for the KveridicalityF of veridical cases 8ithout resort to the comple;ities of super:ESP+ and can e;plain the apparent obDectivity of the phantasms seen in cases of collective percipience and haunting ghosts 8ithout pitching us into the absurdities of the animistic theory' It confronts+ ho8ever+ numerous difficulties' #et us begin 8ith a minor one' It is often suggested that most people have a relatively imperfect idea of ho8 they loo9 to others+ especially from behind+ or in profile' .hat being so+ ho8 can 8e possibly propose that an agentFs Klatent conceptionF of himself can so modify a certain region of space that suitably gifted persons see a realistic phantasm of him thereM .his argument has+ I thin9+ some 8eight+ but not a great deal' Is the average personFs idea of ho8 he loo9s li9ely to differ so much from ho8 he actually loo9s that a percipient 8ould be li9ely to notice the differenceM Perhaps peoplesF ideas of ho8 they loo9 are not so much conditioned by their images in their mirrors as one might suppose' Schat@man >(5(? has recently conducted some brief but immensely intriguing e;periments 8ith a subDect+ K uthF+ 8ho possesses in a remar9able degree the ability to create for herself totally realistic hallucinations >ones 8hich from all accounts+ though unli9e the hallucinations of epileptics+ alcoholics+ drug:ta9ers+ the insane+ etc'+ closely resemble the figures seen in classic apparition cases?' So KrealF are her hallucinations that 8hen she summoned one up to interpose bet8een her eyes and a source of flic9ering light+ her brainFs normal electrical response to the light ceased' uth can 8ith eHual facility create hallucinations of herself or of other people+ and the hallucinations are not Dust visual+ but auditory+ tactile and olfactory >the figures tal9+ and she can feel and smell them?' &hen uth creates an hallucination of herself the hallucination is apparently Huite realistic and is not a mirror image' .he most important criticism is so obvious that it may be stated briefly' .he theory gives credit to numerous un9no8ns+ and a shortfall in any one of them 8ould ban9rupt it' It postulates KphantasmogeneticF modifications+ nature un9no8n+ of particular spatial localitiesI an <3L2< un9no8n process 8hereby certain persons can cause such modificationsI an un9no8n form of sensitivity by means of 8hich certain persons can perceive the phantasms thus generatedI discarnate intelligences of 8hich 8e 9no8 nothing e;cept that they 8ere formerly incarnated as particular human beingsI and >presumably? some totally un9no8n faculty of ESP by means of 8hich these discarnate intelligences obtain their information about this 8orld and the ne;t' "o sensible theorist 8ould entrust his intellectual capital to such un9no8ns+ for un9no8ns are not credit:8orthy' .he trouble is+ it seems to me+ that 8e have little choice but to allo8 MyersFs theory+ un9no8ns and all+ Dust a little credit' .he theory+ as he remar9s+ ties together a good many phenomena of Kodd and varying typesF+ and even if his account of them is highly implausible+ it does not+ and this is the important point+ appear Huite such a dead end as are the super:ESP and the animistic theories' .here do seem to be+ even in the present state of our 9no8ledge+ certain further empirical inHuiries to 8hich it might lead' &e might+ for e;ample+ investigate the KphantasmogeneticF capacities of such gifted subDects as K uthF' Schat@man e;perimented 8ith uth to see 8hether her hallucinations could be shared by others' .hey 8ere not' !o8ever on t8o occasions+ 8hen no e;periment 8as in progress+ other persons apparently observed phantasms 8hich she had created >a similar incident is described by %avid:"eel+ 32?' $ne person actually held a conversation 8ith the figure+ 8hich he believed to be that of a real person+ vi@' uth herself' $nce a dog became greatly disturbed 8hen uth generated a

phantasm in its vicinityJa phenomenon for 8hich the literature of apparitions holds numerous parallels' .he findings so far yield no certainties+ but raise many intriguing possibilities' At the beginning of Chapter 4ourteen I posed t8o Huestions 8hich arose from the fact that 8e seemed forced by the facts and the considerations advanced earlier in the boo9 to ta9e the survival theory seriously' .he t8o Huestions 8ere: (' &ould the survival of a personFs memories+ and his conceptual capacities in general+ involve or amount to his survival as a conscious individualM 3' If such memories and capacities survive+ 8hat could underpin their survival+ be+ so to spea9+ their vehicleM It 8as+ partly+ in pursuit of ans8ers to these Huestions that I <3L-< embar9ed on the discussion of $BEs and of apparitions' At the end of this discussion I have found myself+ despite its numerous obscurities+ ta9ing seriously MyersFs Kphantasmogenetic centreF theory of apparitions' %oes this theory+ if true+ or rather if in some >probably minor? degree an appro;imation to the truth+ have any bearing upon the above t8o HuestionsM &ith regard to the first Huestion+ one 8ould+ I suppose+ naturally assume that if the evidence suggests that certain sorts of phantasms >veridical post:mortem ones? are generated by surviving portions of formerly living human beings+ 8hatever survives and generates them must possess very much the same memories and conceptual abilities as are possessed by the living persons 8ho sometimes similarly seem to generate phantasms of themselves' 4or e+ hypothesi the phantasms are in some sense e;ternali@ations of Kconceptions latent in the minds ofF the proDectors' $ne could+ at any rate+ 8ithout doubt put up a defence of this vie8' But there are many difficulties' .here seem+ as Myers remar9s+ to be cases of proDection by living proDectors in 8hich the proDector has no a8areness of 8hat he is about+ in 8hich the proDection is+ as it 8ere+ automatic and a function of some unconscious level of the personality' Could something survive 8hich 8as not conscious+ 8as less than a personality+ a mere vestige or trace+ 8hich could none the less still give rise to KautomaticF proDectionsM A reply to this difficulty might ma9e a distinction bet8een those phantasms 8hich seem+ as it 8ere+ intelligent and responsive to living persons+ and those 8hich are mere @ombies or automata' .he former could only be generated by conscious and intelligent proDectors' But debate on these topics could go on more or less indefinitely+ for 8e 9no8 at the moment absolutely nothing of the process by 8hich Kphantasmogenetic centresF are created by living proDectors+ of the relationships bet8een this process and the physical 8orld+ and the dependence or other8ise of the process upon particular 9inds of brain functioning' &e are even more in the dar9 8hen 8e begin to speculate as to 8hat may be involved in the creation of such centres by deceased proDectors' As for the second Huestion+ that concerning the supposed KvehicleF of surviving memories and capacities+ MyersFs theory carries+ so far as I can see+ no specific implications+ but adopting it might 8ell set one off on some such train of thought as this' If+ as seems to be the case+ some people can+ even during their lifetimes+ sometimes create phantasmogenetic centres at considerable distances from their o8n bodies and nervous systems+ can themselves perceive phantasms <3C)< emanating from such centres 8hen the latter are created by themselves or by other people+ can e;ercise other forms of ESP directed upon distant events or persons+ can perhaps even influence physical events around them other than by ordinary bodily actions+

then the relationship bet8een perceiving and indeed creative mind+ and the physical 8orld+ must be utterly different from+ and far more complicated than+ anything 8hich 8e no8 envisage' I 8ould emphasi@e the 8ord KcreativeF+ for it 8ould appear that 8e may in a sense be able in our insignificant 8ays to meddle 8ith the universe+ or rather 8ith our local corners of it+ by means as yet totally beyond our comprehension' >It may be that a controlFs ability to Kovershado8F a medium is another facet of this po8er to meddle'? !o8 much further beyond our present comprehension+ then+ must be the relationship bet8een any portion of the personality 8hich survives death and the 9no8n and un9no8n physical 8orld' .hese professions of present and probable future ignorance in the face of immensely difficult problems 8ill please no one' Many religious believers of one 9ind and another already have+ and may centre their lives and thought around+ simple or seeming:simple ans8ers to these problems' Such persons are apt to thin9 those 8ho remain unconvinced by their simple ans8ers+ or 8ho do not find them simple+ merely obstinate and perverse' $n the other hand those esprits forts 8ho ma9e almost a religion out of science+ or rather out of the scientific 9no8ledge 8e currently possess+ and 8ho pride themselves on their educated scepticism+ 8ill be even less happy 8ith my professions of ignoranceI for 8hile it is proper and even laudable for a scientist sometimes to admit ignorance or temporary bafflement+ the ignorance I am professing is of the 8rong 9ind' I am professing the sort of ignorance 8hich implicitly disparages the present state of our scientific 9no8ledge+ and does so on the basis of 8hat many 8ould assume to be a fe8 marginal phenomena' And indeed it certainly seems to me that at the moment 8e 9no8 about as much of these matters as the Gree9s did of electricity 8hen they discovered that if you rub pieces of amber on your sleeve they 8ill pic9 up stra8s' <3C(<

16 #oncluding 2emarks
&ith regard to the evidence for survival+ I have no8 said+ probably several times over+ nearly everything that I have to say' I cannot dismiss this evidence en #loc as bad evidence+ as entirely the product of fraud+ misrecording+ malobservation+ 8ishful thin9ing+ or plain chance coincidence' I can find no other decisive reasons for reDecting it' I have separately argued in connection 8ith the phenomena of mediumship+ 8ith apparitions+ and 8ith certain cases of ostensible reincarnation+ that the super:ESP hypothesis 8ill not suffice to e;plain the Huantity of correct and appropriate information sometimes furnished' I have further pointed out that some cases present features suggestive not Dust of surviving memories >the sphere in 8hich the alternative super:ESP e;planation might seem to be at its strongest? but of more positive personality characteristicsJdistinctive purposes+ s9ills+ capacities+ habits+ turns of phrase+ struggles to communicate+ 8ishes+ point of vie8' eaders must assess these aspects of the pu@@le for themselves' 4or myself I can only say that it seems to me that there is in each of the main areas I have considered a sprin9ling of cases 8hich rather forcefully suggest some form of survival' At leastJthe supposition that a recogni@able fragment of the personality of a deceased person may manifest again after his death 8ithout there being some underlying causal factor common to the original manifestations and the later+ aberrant ones+ seems impossibly magical' And it is hard to see in 8hat terms 8e could conceive this underlying causal factor e;cept those of an individual consciousness of some degree of coherence and comple;ity' .he hypothesis of an insentient Kpsychic factorF seems+ as I pointed out at the beginning of Chapter 4ourteen+ to present numerous difficulties' But in this area+ and in important related areas+ 8hat 8e 9no8 stands in proportion to 8hat 8e do not 9no8 as a

buc9etful does to the ocean' Certainty is not to be had+ nor even a strong conviction that the area of oneFs uncertainty has been narro8ed to a manageable compass' <3C3< Even if one accepts that in the present state of our 9no8ledge some sort of survival theory gives the readiest account of the observed phenomena+ many issues remain undecided' In the vast maDority even of favourable cases the KsurvivingF personality 8hich claims continuity 8ith a formerly living+ or previously incarnated+ personality+ is only able to demonstrate such apparent continuity on a very limited number of fronts+ and may+ indeed+ mar9edly fail to demonstrate it on others' .his does not+ of course+ mean that behind the observed manifestations there does not lie the fullest possible continuityI but eHually it means that the hypothesis of complete continuity is unproven+ and all sorts of possibilities remain open' Is there partial or complete survivalM Sentient survival+ or >far 8orse than mere e;tinction? survival 8ith Dust a lingering+ dim consciousnessM Is there long:term survival or survival during a brief period of progressive disintegrationM Is there enDoyable survival+ or survival such as one 8ould 8ish to avoidM Survival 8ith a physical substrate+ or disembodied survivalM Survival as individual+ or survival 8ith oneFs individuality for the most part dissolved in something largerM Is survival the rule+ or is it Dust a frea9M .o these and many other Huestions I can at the moment see no very clear ans8ers' Many people+ indeed+ do not reHuire+ or perhaps 8ish for+ clear ans8ers' .hey 8ill ta9e the mere reDection of the super:ESP hypothesis as Dustifying the vie8 that GodFs in !is heaven and allFs right 8ith the 8orld' $h+ easy creed .hat our beloved ones are not lost indeed But+ some8here far and fainter+ live secure+ &hile yet they plead &ith voices heard in visions live and pure+ &ith touch upon the hand+ that they endure+ $nly 8ithdra8nP 4or my part I thin9 that any further decisive progress 8ill have to 8ait upon the results of a great deal of further difficult and time:consuming 8or9 on a number of different fronts' By the time this 8or9 has been even partly carried out+ most of us 8ill be dead+ and 8ill thus 9no8 the ans8ers any8ay+ or not 9no8 them as the case may be' And the results of the 8or9 may be to point a8ay from the survivalist theory once again' As to this+ one can at best e;press a tentative vie8 as to the li9ely future trend of the evidence' I have given my o8n vie8' $thers 8ill estimate the situation differently' <3C6< .o those hot for certaintyJ8hether it be certainty of survival or of e;tinctionJthis ans8er may seem dusty enough' !o8ever it 8ill not seem dusty to everyone' 4or+ as I have tried to sho8+ it is possible from a properly informed consideration of the evidence to build up a rational case for belief in some form of survival+ and also a rational case against it' And a rational case+ of either tendency+ built on evidence+ ho8ever difficult to interpret+ is to be preferred to any amount of blind belief or blind disbelief' 4urthermore+ to persons such as myself+ 8ith an overdeveloped bump of curiosity and a li9ing for mysteries+ 8hat may be called a Chinese bo; universeJa universe made up+ so to spea9+ of a pu@@le containing another pu@@le deep 8ithin it+ and so on indefinitelyJhas much appeal' And maybe at the heart of all truth and Dustice lie hidden+ and brought to light+ 8ill prevail' $r maybe not' But in either case the pu@@les are there+ and their fascination is irresistible'

&hat+ then+ of the futureM !o8 might these pu@@les be further studiedM I do not thin9 that there are any short cuts to a solution+ or to a dismissal of the problem' .he idea of a decisive Ktest of survivalF has commended itself to many+ and some public:spirited individuals have left behind them sealed pac9ages+ the contents of 8hich they hoped to communicate after death' In only a fe8 instances has any degree of success been reported >e'g' (()a+ II+ pp' (23G (2LI (6-c?I and even had successes been more freHuent they might have been attributed to clairvoyance by the medium' ecently+ more sophisticated forms of test have been suggested' .houless >(L-b? has proposed that persons 8ho 8ish to leave a KtestF behind them should encipher and deposit 8ith a reputable organi@ation some prose passage of appropriate content' All they 8ould need to communicate 8ould be the 9ey8ord' A control against the possibility that mediums could crac9 the code by super:ESP 8ould be obtained by having them attempt to obtain the 9ey8ord 8hile the subDect is still alive' If they fail to obtain it 8e must assume that it is beyond the reach of ESP' Perhaps such a proDect 8ill 8or9Ja supposed ichard !odgson communicated through Mrs Piper a Kpass8ordF 8hich turned out to be the name of her o8n daughter enciphered in a comple; manner almost certainly 9no8n to !odgson in life >()-+ pp' 3)5nG3)Ln?' Stevenson >(L6a? has initiated a similar proDect using combination loc9s instead of ciphers' A positive result in such a test 8ould obviously be of great interest and importanceI but to constitute strong evidence for survival it 8ould+ I thin9+ still need to be combined 8ith evidence for the survival of purposes+ personality <3C5< characteristics+ other sorts of memories+ etc' Such Ktests of survivalF apart+ it seems to me that 8or9 on the Huestion of survival 8ill have to proceed+ piece by piece+ on t8o broad fronts' .he first 8ould involve the slo8 and patient sifting and accumulation of ostensible Kevidence for survivalF such as I have presented and discussed in this boo9' .he second >much harder to define? 8ould involve the sort of inHuiries+ factual and conceptual+ 8hich might result in our being able to build up a general frame8or9 of thought 8ithin 8hich survival and the various categories of evidence for survival 8ill cohere and made sense+ and 8ill cohere also 8ith the findings of other branches of science' >$n the other hand 8e might decisively fail to achieve such a frame8or9 of thought+ and that too 8ould be a matter of great significance'? &e have >as I have tried to sho8? already acHuired a good deal of material on the former frontI but 8e have acHuired very little on the latter' If the evidence for survival 8ere a great deal more copious and more startling than it actually is >and it is fairly copious and sometimes Huite startling? 8e could perhaps get by 8ith little accumulation of material on the latter front' I can certainly imagine a state of affairs in 8hich+ as a matter of fact+ no one+ or no one e;cept philosophers 8hen actually philosophi@ing+ 8ould e;press doubts about survival' Suppose+ for e;ample+ that persons Kout of the bodyF 8ere regularly able to act as living communicators+ conveyed fluent and appropriate information+ etc'+ and could give on their KreturnF full accounts of 8hat had transpired+ and after their o8n deaths continued to communicate in much the same 8ay right up to the moment of their reincarnation as one of StevensonFs child subDects' But such a state of affairs does not obtain' !ence+ it seems to me+ it has become as important to attempt to progress on the second front as on the first' &e already have Huite a lot of ostensible evidence for survivalI 8e do not have a conceptual frame8or9 into 8hich 8e can satisfactorily fit it' I shall accordingly not pursue the Huestion of 8hat further ostensible Kevidence for survivalF 8e might obtain+ but shall instead move immediately to the second of the t8o Kbroad frontsF on 8hich >I argued? 8or9 on the problem of survival needs to proceed' &hat steps might be ta9en to enlarge our relevant Kbac9groundF 9no8ledge in such a 8ay that the evidence for

survival comes to Kma9e senseF in an overall conte;t 8hich includes the findings of other sciences as 8ell as those of parapsychologyM I should e;pect progress on this front+ if progress there is+ to be slo8 and painful+ a gradual fitting together of laboriously <3CL< acHuired pieces+ rather than a sudden insight into their true relations' And one can set no limit beforehand upon the number of KpiecesF 8hich might in the end prove relevant' In previous chapters I have suggested various 9inds of parapsychological 8or9 8hich+ it seems to me+ might have relevance to this endeavour' 4or e;ample: (' E;periments directed to8ards obtaining mediumistic communications from living persons' #iving communicators might turn out to face much the same difficulties and to get into much the same muddles+ as discarnate onesI and then 8e might perhaps obtain some clues as to the mechanism of communication+ and the tenability of 8hat I called the theory of Kovershado8ingF+ and so forth' .he 8or9 might or might not cohere or combine 8ith 8or9 on $BEs' EHually+ the upshot might be to suggest that the Gordon %avis and /ohn 4erguson cases 8ere not frea9s or frauds+ and hence to strengthen the bac9ground to the super:ESP hypothesis' 3' #i9e8ise capable of supporting the super:ESP hypothesis 8ould be e;periments 8ith sensitives >if such could be found? resembling those studied by $sty >see Chapter .en above?' I do not thin9 that the status of the super:ESP hypothesis can be adeHuately established until such e;periments have been carried out utili@ing modern methods of e;perimental design and statistical assessment+ features conspicuously absent from $styFs pioneering 8or9' 6' 4ull and e;tensive studies of the abilities of such gifted subDects as K uthF >see previous chapter? to generate hallucinations in themselves and sometimes+ apparently in other people+ might+ as I pointed out+ thro8 light on the tenability or other8ise of the theory of veridical apparitions 8hich I discussed in Chapter Si;teen' 5' .he most urgently needed investigation in the area of spontaneous cases is+ it seems to me+ a detailed investigation by competent and properly eHuipped persons into the physical aspects of a really mar9ed KhauntingF' 4or in such cases 8e have+ very often+ locali@ed physical disturbances that are prima facie not susceptible of an ordinary e;planationI and 8e have also >at least sometimes? apparitionsI and the problem of the relation bet8een these t8o is absolutely central to all Huestions concerning the nature and genesis of apparitions+ and ramifies into other Huestions' 4urthermore+ in some hauntings+ there are certain signs of an intelligence >8hose origins and nature remain to be elucidated?' $ne might try bringing different mediums and sensitives to the spot independently of each other to see if there 8as any agreement in their KdiagnosesF+ and thus obtain both <3CC< KmentalF and KphysicalF avenues of approach to the same case >cf' -7I ()CI (56?' 4rom a number of such investigations+ one might >8ith an immense and unli9ely amount of luc9? begin to glimpse an overall pattern 8ithin 8hich several different 9inds of ostensible survival evidence might fall into place' !o8ever+ as I remar9ed a moment ago+ relevant discoveries are li9ely to comeJI thin9 8ill have to comeJfrom outside parapsychology altogether' 4rom 8hat I said in Chapter .hirteen+ it should be clear that the physiology of memory processes 8ill constitute an area of central concern' &ider aspects of biology may come to have relevance >(55?' .here are also many signsJ8hich I cannot detail hereJthat progress in the frontier regions of physics and mathematical physics may open up ne8 ideas for parapsychology' ecently published 8or9 on the Kmetal:bendingF phenomenon constitutes an empirical focus for these speculative ideas+ but the ramification of these ideas could e;tend much more 8idely than that'

.he problem that confronts survival research is not shortage of things to do+ but shortage of funds+ 8ith 8hich necessarily goes shortage of personnel' &hen the SP 8as first founded+ it had a number of very able members 8ith private means and ample leisure' It 8as these persons 8ho 8ere primarily responsible for the immense amount of 8or9 and the significant progress that mar9ed the first three or four decades of the SocietyFs e;istence' .he situation today has radically changed' .here are fe8er 8ealthy and leisured persons+ and some of the investigations that are no8 desirable 8ould reHuire sophisticated and e;pensive scientific eHuipment' Governments and grant:giving agencies have not enough funds for tac9ling problems in this 8orld+ and 8ill certainly not subsidi@e the study of problems relating to the ne;t' It is only if a sufficient number of interested individuals band together and contribute their money and their time that 8e may hope for any concerted rather than piece:meal progress to be made' .here continues to be a vital role for the SP + the ASP + and 9indred societies' .he recent 8or9 of Stevenson and $sis+ as 8ell as the original labours of the SP Fs founders+ have sho8n ho8 much can be accomplished even by a small number of dedicated persons 8ith moderate funds and facilities at their disposal' Substantial parts of this boo9 have been ta9en up 8ith an attempt to reconcile the apparently irreconcilableI to reconcile+ in other 8ords+ the data of modern psychology and modern neuroscience+ 8ith certain <3C7< odd empirical facts that apparently suggest that human personality may at least sometimes survive bodily death' I do not for a moment pretend that I have satisfactorily harmoni@ed these bodies of data' Each time I tie up+ 8ith fumbling fingers+ a couple of loose ends+ a third one slips free again' Most of the protagonists 8ill continue to reDect the opposite campFs data 8ithout any adeHuate scrutiny and purely on faithJfaith+ that is+ that because their o8n findings and interpretations are unsha9able+ or at least sha9able only in inessentials+ the other fello8Fs findings and interpretations cannot merit serious study' It is not Dust+ say+ neuroscientists 8ho have this attitude to the ostensible evidence for survival' Some parapsychologists >from the e;perimental camp? tend to ta9e this vie8 of the data gathered by other parapsychologists >those interested in the topics of this boo9?' Some Spiritualists 8ould accord a li9e negligent dismissal to the findings of neuroscience' I do not li9e this reDection of data on faithJit is at best a not very honest 8ay of protecting oneself from the labour of having to adDust oneFs opinions' A far bigger act of faithJone to 8hich I must confess I cannot at all times riseJis to accept both sets of data+ and to assume that since the universe is not in the last resort disorderly+ some 8ay of reconciling them 8ill in the end be found' <3C2<

-i=liogra&h"
(' Ale;ander+ P' P' SpiritualismE a ;arrative )ith a !iscussion >Edinburgh: &' P' "immo+ (27(?' 3' Allison+ #' &' "eonard and Soule 3+periments >Boston: Boston Society for Psychic esearch+ (-3-?' 6' Anderson+ /' ' Cognitive Psychology and its mplications >San 4rancisco: &' !' 4reeman+ (-2)?'

5' Angoff+ A'+ and Barth+ %'+ eds' Parapsychology and (nthropology >"e8 Aor9I Parapsychology 4oundation+ (-75?' La' Balfour+ G' &' KSome ecent Scripts Affording Evidence of Personal SurvivalF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-(5GL+ 37+ pp' 33(G356?' Lb' Balfour+ G' &' K.he Ear of %ionysius: 4urther Scripts Affording Evidence of Personal SurvivalF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-(2+ 3-+ pp' (-7G356?' Lc' Balfour+ G' &' K.he Ear of %ionysius: a eplyF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-(2+ 3-+ pp' 37)G32C?' Ld' Balfour+ G' &' KA Study of the Psychological Aspects of Mrs &illettFs MediumshipF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6L+ 56+ pp' 56G6(2?' C' Balfour+ /' K.he TPalm SundayU Case: "e8 #ight on an $ld #ove StoryF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-L2GC)+ L3+ pp' 7-G3C7?' 7' Beattie+ /'+ and Middleton+ /' Spirit Mediumship and Society in (frica >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-C-?' 2' Bennett+ E' (pparitions and Haunted Houses >#ondon: 4aber and 4aber+ (-6-?' -' Bernstein+ M' The Search for Bridey Murphy >Garden City+ "A: %oubleday+ (-LC?' ()' Besterman+ .' K4urther InHuiries into the Element of Chance in Boo9testsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-6(G3+ 5)+ pp' L-G-2?' ((' Besterman+ .'+ and !eard+ G' K"ote on an Attempt to locate in Space the Alleged %irect Eoice $bserved in Sittings 8ith Mrs #eonardF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-66+ 32+ pp' 25G2L?' (3' RBird+ /' M'S K.8o Stri9ing Cases of Collective ApparitionsF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-32+ 33+ pp' 53-G563?' (6' Blac9more+ S' /' Beyond the BodyE an nvestigation of >ut8of8the8Body 3+periences >#ondon: !einemann+ (-23?' (5' Bo@@ano+ E' !iscarnate nfluence in Human "ife >#ondon: /' M' &at9ins+ n'd'?' (La' Bradley+ !' %' To)ards the Stars >#ondon: .' &erner #aurie+ (-35?' (Lb' Bradley+ !' %' The .isdom of the ?ods >#ondon: .' &erner #aurie+ (-3L?' (Lc' Bradley+ !' %' (nd (fter' >#ondon+ .' &erner #aurie+ (-6(?' (C' Braud+ &' G' K#iability and Inertia in Conformance BehaviorF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-2)+ 75+ pp' 3-7G6(2?'

(7' Braude+ S' 3SP and Psycho-inesisE a Philosophical 3+amination >Philadelphia: .emple *niversity Press+ (-2)?' (2a' Broad+ C' %' The Mind and its Place in ;ature >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-3L?' (2b' Broad+ C' %' Religion, Philosophy and Psychical Research >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-L6?' (2c' Broad+ C' %' "ectures on Psychical Research >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-C3?' (2d' Broad+ C' %' KAutobiographyF >in Schilpp+ P' A'+ ed'+ The Philosophy of C$ !$ Broad$ "e8 Aor9: .udor Publishing Co'+ (-L-+ pp' 6GC2?' (-' Bro8n+ S' The Hey8!ay of Spiritualism >"e8 Aor9: !a8thorn Boo9s+ (-7)?' 3)' Bursen+ !' A' !ismantling the Memory Machine >%ordrecht+ !olland: eidel+ (-72?' 3(' Calmet+ A' The Phantom .orldE or, the philosophy of Spirits, (pparitions, etc$ >3 vols' #ondon: ' Bentley+ (2L)?' 33a' Carington+ &' &' K.he Vuantitative Study of .rance Personalities' Part I'F >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-65+ 53+ pp' (76G35)?' 33b' Carington+ &' &' K.he Vuantitative Study of .rance Personalities' Part II'F >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6L+ 56+ pp' 6(-G6C(?' 33c' Carington+ &' &' K.he Vuantitative Study of .rance Personalities' Part III'F >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-6CG7+ 55+ pp' (2-G333?' 36' Carrington+ !' (n nstrumental Test of the ndependence of a Spirit Control >"e8 Aor9: American Psychical Institute+ R(-66S?' 35' Christie:Murray+ %' ReincarnationE (ncient Beliefs and Modern 3vidence >"e8ton Abbot: %avid and Charles+ (-2(?' 3L' Crapan@ano+ E'+ and Garrison+ E' Case Studies in Spirit Possession >"e8 Aor9: &iley+ (-77?' 3C' %ale+ #' A'+ &hite+ '+ and Murphy+ G' KA Selection of Cases from a ecent Survey of Spontaneous ESP PhenomenaF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-C3+ LC+ pp' 6G57?' 37' %allas+ !' A' KCommunications from the Still Incarnate at a %istance from the BodyF >>ccult Revie), (-35+ 5)+ pp' 3CG63?' 32' %avid:"eel+ A' Magic and Mystery in Ti#et >#ondon: Souvenir Press+ (-C(?'

3-' %elanne' G' !ocuments pour servir ^ l 4Z tude de la rZ incarnation >Paris: Editions de la B'P'S'+ (-35?' 6)' %ic9inson+ G' #' KA Case of Emergence of a #atent Memory under !ypnosisF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-((+ 3L+ pp' 5LLG5C7?' 6(' %illey+ 4' B' K&hat is &rong 8ith %isembodied SpiritsMF >Research "etter of the Parapsychology "a#oratory, Fniversity of Ftrecht, "o' ((+ Aug' (-2(+ pp' 6(G5(?' 63' %ing8all+ E' /' ed' (#normal Hypnotic PhenomenaE a Survey of ;ineteenth8Century Cases >5 vols' #ondon: /' and A' Churchill+ (-C7G2?' 66' %odds+ E' ' K&hy I %o not Believe in SurvivalF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-65+53+ pp' (57G(73?' 65a' %ucasse+ C' /' ( Critical 3+amination of the Belief in a "ife after !eath >Springfield+ Illinois: C' C' .homas+ (-C(?' 65b' %ucasse+ C' /' K&hat &ould Constitute Evidence of #ife after %eathMF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-C3+ 5(+ pp' 5)(G5)C?' 6L' Edge+ !' #' KA Philosophical /ustification for the Conformance Behavior ModelF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-72+ 73+ pp' 3(LG36(?' 6C' Eeden' 4' van' KAccount of Sittings 8ith Mrs .hompsonF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, ()3+ (7+ pp' 7LG((L?' 67' Eliade+ M' ShamanismE (rchaic Techni2ues of 3cstasy >3nd ed' #ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-7)?' 62' Elliott+ A' /' A' Chinese Spirit8Medium Cults in Singapore >#ondon: #ondon School of Economics+ (-LL?' 6-' Ellis+ %' /' The Mediumship of the Tape Recorder >!arlo8+ Esse;: %' /' Ellis+ (-72?' 5)' 4le8+ A' G' "' KIs there a Case for %isembodied SurvivalMF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-73+ CC+ pp' (3-G(55?' 5(' 4lournoy+ .' From ndia to the Planet Mars >"e8 Aor9: *niversity Boo9s+ (-C6?' 53' 4ra@er+ /' G' The Belief in mmortality >Eol' I' #ondon: Macmillan+ (-(6?' 56' 4reeborn+ !' K.emporary eminiscence of a #ong:forgotten #anguage during %eliriumF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-)3+ ()+ pp' 37-G326?' 55a' Gauld+ A' KMr !all and the SP F >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-CL+ 56+ pp' L6GC3?' 55b' Gauld+ A' The Founders of Psychical Research >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-C2?'

55c' Gauld+ A' KA Series of T%rop:inU CommunicatorsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-CCG73+ LL+ pp' 376G65)?' 55d' Gauld+ A' KESP and Attempts to E;plain ItF >in .ha9ur+ S' C'+ ed'+ Philosophy and Psychical Research$ #ondon: G' Allen and *n8in+ (-7C+ pp' (7G5L?' 55e' Gauld+ A' K%iscarnate SurvivalF >in &olman+ B' B'+ ed'+ Hand#oo- of Parapsychology$ "e8 Aor9: Ean "ostrand einhold+ (-77+ pp' L77GC6)?' 5L' Gauld+ A'+ and Cornell+ A' %' Poltergeists >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-7-?' 5C' Geach+ P' ?od and the Soul >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-C-?' 57' Gelfand+ M' .itch !octor >#ondon: !arvill Press+ (-C5?' 52' Gibbes+ E' B' K!ave &e Indisputable Evidence of SurvivalMF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-67+ 6(+ pp' CLG7-?' 5-' Gibson+ E' P' KAn E;amination of Motivation as 4ound in Selected Cases from Phantasms of the "iving7 >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-55+ 6C+ pp' 26G()L?' L)' Glenconner+ P' The 3arthen 0essel >#ondon: /ohn #ane+ (-3(?' L(' Green+ C' E' >ut8of8the8Body 3+periences >$;ford: Institute of Psychophysical esearch+ (-C2?' L3' Green+ C' E'+ and McCreery+ C' (pparitions >#ondon: !amish !amilton+ (-7L?' L6a' Guirdham+ A' The Cathars and Reincarnation >#ondon: "eville Spearman+ (-7)?' L6b' Guirdham+ A' .e (re >ne (nother >#ondon: "eville Spearman+ (-75?' L5' Gurney+ E' K.he "ature of Evidence in Matters E;traordinaryF >in Gurney+ E'+ Tertium Duid$ #ondon: 0egan Paul+ .rench and Co'+ (227+ vol' I+ pp' 337G376?' LL' Gurney+ E'+ Myers+ 4' &' !'+ and Podmore+ 4' Phantasms of the "iving >3 vols' #ondon: .rNbner+ (22C?' LC' !'+ A' M' KAn Apparition Identified from a PhotographF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-6(+ 3)+ pp' L6GL7?' L7' !araldsson+ E' KApparitions of the %ead: a epresentative Survey in IcelandF >in oll+ &' G'+ Belolf+ /'+ and McAllister+ /'+ eds'+ Research in Parapsychology &/GH$ Metuchen+ "'/': .he Scarecro8 Press+ (-2(+ pp' 6GL?' L2' !araldsson+ E'+ Gudmundsdottir+ A'+ agnarsson+ A'+ #oftsson+ /'+ and /onsson+ S' K"ational Survey of Psychical E;periences and Attitudes to8ards the Paranormal in IcelandF >in Morris+ /' %'+ oll+ &' G'+ and Morris+ ' #'+ eds'+ Research in Parapsychology &/IJ$ Metuchen+ "'/': .he Scarecro8 Press+ (-77+ pp' (23G(2C?'

L-a' !araldsson+ E'+ and Stevenson+ I' KA Communicator of the T%rop inU .ype in Iceland: the Case of unolfur unolfssonF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-7L+ C-+ pp' 66GL-?' L-b' !araldsson+ E'+ and Stevenson+ I' KA Communicator of the T%rop inU .ype in Iceland: the Case of Gudni MagnussonF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-7L+ C-+ pp' 35LG3C(?' C)a' !art'+ !' KSi; .heories about ApparitionsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-L6GC+ L)+ pp' (L6G36-?' C)b' !art+ !'+ The 3nigma of Survival >#ondon: ider+ (-L-?' C(' !art+ !'+ and !art+ E' B' KEisions and Apparitions Collectively and eciprocally PerceivedF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-63G6+ 5(+ pp' 3)LG35-?' C3a' !eil+ /' KCognition and epresentationF *(ustralasian Journal of Philosophy, (-2)+ L2+ pp' (L2G(C2?' C3b' !eil+ /' K%oes Cognitive Psychology est on a Mista9eMF >Mind, (-2(+ -)+ pp' 63(G653?' C6' !ilgard+ E' ' !ivided ConsciousnessE Multiple Controls in Human Thought and (ction >"e8 Aor9: &iley+ (-77?' C5a' !ill+ /' A' SpiritualismE ts History, Phenomena and !octrine >#ondon: Cassell+ (-(2?' C5b' !ill+ /' A' 3+periences )ith Mediums >#ondon: ider+ R(-65S?' CL' !itchcoc9+ /' "'+ and /ones+ ' #' Spirit Possession in the ;epal Himalayas >&arminster: Avis and Phillips+ (-77?' CCa' !odgson+ ' KA ecord of $bservations of Certain Phenomena of .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (2-3+ 2+ pp' (G(C7?' CCb' !odgson+ ' KA 4urther ecord of $bservations of Certain Phenomena of .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (2-7G2+ (6+ pp' 325GL23?' C7' !olt+ !' >n the Cosmic Relations >3 vols' #ondon: &illiams and "orgate+ (-(L?' C2' !ope+ C' K eport on Some Sittings 8ith Ealiantine and Phoeni; in (-37F >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6(G3+ 5)+ pp' 5((G5(7?' C-' !ughes+ I' M' KA Paranormal %reamF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-L2+ 6-+ pp' (2CG(22?' 7)' !ulme+ A' /' !'+ and &ood+ 4' !' (ncient 3gypt Spea-s >#ondon: ider+ (-67?' 7(a' !yslop+ /' !' KA Case of Eeridical !allucinationsF >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-)-+ 6+ pp' (G5C-?'

7(b' !yslop+ /' !' K.he %oris Case of Multiple PersonalityF >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-(7+ ((+ pp' LG2CC?' 7(c' !yslop+ /' !' Contact )ith the >ther .orld$ >"e8 Aor9: .he Century Company+ (-(-?' 73' Iverson+ /' More "ives than >neM >#ondon: Souvenir Press+ (-7C?' 76' /acobson+ "' "ife )ithout !eathM >#ondon: .urnstone+ (-75?' 75' /ames+ &' K eport on Mrs PiperFs !odgson ControlF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical ResearchK+ (-()+ 36+ pp' 3G(3(?' 7La' /ohnson+ A' K$n the Automatic &riting of Mrs !ollandF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-)2G-+ 3(+ pp' (CCG6-(?' 7Lb' /ohnson+ A' KSecond eport on Mrs !ollandFs ScriptF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-()+ 35+ pp' 3)(G3C6?' 7Lc' /ohnson+ A' K.hird eport on Mrs !ollandFs ScriptF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-((+ 3L+ pp' 3(2G6)6?' 7Ld' /ohnson+ A' KA econstruction of Some TConcordant AutomatismsUF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-(5GL+ 37+ pp' (G(LC?' 7C' /ones+ #' A' KPresidential AddressF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-32G-+ 62+ pp' (7G52?' 77' /ung+ C' G' Synchronicity >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-73?' 72' /usc@y9+ P' &' and Earhard+ B' K.he "ingua Mentis and its ole in .houghtF >in /usc@y9+ P' &'+ and 0lein+ ' M'+ eds'+ The ;ature of ThoughtE 3ssays in Honor of !$ >$ He##$ !illsdale+ "'/': #' Erlbaum+ (-2)+ pp' (LLG(2C?' 7-' 0ampman+ ' K!ypnotically Induced Multiple Personality: an E;perimental StudyF >(cta Fniversitatis >ulensis Series ! Medica, ;o J, Psychiatrica ;o < $ulu: *niversity of $ulu+ (-76?' 2)' 0ampman+ '+ and !irvenoDa+ ' K%ynamic elation of the Secondary Personality Induced by !ypnosis to the Present PersonalityF >in 4ran9el+ 4' !'+ and Bamans9y+ !' S'+ eds'+ Hypnosis at ts Bicentennial$ "e8 Aor9: Plenum+ (-72?' 2(' 0enny+ M' G' KMultiple Personality and Spirit PossessionF >Psychiatry, (-2(+ 55+ pp' 667G 6L2?' 23' 0oestler+ A' The Roots of Coincidence >#ondon: !utchinson+ (-73?' 26' 0ohr+ ' #' KA Survey of Psi E;periences among Members of a Special PopulationF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-2)+ 75+ pp' 6-LG5((?'

25' 0osslyn+ S' M'+ and Pomerant@+ /' ' KImagery+ Propositions and the 4orm of Internal epresentationsF >in Bloc9+ "'+ ed'+ Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology $ #ondon: Methuen+ (-2(+ pp' (L)G(C-?' 2L' #ambert+ G' &' KAn Apparition of a Child: the Case of /ohnnie M'F >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-CC+ 56+ pp' 532G56(?' 2Ca' #ambert+ !' C' KE;periments in Psychic !ealing by .itus Bull+ M'%'F >Psychic Science, (-37+ C+ pp' 26G2-?' 2Cb' #ambert+ !' C' K.he Case of Mr C' E'+ an $bsession Case .reated by .itus Bull+ M'%'F >Psychic Science, (-32+ 7+ pp' (-7G3(5?' 27a' #ang+ A' Coc- "ane and Common8Sense >#ondon: #ongmans+ Green Y Co'+ (2-5?' 27b' #ang+ A' K eflections on Mrs Piper and .elepathyF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-))G(+ (L+ pp' 6-GL3?' 22' #arusdottir+ E' Midillinn Hafteinn B6ornsson >Iceland: "ordri+ (-5C?' 2-' #eonard+ G' $' My "ife in T)o .orlds >#ondon: Cassell+ (-6(?' -)' R#e8is+ E' E'S ( Report of the Mysterious ;oises Heard in the House of Mr John !$ Fo+ ' >Canandaigua: E' E' #e8is+ (252?' -(' #e8is+ !' %' Persons and "ife after !eath >#ondon: Macmillan+ (-72?' -3' #e8is+ I' M' 3cstatic ReligionE an (nthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism >!armonds8orth: Penguin+ (-72?' -6' #odge+ $' Raymond, or "ife and !eath >#ondon: Methuen+ (-(C?' -5' #ong+ /' 0'+ ed' 3+trasensory 3cologyE Parapsychology and (nthropology >Metuchen+ "'/': Scarecro8 Press+ (-77?' -L' Mac0en@ie+ A' Hauntings and (pparitions >#ondon: !einemann+ (-23?' -C' Magnin+ E' KVuelHues guZrisons en mZdecine psychiatriHue dues ^ lFemploi des procZdZs mZtapsychiHuesF >in Eett+ C'+ ed'+ "e compte8rendu officiel du Premier CongrKs nternational des Recherches Psychi2ues L Copenhagen MJ (oNt@M Septem#re &/M&$ Copenhagen: Internationale des comitZs pour les recherches psychiHues+ (-33+ pp' 6(5G666?' -7' Maher+ M'+ and Schmeidler+ G' ' KVuantitative Investigation of a ecurrent ApparitionF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-7L+ C-+ pp' 65(G6L3?' -2a' Malcolm+ "' KMemory and epresentationF >;ous, (-7)+ 5+ pp' L-G7)?' -2b' Malcolm+ "' Memory and Mind >Ithaca: Cornell *niversity Press+ (-77?'

--' Mar98ic9+ B' K.he Soal:Goldney E;periments 8ith Basil Shac9leton: "e8 Evidence of %ata ManipulationF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-72+ LC+ pp' 3L)G 377?' ())' Mattiesen+ E' KA Case of .elepathic !allucinationF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-(6+ (C+ pp' ((2G(3C?' ()(' Millar+ B' K .he $bservational .heories: a PrimerF >3uropean Journal of Parapsychology, (-72+ 3+ pp' 6)5G663?' ()3a' Moody+ ' A' "ife after "ife >"e8 Aor9: Bantam+ (-7C?' ()3b' Moody+ ' A' Reflections on "ife after "ife >#ondon: Corgi Boo9s+ (-77?' ()6' Moore+ &' *' The 0oices >#ondon: &atts+ (-(6?' ()5' Moreil+ A' "a vie et l7oeuvre d7(llan =ardec >Paris: Editions Sperar+ (-C(?' ()L' Moss+ P' and 0eeton+ /' 3ncounters )ith the Past >!armons8orth: Penguin+ (-2(?' ()C' Moss+ .'+ and Schmeidler+ G' ' KVuantitative Investigation of a T!aunted !ouseU 8ith Sensitives and a Control GroupF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-C2+ C3+ pp' 6--G5()?' ()7' Muhl+ A' M' (utomatic .ritingE an (pproach to the Fnconscious "e8 Aor9: !eli; Press+ (-C6?' ()2' Murphy+ G' Three Papers on the Survival Pro#lem >"e8 Aor9: American Society for Psychical esearch+ R(-LLS?' ()-' Murphy+ G'+ and Ballou+ ' $' .illiam James on Psychical Research >#ondon: Chatto and &indus+ (-C(?' (()a' Myers+ 4' &' !' Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily !eath >3 vols' #ondon: #ongmans+ Green and Co'+ (-)6?' (()b' Myers+ 4' &' !' Fragments of nner "ife >#ondon: Society for Psychical esearch+ (-C(?' (((' Myers+ 4' &' !'+ #odge+ $'+ #eaf+ &'+ and /ames+ &' KA ecord of $bservations of Certain Phenomena of .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (22-G-)+ C+ pp' 56CGCL-?' ((3' "e8bold+ &' ' KA 4urther ecord of $bservations of Certain Phenomena of .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (2-2G-+ (5+ pp' CG5-?' ((6' $esterreich+ .' 0' Possession, !emoniacal and >ther >"e8 Aor9: ' ' Smith+ (-6)?' ((5' $sborn+ A' &' The Superphysical >#ondon: I' "icholson and &atson+ (-67?'

((L' $sis+ 0'+ and !araldsson+ E' (t the Hour of !eath >"e8 Aor9: Avon Boo9s+ (-77?' ((C' $sty+ E' Supernormal Faculties in Man >#ondon: Methuen+ (-36?' ((7' Pagenstecher+ G' KPast Events Seership: a Study in PsychometryF >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-33+ (C+ pp' (G(6C?' ((2a' Palmer+ /' KE;trasensory Perception: esearch 4indingsF >in 0rippner+ S'+ ed'+ (dvances in Parapsychological Research ME 3+trasensory Perception$ "e8 Aor9: Plenum Press+ (-72+ pp' L-G356?' ((2b' Palmer+ /' KA Community Mail Survey of Psychic E;periencesF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-7-+ 76+ pp' 33(G3L(?' ((2c' Palmer+ /' KParapsychology as a Probabilistic Science: 4acing the ImplicationsF >in oll+ &' G'+ ed'+ Research in Parapsychology &/I/$ Metuchen+ "'/': .he Scarecro8 Press+ (-2)+ pp' (2-G3(L?' ((-' Penelhum+ .' Survival and !isem#odied 3+istence >#ondon: outledge and 0egan Paul+ (-7)?' (3)a' Piddington+ /' G' K$n the .ypes of Phenomena %isplayed in Mrs .hompsonFs .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-)6G5+ (2+ pp' ()5G6)7?' (3)b' Piddington+ /' G' KA Series of Concordant AutomatismsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-)2+ 33+ pp' (-G5(C?' (3)c' Piddington+ /' G' K.hree Incidents from the Sittings: #ethe+ the SibylI the !orace $de VuestionF *Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-()+ 35+ pp' 2CG(C-?' (3)d' Piddington+ /' G' KPostscript to the #ethe Incident: "ote on K$lympusF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-()+ 35+ pp' 637G632?' (3(' Piper+ A' #' The "ife and .or- of Mrs Piper >#ondon: 0egan Paul+ (-3-?' (33a' Podmore+ 4' KPhantasms of the %ead from Another Point of Eie8F >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (2-2G-+ (5+ pp' L)G7)?' (33b' Podmore+ 4' K%iscussion of the .rance Phenomena of Mrs PiperF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (2-2G-+ (5+ pp' L)G7)?' (33c' Podmore+ 4' Modern SpiritualismE a History and a Criticism >3 vols' #ondon: Methuen+ (-)3?' (33d' Podmore+ 4' Mesmerism and Christian Science >#ondon: Methuen+ (-)-?' (33e' Podmore+ 4' The ;e)er Spiritualism >#ondon: 4isher *n8in+ (-()?' (36' Price+ !' !' KSurvival and the Idea of Another &orldF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-L6GC+ L)+ pp' (G3L?'

(35' Prince+ '+ ed' Trance and Possession States >Montreal: ' M' Buc9e Memorial Society+ (-C2?' (3La' Prince+ &' 4' K.he %oris Case of Multiple PersonalityF >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-(L+ -+ pp' (G7))+ and (-(C+ ()+ pp' 7)(G(5(-?' (3Lb' Prince+ &' 4' K.he %oris Case of Vuintuple PersonalityF >Journal of (#normal Psychology, (-(C+ ((+ pp+ 76G(33?' (3Lc' Prince+ &' 4' KPsychometric E;periments 8ith Senora Maria eyes de B'F >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-3(+ (L+ pp' (2-G6(5?' (3Ld' Prince+ &' 4' KCertain Characteristics of Eeridical Mediumistic Phenomena Compared 8ith those of Phenomena Generally Conceded to be .elepathicF >in Eett+ C'+ ed'+ "e compte8 rendu officiel du Premier CongrKs nternational des Recherches Psychi2ues L Copenhague MJ (out@M Septem#re &/M&$ Copenhagen: Internationale des ComitZs pour les echerches PsychiHues+ (-33+ pp' ()(G(33?' (3Le' Prince+ &' 4' KStudies in PsychometryF >Proceedings of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-35+ (2+ pp' (72G6L3?' (3Lf' Prince+ &' 4' The Psychic in the House >Boston: Boston Society for Psychic esearch+ (-3C?' (3C' Pylyshyn+ B' K&hat the MindFs Eye .ells the MindFs Brain: a CritiHue of Mental ImageryF >Psychological Bulletin, (-76+ 2)+ pp' (G35?' (37' adclyffe:!all+ M'+ and .roubridge+ *' K$n a Series of Sittings 8ith Mrs $sborne #eonardF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-3)+ 6)+ pp' 66-GLL5?' (32a' ao+ 0' ' KStudies in the Preferential Effect' II' A #anguage ESP .est Involving Precognition and TInterventionUF >Journal of Parapsychology, (-C6+ pp' (57G(C)?' (32b' ao+ 0' ' K.heories of PsiF >in 0rippner+ S'+ ed'+ (dvances in Parapsychological Research ME 3+trasensory Perception$ "e8 Aor9: Plenum Press+ (-72+ pp' 35LG3-L?' (3-' hine+ #' The nvisi#le PictureE a Study of Psychic 3+periences >/efferson+ "'C': Mc4arland and Co'+ (-2(?' (6)' ichet+ C' K,enoglossie+ lFZcriture automatiHue en langues ZtrangXresF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-)LG7+ (-+ pp' (C3G(-5?' (6(' ichmond+ B' 3vidence of Purpose >#ondon: Bell+ (-62?' (63' ing+ 0' "ife at !eath >"e8 Aor9: Co8ard+ McCann and Geoghegan+ (-2)?' (66' ochas+ A' de "es vies successives >Paris: Chacornac+ (-((?' (65' ogo+ %' S' K.itus Bull+ American E;orcistF >in Ebon+ M'+ ed'+ 3+orcismE Fact not Fiction$ "e8 Aor9: Signet Boo9s+ (-75+ pp' (C7G(7C?'

(6L' yall+ E' &' Second Time Round >/ersey: "eville Spearman+ (-75?' (6C' Sage+ M' Mrs Piper and the Society for Psychical Research >#ondon: Brimley /ohnson+ (-)6?' (67' Sahay+ 0' 0' "' ReincarnationE 0erified Cases of Re#irth after !eath >Bareilly: "' #' Gupta+ R(-37S?' (62a' Salter+ !' de G' K$n the Element of Chance in Boo9 .estsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-36+ 66+ pp' C)CGC3)?' (62b' Salter+ !' de G' KSome Incidents $ccurring at Sittings 8ith Mrs #eonard 8hich may .hro8 some #ight on their Modus >perandiK >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-6)G(+ 6-+ pp' 6)CG663?' (62c' Salter+ !' de G' K.he !istory of George EaliantineF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-63+ 5)+ pp' 6C6G5()?' (6-a' RSalter+ &' !S KCase of the &ill of Mr /ames #' ChallinF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-32+ 6C+ pp' L(7GL35?' (6-b' Salter+ &' !' KAn E;periment in Pseudo:ScriptsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-32+ 6C+ pp' L3LGLL5?' (6-c' Salter+ &' !' K4' &' !' MyersFs Posthumous MessageF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-L2GC)+ L3+ pp' (G63?' (5)' Saltmarsh+ !' 4' 3vidence of Personal Survival from Cross Correspondences >#ondon: Bell+ (-62?' (5(' Schat@man+ M' The Story of Ruth >#ondon: %uc98orth+ (-2(?' (53' Schiller+ 4' C' S' KA Case of Apparent Communication through a Person #iving+ but Suffering from Senile %ementiaF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-36+ 3(+ pp' 27G-3?' (56' Schmeidler+ G' ' KVuantitative Investigation into a K!aunted !ouseF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-CC+ pp' (62G(5-?' (55' Sheldra9e+ ' ( ;e) Science of "ife >#ondon: Blond and Briggs+ (-2(?' (5La' Sidg8ic9+ E' M' K%iscussion of the .rance Phenomena of Mrs PiperF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-))G(+ (L+ pp' (CG62?' (5Lb' Sidg8ic9+ E' M' KA Contribution to the Study of the Psychology of Mrs PiperFs .rance PhenomenaF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-(L+ 32+ pp' (GCL7?' (5Lc' Sidg8ic9+ E' M' KAn E;amination of Boo9:tests $btained in Sittings 8ith Mrs #eonardF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-3(+ 6(+ pp' 35(G5))?'

(5Ld' Sidg8ic9+ E' M' KPhantasms of the #ivingF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-36+ 66+ pp' 36G53-?' (5C' RSidg8ic9+ !'+ Sidg8ic9+ E' M'+ and /ohnson+ A'S K eport on the Census of !allucinationsF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (2-5+ ()+ pp' 3LG533?' (57' Soal+ S' G' KA eport on Some Communications eceived through Mrs Blanche CooperF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-3L+ 6L+ pp' 57(GL-5?' (52' K.he Society for Psychical esearch: $bDects of the SocietyF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (223G6+ (+ pp' 6GC?' (5-a' Stanford+ ' G' K.o8ards einterpreting Psi EventsF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research+ (-72+ 73+ pp' (-7G3(5?' (5-b' Stanford+ ' G' K.he Influence of Auditory Gan@feld Characteristics upon 4ree: response ESP PerformanceF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-7-+ 76+ pp' 3L6G373?' (L)' Sta8ell+ 4' M' K.he Ear of %ionysius: a %iscussion of the EvidenceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-(2+ 3-+ pp' 3C)G3C-?' (L(' Steam+ /' The Second "ife of Susan ?anier >#ondon: #eslie 4re8in+ (-C2?' (L3' Stevens+ E' &' The .atse-a .onder >Chicago: eligio:Philosophical Publishing !ouse+ (227?' (L6a' Stevenson+ I' K.he Combination #oc9 .est for SurvivalF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-C2+ C3+ pp' 35CG3L5?' (L6b' Stevenson+ I' K.he Substantiality of Spontaneous CasesF >Proceedings of the Parapsychological (ssociation+ (-C2+ L+ pp' -(G(32?' (L6c' Stevenson+ I' K.elepathic Impressions: a evie8 and eport of .hirty:five "e8 CasesF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-7)+ 3-+ pp' (G(-2?' (L6d' Stevenson+ I' KA Communicator *n9no8n to Medium and SittersF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-7)+ C5+ pp' L6GCL?' (L6e' Stevenson+ I' KA Communicator of the K%rop:inF .ype in 4rance: the Case of obert MarieF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-76+ C7+ pp' 57G7C?' (L6f' Stevenson+ I' OenoglossyE a Revie) and Report of a Case >Bristol: &right+ (-75?' (L6g' Stevenson+ I' T)enty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation >Charlottesville: *niversity Press of Eirginia+ (-75?' (L6h' Stevenson+ I' Cases of the Reincarnation Type$ 0ol $ Ten Cases in ndia >Charlottesville: *niversity Press of Eirginia+ (-7L?'

(L6i' Stevenson+ I' Cases of the Reincarnation Type$ 0ol$ M$ Ten Cases in Sri "an-a >Charlottesville: *niversity Press of Eirginia+ (-77?' (L6D' Stevenson+ I' Cases of the Reincarnation Type$ 0ol$ <$ T)elve Cases in "e#anon and Tur-ey >Charlottesville: *niversity Press of Eirginia+ (-2)?' (L69' Stevenson+ I' Cryptomnesia and ParapsychologyE Some Ha,ards of Forgotten =no)ledge >#ondon: Society for Psychical esearch+ forthcoming?' (L5a' Stevenson+ I'+ and Pasricha+ S' KA Case of Secondary Personality 8ith ,enoglossyF >(merican Journal of Psychiatry, (-7-+ (6C+ pp' (L-(G(L-3?' (L5b' Stevenson+ I'+ and Pasricha+ S' KA Preliminary eport on an *nusual Case of the eincarnation .ype 8ith ,enoglossyF >Journal of the (merican Society for Psychical Research, (-2)+ 75+ pp' 66(G652?' (LL' Suringar+ /' E' KA Case of .hought:transferenceF *Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-36+ 3(+ pp' (7)G(7L?' (LC' .anner+ A' E' Studies in Spiritism >"e8 Aor9: Appleton+ (-()?' (L7a' .homas+ C' %' Some ;e) 3vidence for Human Survival >#ondon: Collins+ (-33?' (L7b' .homas+ C' %' K.he Beard CaseF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-3C+ 36+ pp' (36G(65?' (L7c' .homas+ C' %' K.he Modus >perandi of .rance:communication according to %escriptions eceived through Mrs $sborne #eonardF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-32G-+ 62+ pp' 5-G())?' (L7d' .homas+ C' %' KA Consideration of a Series of Pro;y SittingsF >Proceedings of the Society of Psychical Research, (-63G6+ 5(+ pp' (6-G(2L?' (L7e' .homas+ C' %' KA Pro;y Case E;tending over Eleven Sittings 8ith Mrs $sborne #eonardF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6L+ 56+ pp' 56-GL(-?' (L7f' .homas+ C' %' KA Pro;y E;periment of Significant SuccessF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-62G-+ 5L+ pp' 3L7G6)C?' (L7g' .homas+ C' %' KA "e8 .ype of Pro;y CaseF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6-+ 6(+ pp' ()6G()C+ (3)G(36?' (L7h' .homas+ C' %' KA %iscourse Given through Mrs #eonard and Attributed to Sir $liver #odgeF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-5L+ 66+ pp' (65G(LC?' (L7i' .homas+ C' %' KA "e8 !ypothesis concerning .rance CommunicationF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-5CG7+ 52+ pp' (3(G(C6?' (L2' .homas+ /' 4' Beyond ;ormal Cognition >Boston: Boston Society for Psychic esearch+ (-67?'

(L-a' .houless+ ' !' KA evie8 of Mr &hately CaringtonFs &or9 on .rance PersonalitiesF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-6CG7+ 55+ pp' 336G37L?' (L-b' .houless+ ' !' KA .est of SurvivalF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-5CG-+ 52+ pp' 3L6G3C6?' (C)' .rethe8y+ A' &' The 4Controls7 of Stainton Moses *#ondon: !urst and Blac9ett+ R(-36S?' (C(' .roubridge+ *' K.he TModus $perandiU in So:called Mediumistic .ranceF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-33+ 63+ pp' 655G672?' (C3a' .yrrell+ G' "' M' KA Communicator Introduced in Automatic ScriptF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-6-+ 6(+ pp' -(G-L?' (C3b' .yrrell+ G' "' M' K.he TModus $perandiU of Paranormal CognitionF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research+ (-5CG-+ 52+ pp' CLG(3)?' (C3c' .yrrell+ G' "' M' (pparitions >#ondon: %uc98orth+ (-L6?' (C6' *llman+ M'+ 0rippner+ S'+ and Eaughan+ A' !ream Telepathy >#ondon: .urnstone+ (-76?' (C5a' Eerrall+ !' de G' >Mrs &' !' Salter?' K eport on the /unot Sittings 8ith Mrs PiperF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research$ (-()+ 35+ pp' 6L(GCC5?' (C5b' Eerrall+ !' de G' >Mrs &' !' Salter?' K.he Element of Chance in Cross: correspondencesF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-((+ (L+ pp' (L6G(73? (CL' Eerrall+ M' de G' KA Possible eminiscence of Plotinus in .ennysonF >Modern "anguage Revie), (-)CG7+ 3+ pp' 637G66)?' (CC' KEision during a State of ComaF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-)7+ (6+ pp' 27G-)?' (C7a' &al9er+ "' The Bridge >#ondon: Cassell+ (-37?' (C7b' &al9er+ "' Through a Stranger7s Hands >#ondon: !utchinson+ (-6L?' (C2' &avell+ S'+ Butt+ A'+ and Epton+ "' Trances >"e8 Aor9: %utton+ (-CC?' (C-a' &est+ %' /' K.he Investigation of Spontaneous CasesF >Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, (-5CG-+ 52+ p' 3C5G6))?' (C-b' &est+ %' /' KA Mass:observation Vuestionnaire on !allucinationsF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-52+ 65+ pp' (27G(-C?' (7)' &hymant+ "' Psychic (dventures in ;e) Bor- >#ondon: Morley and Mitchell+ (-6(?' (7(' &ic9land+ C' A' Thirty Bears among the !ead >#os Angeles: "ational Psychological Institute+ (-35?'

(73' &ilson+ I' Mind out of TimeA >#ondon: Gollanc@+ (-2(?' (76a' &ood+ 4' !' (fter Thirty Centuries >#ondon: ider+ (-6L?' (76b' &ood+ 4' !' This 3gyptian Miracle >#ondon: &at9ins+ (-LL?' (75' Borab+ G' KA Case for SurvivalF >Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, (-5)+ 6(+ pp' (53G(L3?' <326<

Index
Adams+ /' C'+ C Ait9en+ #' G'+ L3GL Ale;ander+ P' P'+ 36 American Society for Psychical esearch >ASP ?+ (+ 3CC Animal Magnetism+ 3G6 Animism+ 33(G5+ 353+ 35CG7+ 3C) Apparitions+ L+ ((G(5+ (((+ 335G-+ 36)GC) collectively perceived+ (5+ 33L+ 367G53+ 3L(G3 KcrisisF+ (5+ 33L+ 3L( haunting+ 33L+ 353Gof living+ 336G5+ 33C+ 3L)G(+ 3L3 post:mortem+ 33L+ 36(G5-+ 3L3 Apparitions+ percipients of Chaffin+ /' P'+ 366G5 !'+ %r+ and family+ 353G5 !'+ #ieut+ 365 !ornby+ Sir Edmund+ (3G(6 Moore+ Miss S'+ 367

P'+ Mr and Mrs+ 365GL Vuilty+ Miss Ellen+ 367 Automatic &riting >illus'?+ 3CGKAutomatismsF Motor+ 3CGSensory+ 3Autos ouranos a9umon case+ 2LG7 Balfour+ A' /'+ C Balfour+ G' &'+ 72+ -L+ -7G()( BanerDee+ !' "'+ (77+ (72 Barrett+ Sir &' 4'+ 35+ ()L Bernstein+ M'+ (CL BDornsson+ !afsteinn+ C5G7+ 7(G6 Blac9more+ S' /'+ 33) Boo9 tests+ 57GBo@@ano+ E'+ (55 Brain+ and memory+ (22G3)( Broad+ C' %'+ -+ ((C+ (3) Bull+ .'+ (5-GL) KCarroll+ #e8isF+ C Cayce+ E'+ (C5 Chance coincidence hypothesis+ (6G(L+ 6L Chattopadhaya+ B'+ (C) KCheno8ethF+ Mrs+ see Soule+ Mrs M' M' Clairvoyance+ see E;trasensory perception

Clar9e+ /' .'+ 6Cleaveland+ Mrs &' #'+ 6)+ (L6G5 Coc9e+ /' '+ 63 Communicators+ living+ (6LG2+ (56GC+ 3CL Communicators+ mediumistic Ait9en+ L3G6+ 76 KAEBF+ -( Butcher+ S' !'+ -7G2 KCae@ar+ /uliusF+ ((5+ ((L Chlorine+ 63+ ((5 %avis+ Gordon+ (6LG2+ 3CL KEliot+ GeorgeF+ ((L 4eda+ 5LGL7+ -)+ (((+ ((3+ ((LGC 4erguson+ /ohn+ (6L+ 3CL KGroverF+ 6L Gurney+ E'+ 72+ ((( <325< !obson+ !' E'+ 3L !odgson+ '+ 6CG-+ -6G5+ (67+ 3C6 KImperatorF+ 6L+ ((5+ ((L /unot+ Bennie+ 56G5+ -(+ ((L #odge+ /erry+ 53G6+ 76 Macaulay+ 4' &'+ L)G3+ LLG7 Magnusson+ Gudni+ C6G2 Miller+ &' !'+ 3L

Myers+ 4' &' !'+ 72+ 2)G-+ -6G7+ ((( "e8love+ Bobbie+ L)+ LLG7 K"onaF+ ()5 Pelle8+ George >GP?+ 65GL+ -)+ (((+ ((5GL KPhinuit+ %rF+ 63GL+ 6-+ ()6+ ((L+ ((C KPopy SophyF+ 36 Poynings+ Blanche+ (C7 off+ Mary+ (LCGunolfsson+ unolfur >K un9iF?+ 7(G6 KSchuraF+ 7CG7 Scott+ Sir &alter+ 6-+ ((5+ ((L Sidg8ic9+ !'+ 72 KStoc9bridge+ !arryF+ C2G7(+ 76 Sutton+ K0a9ieF+ 5)G3 .albot+ !'+ 52 .ennant+ E' &'+ 57G2+ 5.homas+ Etta+ -( .homas+ /ohn+ -( Eerrall+ A' &'+ -7G())+ (6L Eerrall+ Mrs M' de G'+ ((7 &hite+ E'+ -( &illett+ Sarah+ C3G6 Computers+ 2)+ (--G3)) KControlsF+ mediumistic and communicators+ 6) status of+ ()-G(2+ (5C+ 3(-

Coombe:.ennant+ Mrs &' >illus'?+ 72+ -7G()( Cooper+ Mrs Blanche+ (6LGC Croo9es+ Sir &'+ C Cross:correspondences+ 77G2Cryptomnesia+ 6CG7+ C6+ ()6+ (CCG-+ (26G5 %avid:"eel+ A'+ 3L2 K%ensmore+ MissF >K!uldahF?+ 6CG7 %issociation+ 32G-+ 72 %odds+ E' '+ L)G(+ ()-G() %orr+ G' B'+ -5GC %o8ling+ Ann+ (C-G7) %reams+ (6G(5+ 32G-+ (3(G3+ (3L+ (7C %ropGin communicators+ L2G76+ (()G(( %ucasse+ C' /'+ ()6+ ()5+ (C5 Eagles+ A'+ (7( KEar of %ionysiusF case+ -LG()( Ectoplasm+ 5+ ()L Ellis+ %' /'+ ()LGC Evans+ C'+ ()L Evidence+ standards of+ -G(6 E;trasensory perception >ESP?+ 7+ 3)+ L2GC(+ ()(G6+ (3(G5+ (65+ 33C+ 3LCG7 correspondence paradigm+ (3)+ (35G7 transmission paradigm+ ((-G(35 K4ischer+ %orisF+ see Prince+ .heodosia 4leming+ Mrs+ 72+ 2)

4lournoy+ .'+ ((7 4o;+ /' %'+ 6 4o;+ 0ate+ 6 4o;+ Margaretta+ 6 4raud+ ((G(3+ 6LGC+ C6+ (26 4ra@er+ /' G'+ (2 KG'+ Mr and Mrs #'F+ C2GGarrett+ Mrs E'+ 6)+ ((( Gelfand+ M'+ (2 Gestsson+ A'+ C5G7 Gibson+ E' P'+ (36 Gifford+ ' S'+ (5-GLC Gladstone+ &' E'+ C Green+ C' E'+ 33) GudDonsson+ !'+ C5GL Gudmundsdottir+ Gudrun+ C5GC Gudmundsson+ #'+ 7(G6 Guirdham+ A'+ (73 Gurney+ E'+ C+ -G((+ 72 !all+ G' S'+ 6L !allucinations+ apparitions and <32L< $BEs as+ 335G-+ 36(G3+ 357 !araldsson+ E'+ C5G7+ 7(G6 !art+ !'+ (L+ 336+ 36-+ 35) !auntings+ L+ 35CG7+ 3CLGC !eadlam+ &'+ Huoted+ 3C6

!odgson+ ' >illus'?+ 66GL+ (L2 K!ollandF+ Mrs+ see 4leming+ Mrs !olt+ !'+ 63 !ome+ %' %'+ 36 K!ope+ Star and Bro8ningF case+ 2)G2L !ulme+ A' /' !'+ ()5 !ume+ %'+ -G() !ypnotic regression+ (C5G(7( !yslop+ /' !'+ (5-GLC /acobson+ "'+ 332 /ames+ &' >illus'?+ C+ 66+ 67G-+ ((2 /ohnson+ Alice+ 72+ 22GK/ohnson+ MarthaF+ 333G6 /ones+ Sir #'+ C3G6+ (56 /onsdottir+ Gudrun+ C5GC /ung+ C' G'+ (35 0ampman' '+ (C7 K0ardec+ AllanF+ (C5 0eeton+ /'+ (C2+ (C0oestler+ A'+ (35 #ang+ A'+ (63 Huoted+ ((( #eonard+ Mrs G' $' >illus'?+ (3+ 6)+ 5LGL7+ (((G(6+ ((CG(2+ ((-+ (6L+ (5C+ (C5 K#etheF case+ -6G()( #e8is+ E' E'+ 6

#e8is+ Mrs &' S'+ L)G( K#iterary Pu@@lesF+ -6G()( #odge+ Sir $' >illus'?+ C+ 5)+ 53G6+ 5C+ 57+ 72+ ((C Mac0en@ie+ A'+ 33) Magnin+ E'+ (52 Materiali@ation+ 5 Mediumship clairvoyant+ 3L+ (6(G6 direct voiceF+ 35+ 5C+ ()5GL+ ()7+ (6C mental+ 5+ (3+ (5G(L+ 33G6+ 3LG6(+ 63G(5C physical+ 5GL+ 2+ (3+ 33G5 trance+ 3-G6(+ 63GL7 Memory+ (35+ (22G3(6+ 3CC coding:storage:retrieval model+ (-)G3)6 genetic+ (23G6 Mesmerism+ 3G6 Miracles+ !ume on+ -G(( Mishra+ M' #'+ (77G2) Morris+ ' #'+ 33Moses+ &' S'+ ((5 Multiple personality+ (((G(6 Myers+ 4' &' !' >illus'?+ C+ 32G-+ C3+ 72+ (LC+ (C6G5+ 3L)GC) "ear:death:e;periences >"%Es?+ 33(G5+ 337G"e8bold+ &' '+ 6$bsession+ (57GLC+ (2LGC

$esterreich+ .' 0'+ (() $sis+ 0'+ 33-+ 3CC $sty+ E'+ (6(GL+ (67+ 3CL $uiDa board >illus'?+ 3LGC+ C2 $ut:of:the:body:e;periences >$BEs?+ 3(-G335+ 337G-+ 3CL K$vershado8ingF+ ((2+ ((-G(5C+ (LC+ (2C+ 3C)+ 3CL Pagenstecher+ G'+ (65 Pal+ P'+ (72+ (2( Palmer+ /'+ 7+ ((-G3)+ (6) KPalm SundayF case+ 22 Parr+ /'+ C3G6 Pasricha+ S'+ (L-GC3 Patha9+ family+ (77G2L Personality+ and survival+ 2G-+ 6)G6(+ L7+ 75GL+ 2-+ -)+ ()2+ (6(G(7+ 3(L+ 3L-+ 3C(G3 KPhantasmogenetic centresF+ 3L)GC) Piddington+ /' G'+ 72+ 2)G2-+ -LGC Piper+ Mrs #' E' >illus'?+ (3+ 6)+ 63G55+ C3+ 72+ 2)G2-+ -6G7+ ()6+ (((G(3+ ((-+ (6L+ (2C+ 3C6 Planchette board+ 3LGC Plotinus+ 2LG7 <32C< Podmore+ 4'+ C+ 6LGC+ 26GL+ 22+ 355GL Possession+ (7+ (57+ (LCGC3 Precognition+ see E;trasensory perception Price+ !' !'+ 3LL Prince+ .heodosia+ (((+ (5)+ (5(

Prince+ &' 4'+ (65+ (5)G53 Pro;y sittings+ L)GL7 Psi phenomena+ 7 KPsychic factorF hypothesis+ -+ 3(CG(2 Psycho9inesis >P0?+ 7+ 3) Psychometry+ (63 Purpose+ manifestations of+ 75G2amsden+ Miss+ 35 K athbunF+ Mrs+ (L( K audive voicesF+ ()LGC ayleigh+ #ord+ C eincarnation+ (C6G27 eincarnation+ cases+ Biya\S8arnlata+ (77G(2L 4letcher+ /ohn\E' &' yall+ (7(G3 Ganier+ Susan\/oanne Maclver+ (7)G( Gottlieb+ Gretchen\%olores /ay+ ()C /ensen\Mrs .' E'+ ()CG7 0amlesh\S8arnlata+ (2( off+ Mary\#urancy Eennum+ (LCGSharada\*ttara !uddar+ ()C+ (L-GC3 Sobha am\/asbir+ (7C &aterhouse+ /oan\F/anF+ (C2 &illiams+ Sarah\Ann %o8ling+ (C-G7) epresentation+ (35+ (22G3)6

epresentations propositional+ (-CG3)) visual and verbal+ (-6G(-C hine+ #ouisa+ (36+ (32+ (56 ich+ /' odgers+ 6L ochas+ A' de+ (CL off+ A' B'+ (L7G2 oll+ &' G'+ 33K osemaryF+ ()5 us9in+ /'+ C K uthF+ 3L7+ 3L2+ 3CL Sage+ M'+ 63 Salter+ !' de G' >illus'?+ 56G5+ 5-+ 72+ 2)G26+ ((CG(7+ (6L Saltmarsh+ !' 4'+ 7KScanningF+ (33G5 Schat@man+ M'+ 3L7 Schiller+ 4' C' S'+ 6KSevensF case+ 26G5+ ()) Shamanism+ (7G33 Sidg8ic9+ Mrs E' M' >illus'?+ C+ 52+ 72+ ((6G(2+ ((-+ (3)+ (2C Sidg8ic9+ !'+ C+ 72 S9ills+ survival of+ -(G3+ ()3+ ()7G2+ (6( KSmeadF+ Mrs+ see Cleaveland+ Mrs &' #' KSmith+ !eleneF+ ((7 Soal+ S' G'+ (6LG2

Society for Psychical esearch >SP ?+ (G3+ LGC+ 5C+ 72G-+ 3CC Soule+ Mrs M' M'+ 6)+ (((+ (5(+ (53+ (L(+ (L6 Spiritualism+ history of+ 6G5+ 3)G36+ (() Stanford' ' G'+ (35 KStatiusF case+ -7 Sta8ell+ Miss 4' Melian+ ()) Stearn+ /'+ (7)G( Stevens+ E' &'+ (LCG7 Stevenson+ I'+ (6+ L2+ C(+ C5G7+ 7(G6+ ()CG7+ (36+ (L-GC3+ (C5+ (73G27+ 3C6+ 3C5+ 3CC Subliminal self+ 32G-+ 72+ 22+ ())G()( KSuper:ESPF hypothesis+ (LG(C+ L6+ LC+ L2GC(+ 7)+ 7LGC+ --G()(+ ((-G5C+ 3)5+ 36(G3+ 36LG 7+ 36-G53+ 35LGC+ 352G-+ 3C(+ 3CL Suringar+ /' E'+ (56 Survival hypothesis+ L6+ LLG7+ 76+ 75GL+ (62G-+ (5)G53+ 3)5+ 3C(G5 Sutton+ ev' and Mrs S' &'+ 5)G53 .anner+ Amy E'+ 6L .elepathy+ see E;trasensory perception .ennyson+ A'+ C+ 2LG7 Huoted+ C+ 35C <327< .estimony+ problems of+ -G(6+ (23 K.estsF of survival+ 3C6G5 .homas+ C' %rayton L)GLC .hompson+ 4' #'+ (5-GLC K.hompson:GiffordF case >illus'?+ (5-G2C+ (2C .hompson+ Mrs '+ 6)+ ()6

.homson+ /' /'+ C .horarenson+ ev+ /'+ 73 .houless+ ' !'+ 3C6 .roubridge+ *na #ady+ -)G-( Ealiantine+ G'+ ()L Eerrall+ !' de G'+ see Salter+ !' de G' Eerrall+ Mrs M' de G' >illus'?+ 72+ 2)G2-+ -L+ -7G()( von &iesler+ Mrs+ 7CG7 &allace+ A' '+ C &atts+ G' 4'+ C &hymant+ "'+ ()L &ic9land+ C' A'+ (52 K&illettF+ Mrs+ see Coombe:.ennant+ Mrs &' &ilson+ I'+ ()CG7+ (C2+ (23 &ingfield+ 0ate+ C3G6+ (56 &ood+ 4' !'+ ()5 &riedt+ Mrs Etta+ 35+ ()L ,enoglossy+ ()(G()7+ (L-GC3+ (2(