Edc Study

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

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1. RESISTANCE

Coppers have many free electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and
substances such as glass, rubber, and mica have practically no free electron
movement therefore making good insulators. Between the extremes of good
conductors such as silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and rubber lay
other conductors of reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons
hence the term resistance.
Example: Circuit symbol:
Resistance in series and parallel:
It follows if two such pieces of wire were connected end to end (in series) then the
resistance would be doubled, on the other hand if they were placed side by side (in
parallel) then the resistance would be halved! This is a most important lesson about
resistance. Resistors in series add together as R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+..... While resistors in
parallel reduce by 1 / (1 / R
1
+ 1 / R
2
+ 1 / R
3
+ .....)
Consider three resistors of 10, 22, and 47 ohms respectively. Added in series we get
10 + 22 + 47 = 79 ohms. While in parallel we would get 1 / (1 / 10 + 1 / 22 + 1 / 47) =
5.997 ohms.

Ohms Law:

P = I * I * R that is, power equals the current squared times the resistance.
Consider our example above of the three resistors in series providing a total
resistance of 79 ohms. If these resistors were placed across a 24 volt power supply
then the amount of current flowing, from ohms law, is I = E / R = 24 / 79 = 0.304
amperes.
Common resistors in use in electronics today come in power ratings of 0.25W, 0.5W,
1W and 5W. Other special types are available to order. Because of precision
manufacturing processes it is possible to obtain resistors in the lower wattage
ratings, which are quite close in tolerance of their designated values. Typical of this
type are the .25W range which exhibit a tolerance of plus / minus 2% of the value.


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Resistance color chart codes:
Here in this large color chart is the resistance color code - learn the sequence forever
-
BLACK, BROWN, RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, PURPLE, SILVER,
WHITE

Resistor values - the resistor color code:
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an Omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000 ,1 M = 1000000 .


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Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a
number as shown in the table. Most resistors have 4 bands:
The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this
may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm):
The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colors are used for the third band: gold, which means 0.1 and
silver which means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as
normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of color code):
The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the
precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390
resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390
- 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
A special color code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, and brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.


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Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are
rarely required.
Power Ratings of Resistors:
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually
the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor
high) a large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The
resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings
to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a
higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be
circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more
than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I R
or

P = V / R
Where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)
I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R =
10/27=3.7W.
COILS & INDUCTORS

Inductors are a type of passive electrical devices that are used to store energy from
magnetic fields and release it when needed. Together with chokes and capacitors,
inductors have helped to reduce the size of electrical devices by providing a compact
way to store power. Inductance measures the quantity of magnetic flux that is
produced by the current flowing through a coil. It is measured in units of Henries


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denoted by 'H'. Its value increases with the amount of current flowing and the number
of loops in the coil.
Energy Storage in Fields:
Capacitors store energy in the electric field between their plates, giving it up when
the capacitor is discharged and the electric field disappears. By making the field large
through thin dielectric layers of large dielectric constant, considerable energy can be
stored in a small volume. Capacitors are very useful circuit elements, as we have
seen. Values from a few pF to 0.01F are easily obtained at low cost. A capacitor,
basically, tries to maintain the voltage across it, supplying current to this end.
An inductor, on the other hand, stores energy in the magnetic field produced by the
current flowing through it. When the magnetic field collapses, its energy is given up,
sometimes appearing as a spark when a circuit is broken. An inductor tries to keep a
current flowing, providing the voltage necessary. The relation between voltage and
current in an inductor is V = L (dI/dt), or, in frequency domain, V = LI. If V is in volts,
I in amperes and t in seconds, L is in henries, H. Magnetic fields in air (space)
created by ordinary currents are very small, so it is difficult to store much energy this
way, and inductors are not common circuit elements, at least at low frequencies.
An inductance in a DC circuit that is switched should have a diode across it to carry
the surge when the current through it is suddenly switched off. If it is in an AC circuit,
a snubber consisting of a capacitor (say 0.1 F) and a small resistor (say 100) in
series is the best that can be done. If this is not arranged, whatever is doing the
switching will soon be dead.
At radio frequencies, say 100 kHz and above, even a small inductance will have a
reasonable reactance, so even air core inductances on the order of microhenries are
useful, especially in LC tuned circuits that offer the advantage of frequency selectivity
and resonance.
Magnetic Fields:
However, the great utility of magnetic fields at low frequencies is well-known, in
transformers and rotating machinery, all of which depends on magnetic fields, and on
the wonderful effect of iron in strengthening the magnetic fields that otherwise would
be feeble. The iron is actually another source of magnetic field that we call into action
by the weak fields produced by current-carrying windings. There is only one magnetic


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field, but it is usual to consider it in two parts: first, the fields produced mainly by
currents that is called H, and the total field called B. B is usually a function of H. In
space, they are proportional (since they are the same thing physically), but in
magnetic materials like iron the relation may be more complex.
Inductors are used to store energy for switched mode power supplies. The inductor is
operated for a certain fraction of the switching frequency and not energized for the
rest of the cycle. This ratio of energy transfer specifies the value of input and voltage
ratios. They are used as reactors in electrical power transmission systems to depress
the voltage and confine the fault current. Inductors are bigger and weigh more than
similar devices, so solid state networks use only small inductors while using gyrator
circuits for higher requirements.

The inductor has as a coil of copper conductors wound around a central core. When
current is passed through the coil a magnetic flux is created around the coil due to
the properties of electromotive force. The resistance increases when a core is placed
in the coil and this increases the inductance by hundreds of times. The core can be
made of different materials but cores made of ferrite produce the maximum
inductance. The current to voltage lag is 90but with the use of resistive substance a
resistive and inductive circuit is formed, the phase angle lag becomes smaller and is
based on the frequency that is constant.

Inductance is the circuit's resistance to change in current. Inductance tolerance is the
amount of variation that is permitted within the nominal value. The frequency for
which the distributed capacitance starts resonating with the inductance and canceling
the capacitance is called the self-resonant frequency or SRF. At SRF, the inductor
works as a high impedance, resistive element. Quality factor (Q value) is the
measure of relative losses of the inductor and is expressed as capacitive resistance
divided by the equivalent serial resistance.

Some applications of inductors include:

Blocking out noise, unwanted frequencies and reducing hum in radio
broadcasting stations and equipment - When used in conjunction with
capacitors
DC filtering - When used as chokes in power supplies to remove hum and
other types of fluctuations from the DC output
Removing radio frequency (RF) interference - When used as filters


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Small and compact transformers with 400-Hz cycle AC current frequency for
aircraft - When utilizing their coupled magnetic flux.

Symbol used to denote an inductor

The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount
of work required to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the
magnetic field.Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal
processing. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form
tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. This can
range from the use of large inductors as chokes in power supplies, which in
conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hum or other fluctuations from the
direct current output, to such small inductances as generated by a ferrite bead or
torus around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted
down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in
radio reception and broadcasting.
A voltage is induced in any winding that links the flux in the toroid. As long as the
circuit is not closed, it is just a voltage, and no energy is transferred. However, when
we close the circuit, current flows, energy is transferred, and there is a reaction due
to the current in this secondary winding. This is, of course, a transformer, a device
that is treated in more detail elsewhere. Transformers are much better than
capacitors for coupling amplifier stages. There is absolutely no disturbance to the
bias, and impedance can be transformed by choosing the number of turns properly, a
joy that capacitors do not supply.


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The changing flux also induces voltages in any conductors that happen to be around,
not just in windings. The result is eddy currents in a magnetic material that also
happens to be electrically conducting, such as iron. In power frequency machines,
eddy currents are greatly reduced by laminating the magnetic material, and insulating
the lamina from each other. This becomes useless at radio frequencies, so different
core materials must be sought. One is powdered iron, formed together in an
insulating matrix, and another is ferrite, a magnetic material like iron, but one with
very low electrical conductivity. These materials are not as good magnetically as iron,
but have reasonably low losses even at much higher frequencies, and extend the
range of utility of high permeability materials to radio frequencies.
Testing coil is very easy compares to checking three leads components such as
SCR, FET and etc. In general, a coil consists of many turns or wire wrapped around
a common core. The core could be made of iron or even air. When an electric current
passes through the coil, a magnetic field is produced. A coil in some respect s acts
just opposite a capacitor. A capacitor blocks DC while allowing AC to flow through it;
a coil allows DC to flow through it while restricting AC current flow. Another name for
a coil is an inductor.
CAPACITORS
Function:
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.
Capacitance:
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means
that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
means 10
-6
(millionth), so 1000000F = 1F
n means 10
-9
(thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F


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p means 10
-12
(million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of
capacitor with different labeling systems. There are many types of capacitor but they
can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own
circuit symbol.
Polarized capacitors (large values, 1F +):

Examples: Circuit symbol:

Electrolytic Capacitors:

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by
heat when soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached
to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10F in picture).
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F):
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type


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(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you
need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be. For example 0.1
means 0.1F = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code:
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
The 1st number is the 1st digit,
The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor Color Code:

A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but
of course there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor
code, the top three-color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band
(tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). For example: brown, black, orange
means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. Note that there are no gaps between the color
bands; so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band.

Color Code
Color Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9


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Variable capacitors:
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes
called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically
between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has
trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main
variable capacitor.

Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes
called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically
between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has
trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main
variable capacitor.

Variable Capacitor
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the
standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to
check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor. Variable
capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too
small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing
circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time
period.
Trimmer capacitors:
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed
to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is
built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of
adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will
slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer. Trimmer
capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF.


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It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by
their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.

Trimmer Capacitor Symbol Trimmer Capacitor

POTENTIOMETERS (VARIABLE RESISTORS)
Construction:
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a
wiper, which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called
sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up
circuits, which will not require further adjustment. Variable resistors are often called
potentiometers. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or
logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. The
resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.

Linear (LIN) track:
Means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. This is
the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project
does not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.
Logarithmic (LOG) track:
Means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the
other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This
arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a
logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low


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volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to
connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the
spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should
swap the connections to the ends of the track.
Rheostat:
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one
connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the
spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the
maximum resistance. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control
the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.

Potentiometer:
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This
arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point
of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the
terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the
wiper terminal will provide a voltage, which can be varied from zero up to the
maximum of the supply.

Presets:
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to
be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-
sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets.
Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes
used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Rheostat Symbol

Potentiometer Symbol

Preset Symbol


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Multiturn presets:
These are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be
turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other,
giving very fine control.

SWITCHES
Selecting a Switch:
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts:
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.

Preset
(open style)
Presets
(closed style)
Multiturn preset

Circuit symbol for a
simple on-off switch


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For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.
Switch Contact Ratings:
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be
different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls
to zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch
contacts. For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but
you may need to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive
loads (coils and motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when
switched off.

a) Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) ON-ON:
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case.
It is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position. A SPDT
toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch by connecting to COM and one
of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so
switches are usually not labeled.

Circuit Symbol SPDT toggle switch
b) SPDT Center Off (ON-OFF-ON):

A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third switching position in the
center, which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available where
the switch returns to the central off position when released.


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SPDT center off switch
c) Double Pole Double Through (DPDT) Switch:
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case.
It is often called a changeover switch. For example, a DPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position.

DPDT slide switch
DIP Switch (Dual In-line Parallel):
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches; the example shown has 8 switches.
The package is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code of a remote control.
RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field, which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The
coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit,
which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery
circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical
connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and
mechanical.


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The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current; typically 30mA for a 12V relay,
but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages.
Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to
amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The
maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can
supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT
but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets
of changeover contacts are readily available. Most relays are designed for PCB
mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to
avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The supplier's catalogue should show you
the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way
round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and
this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must
connect a protection diode across the relay coil. There is one set of contacts (SPDT)
in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
CONNECT TO COM AND NC IF YOU WANT THE SWITCHED CIRCUIT TO BE ON
WHEN THE RELAY COIL IS OFF.
Choosing a relay:
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this
information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering


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the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V
relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a
supply voltage, which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You
can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance

4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a
current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current
200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to
amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.


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BREAD BOARDS
Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and components are simply pushed into
the holes to form a completed circuit and power can be applied. One of the main
advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not soldered and if
they are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the
board. On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite, letters are used to identify
vertical columns and numbers to identify horizontal rows.

The red lines on diagram 2 show how some vertical columns and horizontal rows are
internally connected. When power is applied to the breadboard current flows along
these internal connections.

Diagram 3 shows how a 380-ohm resistor and an LED are setup on a breadboard.
When a 9 Volt battery is attached the LED lights. Try replacing the resistor with a
higher value such as a 680-ohm resistor. The resistance will be greater and the LED
should shine less bright.


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2. PN JUNCTION DIODE
Introduction:
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as such:

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage:

When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is
"backward" and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A
diode may be thought of as a kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and
"open" when reverse-biased.
Meter check of a diode:
Being able to determine the polarity (cathode versus anode) and basic functionality of
a diode is a very important skill for the electronics hobbyist or technician to have.
Since we know that a diode is essentially nothing more than a one-way valve for
electricity, it makes sense we should be able to verify its one-way nature using a DC
(battery-powered) ohmmeter. Connected one way across the diode, the meter should
show a very low resistance. Connected the other way across the diode, it should
show a very high resistance.


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In order to determine which end of the diode is the cathode and which is the anode,
you must know with certainty which test lead of the meter is positive (+) and which is
negative (-) when set to the "resistance" or "" function.


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TRANSISTORS

Function:

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output
current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage. A transistor may
be used as a switch and as an amplifier. The amount of current amplification is called
the current gain, symbol h
FE
.

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to
use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).A
bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or N-P-N. Each layer forming the transistor
has a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact for connection to
a circuit. Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two
transistor types:


24

The only functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the
proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating. For any given state of
operation, the current directions and voltage polarities for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite each other. Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators. In other words, they restrict the amount of current that can go through
them according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled
goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of
transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). The small current that controls the main
current goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again depending on
the type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to the confusing
standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points against the direction
of electron flow:
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of electrons through them
takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main current
goes from emitter to collector (or visa-versa). In other words, two types of charge
carriers -- electrons and holes -- comprise this main current through the transistor.
Identification of terminals in a transistor:


25
Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478:
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second
letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means
high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the
code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering
system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special
version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If
a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general
code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.

h
FE
: This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum
value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for
those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The
gain is often quoted at a particular collector current I
C
which is usually in the middle of
the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at
20mA.


26
Meter check of a transistor:
Bipolar transistors are constructed of a three-layer semiconductor "sandwich," either
PNP or NPN. As such, they register as two diodes connected back-to-back when
tested with a multimeter's "resistance" or "diode check" functions:


27

Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with both
PN junctions facing the other way. If a multimeter with a "diode check" function is
used in this test, it will be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly
greater forward voltage drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage
difference is due to the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and
collector regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped piece of
semiconductor material than the collector, causing its junction with the base to
produce a higher forward voltage drop.
JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR
Field-effect transistors are unipolar rather than bipolar devices. That is, the main
current through them is comprised either of electrons through an N-type
semiconductor or holes through a P-type semiconductor. This becomes more evident
when a physical diagram of the device is seen:


28

In a junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, the controlled current passes from source
to drain, or from drain to source as the case may be. The controlling voltage is
applied between the gate and source. Note how the current does not have to cross
through a PN junction on its way between source and drain: the path (called a
channel) is an uninterrupted block of semiconductor material. In the image just
shown, this channel is an N-type semiconductor. P-type channel JFETs are also
manufactured:

Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The only
practical difference between N- and P-channel JFETs is biasing of the PN junction
formed between the gate material and the channel. With no voltage applied between
gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to flow. However, if a
voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-biases the
PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current.


29
Maximum gate-source voltage "pinches off" all current through source and drain, thus
forcing the JFET into cutoff mode.With the gate-source PN junction reverse-biased,
there should be nearly zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we
classify the JFET as a voltage-controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a
current-controlled device. If the gate-source PN junction is forward-biased with a
small voltage, the JFET channel will "open" a little more to allow greater currents
through.
Meter check of a JFET:
Testing a JFET with a multimeter might seem to be a relatively easy task, seeing as
how it has only one PN junction to test: either measured between gate and source, or
between gate and drain.


30

MOSFET
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET) is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both digital and analog
circuits. The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor
material (see article on semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an
NMOSFET or a PMOSFET (also commonly nMOSFET, pMOSFET).
The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate
material is now a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon; why polysilicon is used
will be explained below). Previously aluminium was used as the gate material until
the 1980s when polysilicon became dominant, owing to its capability to form self-
aligned gates.


31
To overcome power consumption increase due to gate current leakage, high-
dielectric is replacing silicon dioxide as the gate insulator, and metal gates are
making a comeback by replacing polysilicon (see Intel announcement
[1]
).
IGFET is a related, more general term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor,
and is almost synonymous with MOSFET, though it can refer to FETs with a gate
insulator that is not oxide. Some prefer to use "IGFET" when referring to devices with
polysilicon gates, but most still call them MOSFETs.
Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers, most
notably IBM, have begun to use a mixture of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in
MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical
properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-
insulator interfaces and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. However there continues
to be research on how to create insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics
on other semiconductor material.
The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer of what was
traditionally silicon dioxide, but more advanced technologies used silicon oxynitride.
Some companies have started to introduce a high- dielectric + metal gate
combination in the 45 nanometer node.
When a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, the electric field
generated penetrates through the oxide and creates a so-called "inversion layer" or
channel at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion channel is of the
same type P-type or N-type as the source and drain, so it provides a conduit
through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and body
modulates the conductivity of this layer and makes it possible to control the current
flow between drain and source.
A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line
for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending
back into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes three line segments are
used for enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion mode. Another line is
drawn parallel to the channel for the gate.
The bulk connection, if shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel with an
arrow indicating PMOS or NMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an NMOS (N-


32
channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the arrow pointing in. If the bulk is connected to
the source (as is generally the case with discrete devices) it is angled to meet up with
the source leaving the transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC
design as they are generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used
to indicate PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the drain may be used in the same way
as for bipolar transistors (out for NMOS in for PMOS).

P-channel

N-channel
JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of
charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a P-type semiconductor (with N
A
the
density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = N
A
in neutral bulk), a positive voltage,
V
GB
, from gate to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively
charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving
exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions. See
doping (semiconductor). If V
GB
is high enough, a high concentration of negative
charge carriers forms in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to the interface
between the semiconductor and the insulator. (Unlike the MOSFET, discussed
below, where the inversion layer electrons are supplied rapidly from the source/drain
electrodes, in the MOS capacitor they are produced much more slowly by thermal
generation through carrier generation and recombination centers in the depletion
region.) Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in
the inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called
the threshold voltage.
A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the
modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body electrode


33
and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device
regions by an oxide. The MOSFET includes two additional terminals (source and
drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the
body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the
same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The highly doped source and
drain regions typically are denoted by a '+' following the type of doping. The body is
not highly doped, as denoted by the lack of a '+' sign.
If the MOSFET is an n-channel or NMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'n+'
regions and the body is a 'p' region. As described above, with sufficient gate voltage,
above a threshold voltage value, electrons from the source (and possibly also the
drain) enter the inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region
and the oxide. This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain,
and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between source and
drain.
For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and
only a very small sub threshold leakage current can flow between the source and the
drain.
If the MOSFET is a p-channel or PMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'p+'
regions and the body is a 'n' region. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive
source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region,
analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and
voltages. When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage
for p-Channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only
a very small sub threshold current can flow between the source and the drain.
The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for
n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is
where the charge carriers leave the channel.
POWER TRANSISTORS
A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large power. Compared to the other power
semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main advantages are high
commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an


34
isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. The power MOSFET is the most widely
used low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power
supplies, DC to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers.

When in the OFF-state, the power MOSFET is equivalent to a PIN diode (constituted
by the P
+
diffusion, the N
-
epitaxial layer and the N
+
substrate). When this highly non-
symmetrical structure is reverse-biased, the space-charge region extends principally
on the light-dopped side, i.e over the N
-
layer. This means that this layer has to
withstand most of the MOSFET's OFF-state drain-to-source voltage.
However, when the MOSFET is in the ON-state, this N
-
layer has no function.
Furthermore, as it is a lightly-doped region, its intrinsic resistivity is non-negligible
and adds to the MOSFET's ON-state Drain-to-Source Resistance
Because of their unipolar nature, the power MOSFET can switch at very high speed.
Indeed, there is no need to remove minority carriers as with bipolar devices. The only
intrinsic limitation in commutation speed is due to the internal capacitances of the
MOSFET .These capacitances must be charged or discharged when the transistor
switches. This can be a relatively slow process because the current that flows
through the gate capacitances is limited by the external driver circuit.
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in
quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency
radiant energy whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy
level. This is the same principle at work in a neon lamp, the characteristic pink-
orange glow of ionized neon due to the specific energy transitions of its electrons in


35
the midst of an electric current. The unique color of a neon lamp's glow is due to the
fact that it's neon gas inside the tube, and not due to the particular amount of current
through the tube or voltage between the two electrodes. Neon gas glows pinkish-
orange over a wide range of ionizing voltages and currents. Each chemical element
has its own signature emission of radiant energy when its electrons jump between
different, quantized energy levels. Hydrogen gas, for example, glows red when
ionized; mercury vapor glows blue. This is what makes spectrographic identification
of elements possible.

Electrons flowing through a PN junction experience similar transitions in energy level,
and emit radiant energy as they do so. The frequency of this radiant energy is
determined by the crystal structure of the semiconductor material, and the elements
comprising it. Some semiconductor junctions, composed of special chemical
combinations, emit radiant energy within the spectrum of visible light as the electrons
change energy levels. Simply put, these junctions glow when forward biased. A diode
intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Forward biased silicon diodes give off heat as electron and holes from the N-type
and P-type regions, respectively, recombine at the junction. In a forward biased LED,
the recombination of electrons and holes in the active region in Figure below (c)
yields photons. This process is known as electro luminescence. To give off photons,
the potential barrier through which the electrons fall must be higher than for a silicon
diode. The forward diode drop can range to a few volts for some color LEDs.
The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two
small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.


36

(a) Schematic symbol. (b) Short lead of device corresponds to cathode.
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is
common to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices.
Conversely, if a device is light activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates
it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointing toward it. LEDs can sense
light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a solar cell
on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of light-
sensing circuits.

A Selection Of The Most Popular
Colors
Enlarged Led - Notice The Long
And Short Leg

LCD

A liquid crystal is an intermediary substance between a liquid and solid state of
matter. The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules along grooves. When
coming into contact with grooved surface in a fixed direction, liquid crystal molecules
line up parallelly along the grooves.

Natural state


37
When liquid crystals are sandwiched between upper and lower plates, they line-up
with grooves pointing in directions 'a' and 'b,' respectively

Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement

The light also "twists" as it passes through the twisted liquid crystals. Molecules
rearrange themselves when voltage is applied. When voltage is applied to the liquid
crystal structure, the twisted light passes straight through.


38
Blocking light with two polarizing filters

When voltage is applied to a combination of two polarizing filters and twisted liquid
crystal, it becomes a LCD display.

Light passes when two polarizing filters are arranged with polarizing axes as shown
above, left. Light is blocked when two polarizing filters are arranged with polarizing
axes as shown above, right. A combination of polarizing filters and twisted liquid
crystal creates a liquid crystal display.
Display principles:
Displaying letters, numbers and graphics are based on the following three display
methods:
1.Segment system
Long display units are arranged to form a figure '8' to display
numbers.

2. Dot matrix system (character display)
Display units are arranged in rows and columns to form
characters.


39
3. Dot matrix system (graphics display)
Display units are arranged in rows and columns to depict
graphics.

OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Photo Diode:
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current
or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular
semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV
or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fibre connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a
photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.
Principle of operation:
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a
positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion
region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode:
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the
device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and
"dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the
photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the the photovoltaic effect, which is the
basis for solar cellsin fact, a solar cell is just an array of large photodiodes.
Photoconductive mode:
In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased. This increases the
width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in


40
faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current
(known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent
remains virtually the same.
Although this mode is faster, the photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit less electronic
noise (The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low < 1nA that the
JohnsonNyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.)

Avalanche photodiodes:
They have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with
much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied
by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which
increases the effective responsitivity of the device.
Phototransistors:
They consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in essence
nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that
light can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by
photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is
amplified by the transistor operation. Note that although phototransistors have a
higher responsivity for light they are unable to detect low levels of light any better
than photodiodes. Phototransistors also have slower response times.
Applications of Photo diodes:
1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors,
such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc
players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and
televisions.
3. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones
that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are
often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be
used.


41
4. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in
science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response
than photoconductors.
5. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to
analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in blood gas monitors.
6. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction
diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting
regulation.
7. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light
intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche
photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes
are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision
equipment and laser range finding.
Photo Resistor:
A photo resistor or LDR is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent
resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell.
A photo resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. A
photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor
has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, eg. silicon. In
intrinsic devices, the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the
photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap.
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a ground state energy closer to
the conduction band since the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy
photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms
(impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example
of an extrinsic semiconductor.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells
can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios,


42
security alarms, street lights and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some
dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode
to control gain reduction. Lead- and indium antimonite-LDR are used for the mid
infrared spectral region. At the other end of the scale, Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy
and infrared spectroscopy. Continues power dissipation is 80mW and the Maximum
voltage which can be applied to its 100V.
Opto Coupler:

An opto-isolator (or optical isolator, opto coupler, photo coupler, or photoMOS) is a
device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between
elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them
electrically isolated since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an optical
signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.

THE SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application. Their
usefulness may be expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of
latching. In doing so, they become true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off mode),
and we refer to them as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs. The progression from
Shockley diode to SCR is achieved with one small addition, actually nothing more
than a third wire connection to the existing PNPN structure:


43
If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley
diode. It may be latched by break over voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of
voltage rise between anode and cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is
accomplished by reducing current until one or both internal transistors fall into cutoff
mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because the gate terminal connects
directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an alternative means to
latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower
transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so
that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current
to initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR
from cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification.
This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most
common way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually
chosen so that their break over voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to
be experienced from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an
intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate. It should be mentioned that SCRs may
sometimes be turned off by directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals
together, or by "reverse-triggering" the gate with a negative voltage (in reference to
the cathode), so that the lower transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is
"sometimes" possible because it involves shunting all of the upper transistor's
collector current past the lower transistor's base. This current may be substantial,
making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best. A variation of the SCR, called a
Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task easier. But even with a GTO, the
gate current required to turn it off may be as much as 20% of the anode (load)
current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the following illustration:


44
SCRs and GTOs share the same equivalent schematics (two transistors connected
in a positive-feedback fashion), the only differences being details of construction
designed to grant the NPN transistor a greater than the PNP. This allows a smaller
gate current (forward or reverse) to exert a greater degree of control over conduction
from cathode to anode, with the PNP transistor's latched state being more dependent
upon the NPN's than vice versa. The Gate-Turn-Off thyristor is also known by the
name of Gate-Controlled Switch, or GCS.
Meter check of SCR:

Identification of the MT
1
and MT
2
terminals must be done via the TRIAC's part
number with reference to a data sheet or book.
A TRIAC acts much like two SCRs connected back-to-back for bi-
directional (AC) operation.
TRIAC controls are more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than
complex, high-power circuits. In large power control circuits, multiple SCRs
tend to be favored.
When used to control AC power to a load, TRIACs are often accompanied
by DIACs connected in series with their gate terminals. The DIAC helps
the TRIAC fire more symmetrically (more consistently from one polarity to
another).


45
Main terminals 1 and 2 on a TRIAC are not interchangeable.
To successfully trigger a TRIAC, gate current must come from the main
terminal 2 (MT
2
) side of the circuit.
All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show "open" ("OL" on
some digital multi meter displays). It must be understood that this test is very crude
and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is possible for
an SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective. Ultimately, the only
way to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
If you are using a multi meter with a "diode check" function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to what's expected of
a silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a much
lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal resistor
connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs. This
resistor is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by spurious
voltage spikes, from circuit "noise" or from static electric discharge. In other words,
having a resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires that a strong
triggering signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR. This feature is
often found in larger SCRs, not on small SCRs.
UNI - JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
A Uni-junction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device.There are two
types of uni-junction transistor:
The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is
essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
has been diffused somewhere along its length.

Circuit symbol


46

The Uni Junction Transistor has only one junction, hence the name: 'Uni Junction
transistor. The UJT has three terminals. The terminals are emitter (E) and two bases
(B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic
contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily
doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called
inter base resistance. The very basic specifications of a UJT are:
(a) V
bb
(max) - The maximum inter base voltage that can be applied to the UJT
(b) R
bb
-the inter base resistance of the UJT
(c) n - The intrinsic standoff ratio that defines V
p
.
(d) I
p
- The peak point emitter current
The uni junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device with characteristics very
different from the conventional 2 junctions, bipolar transistor. It is a pulse generator
with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of inter base voltage, V
bb
. The UJT circuit symbol, junction schematic, and
characteristic curve are shown below.

The emitter terminal does not inject current into the base region until its voltage
reaches V
p
. Once V
p
is reached the base circuit conducts and a positive pulse
appears at the B1 terminal and a negative pulse at B2. The UJT incorporates a
negative resistance region, a low emitter current, and a high output pulse current at
terminals B1 and B2, making it an ideal pulse trigger. A simple RC timer circuit using
a UJT is shown below.


47

DIAC
Like all diodes, Shockley diodes are unidirectional devices; that is, they only conduct
current in one direction. If bidirectional (AC) operation is desired, two Shockley
diodes may be joined in parallel facing different directions to form a new kind of
thyristor, the DIAC:

A DIAC operated with a DC voltage across it behaves exactly the same as a
Shockley diode. With AC, however, the behavior is different from what one might
expect. Because alternating current repeatedly reverses direction, DIACs will not stay
latched longer than one-half cycle. If a DIAC becomes latched, it will continue to
conduct current only as long as there is voltage available to push enough current in
that direction. When the AC polarity reverses, as it must twice per cycle, the DIAC
will drop out due to insufficient current, necessitating another break over before it
conducts again. The result is a current waveform that looks like this:


48

DIACs are almost never used alone, but in conjunction with other thyristor devices.

TRIAC
SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for
controlling DC only. If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like
two Shockley diodes were joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device
known as the TRIAC:

Because individual SCRs are more flexible to use in advanced control systems, they
are more commonly seen in circuits like motor drives, while TRIACs are usually seen
in simple, low-power applications like household dimmer switches. A simple lamp
dimmer circuit is shown here, complete with the phase-shifting resistor-capacitor
network necessary for after-peak firing.


49

DIAC break over voltages tend to be much more symmetrical (the same in one
polarity as the other) than TRIAC triggering voltage thresholds. Since the DIAC
prevents any gate current until the triggering voltage has reached a certain,
repeatable level in either direction, the firing point of the TRIAC from one half-cycle to
the next tends to be more consistent, and the waveform more symmetrical above and
below its centerline.

LINEAR & DIGITAL ICS

Integrated circuits (ICs) are chips, or small electronic devices found in practically
every type of application and machine, including microprocessors, audio/video
equipment, automobiles, etc. Most modern integrated circuits require both analog
(linear) and digital processing.


50

3. SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However,
soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation
and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a
good.

1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not
past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good joint.
The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but generally they
should look clean and not burnt.

2. A PCB eraser is used to remove any film from the tracks. This must be done
carefully because the film will prevent good soldering of the components to the PCB.
The tracks can be checked using a magnifying glass. If there are gaps in the tracks,
sometimes they can be repaired using wire but usually a new PCB has to be etched.


51

3. Place the PCB, with its components in position, in the bull clip. This will steady the
PCB when you try to use the soldering iron.

4. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the
component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be
applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track.

5. Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need
to be trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.


52

4. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBS)
Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the
components are placed. They are designed specially for each circuit and make
construction very easy. Electronics Club members will receive an etched PCB that
will need cleaning and drilling before soldering.

Cleaning and Drilling a PCB ready for Soldering:
1. Clean off the protective coating from the PCB using a PCB rubber or steel
wool so that all the copper tracks are bright and shiny. The PCB rubber has
grit in it to make it very abrasive. In fact the coating can be left on and it
should melt away around the joints as you solder, but in the Electronics Club
we have generally had better results by removing the coating.
2. Drill the holes with a 1mm diameter bit. This is easiest with a proper electric
PCB drill in a stand, but a hand-held miniature electric drill can be used if you
take care to avoid twisting and snapping the small drill bit. Wear safety
spectacles. A hand-drill is not suitable for such small bits unless you are very
skilled.
3. A few may holes may need to be larger, for example preset resistors usually
need a 1.5mm diameter hole. It is simplest to re-drill these special holes
afterwards.
4. Check carefully to make sure you find all the holes.


53
5. MULTI METERS
Multi meters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on
the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an
ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and
the choice of AC or DC. Some multi meters have additional features such as
transistor testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
Choosing a multi meter:
A digital multi meter is the best choice for your first multi meter; even the cheapest
will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analog multi meter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V
or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The
sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value
(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one.
Beware of cheap analog multi meters sold for electrical work on cars because their
sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multi meters:

All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtually no power
from the circuit under test. This means that on their DC voltage ranges they have a
very high resistance (usually called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M ,
and they are very unlikely to affect the circuit under test.

Digital Multi meter


54

Typical ranges for digital multi meters like the one illustrated: (the values given are
the maximum reading on each range).
DC Voltage: 200mV, 2000mV, 20V, 200V, 600V.
AC Voltage: 200V, 600V.
DC Curent: 200A, 2000A, 20mA, 200mA, 10A*.
*The 10A range is usually unused and connected via a special socket.
AC Current: None
Resistance: 200 , 2000 , 20k , 200k , 2000k , Diode Test.
Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges
cannot be used to test diodes and other semiconductors.

Analog multi meters:
Analog meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the circuit
under test and give an incorrect reading. See the section below on sensitivity for
more details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last
several years but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in
case the leads touch accidentally and run the battery flat.
Typical ranges for analog multi meters like the one illustrated:
(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)
DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
DC Current: 50A, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each range.


55

Sensitivity of an analog multi meter:
On any DC voltage range:
Analog Meter Resistance = Sensitivity Max. reading of range
e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of 20k /V
10V = 200k .
Digital multi meters have a constant resistance of at least 1M (often 10M ) on all
their DC voltage ranges. This is more than enough for almost all circuits.
Measuring voltage and current with a multi meter:
1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analog meter may
be damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a higher
range.
Precautions:

Always disconnect the multi meter before adjusting the range switch.
Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
Never leave a multi meter set to a current range (except when actually taking
a reading). The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the
meter has a low resistance.
Measuring resistance with a multi meter:
To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a
circuit:
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated
separately:


56

Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multi meter:
1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance to
be. Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except
for a 1 on the left). It is correct - the resistance of air is very high
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and
try again.
3. Put the probes across the component. Avoid touching more than one contact
at a time or your resistance will upset the reading!
Measuring resistance with an ANALOG multi meter:
The resistance scale on an analog meter is normally at the top, it is an unusual scale
because it reads backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced). This is unfortunate,
but it is due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range. Choose a range so that the
resistance you expect will be near the middle of the scale. For example: with
the scale shown below and an expected resistance of about 50k choose the
1k range.
2. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of the
meter which is usually labeled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero (on the
RIGHT remember).
If you can't adjust it to read zero, the battery inside the meter needs replacing.
3. Put the probes across the component. Avoid touching more than one contact
at a time or your resistance will upset the reading.
Testing a diode with a multi meter:
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated
separately:


57

Testing a diode with a DIGITAL multi meter:

Digital multi meters have a special setting for testing a diode, usually labeled
with the diode symbol.
Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the
meter will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).
Testing a diode with an ANALOG multi meter:
Set the analog multi meter to a low value resistance range such as 10.
It is essential to note that the polarity of analog multi meter leads is reversed
on the resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and the red lead is
negative (-)! This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The diode
should conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the exact value is
not relevant).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the
meter will show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).

Diodes
a = anode
k = cathode


58
Testing a transistor with a multi meter:

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to
generate electrical waveforms.
Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all
of its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging
a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or
descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the
charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear
triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different
frequencies may be obtained.
A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is
being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's
output. Most function generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that
can convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by


59
rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in
audio systems.
The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the
generator. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and
uses a BNC connector, usually requiring a 50 or 75 ohm termination. Specialised RF
generators are capable of gigahertz frequencies and typically use N-type output
connectors.
Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by
means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits.
This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given
electronic circuit.
REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES

A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is one
where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to you requirements. Varying
the output of the power supply is the recommended way to test a project after having
double checked parts placement against circuit drawings and the parts placement
guide. This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power
supply. Actually I think this is quite important because one of the first projects a
hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a bench supply. While a dedicated
supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V, it's much handier to have a variable supply on
hand, especially for testing.
Types of Power Supply:
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage
AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other
devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which
performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:


60

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:
Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram
and a graph of their output:
Transformer only
Transformer + Rectifier
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Dual Supplies:

Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative outputs as
well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary
supplies connected together as shown in the diagram.
Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a 9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V
outputs.


61

Transformer only:

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is
not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing
capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier:

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing:

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.


62

Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator:

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic
circuits.


63
6. CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Objective:
To learn how to operate a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
Apparatus:
Cathode-ray oscilloscope, multi meter, and oscillator.
Definition:

An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the
waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the
instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time. A typical oscilloscope can display
alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct current (DC) waveforms having a
frequency as low as approximately
Introduction:
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that
provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide
range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as
a general-purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube
shown schematically in Fig. 1.


64

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons, which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of
the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair
of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one
pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to
as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever
the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from
that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points
or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam
vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to
the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally
at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus
displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform
time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use
of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage
output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application
of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the


65
horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube
face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end
of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of
the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the
unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each
cycle of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the
two deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to
remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the
fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron
beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation:
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the
instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the
CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as
a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a
selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep
generator, initiating the saw tooth waveform. The saw tooth wave is amplified by the
horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional
provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60
Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external
signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.


66
CRO Controls:
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating
conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these
controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT):
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of
the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
fluorescent screen
Y plates
X plates
electron gun
anode
cathode
electron beam


67

Basic operation:
Before doing the experiments you should adjust the controls for focus, brilliance, X
and Y shift until you have a dot in the middle of the screen. The simplified diagram
above shows the inside of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
Vertical Amplifier Section:
Position:
Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity:
Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity:
Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps. Normally
the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise
position.
AC-DC-GND:
Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or
grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.
Horizontal-Sweep Section:
Sweep time/cm:
Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to
horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable:
Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.


68
Horizontal Variable:
Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal amplifier through
Ext. Horiz. Connector.
Trigger:
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope:
Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of
trigger signal.
Coupling:
Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source:
Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT-(internal)-from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60-cycle trigger
Level:
Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also
allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).
Connections For The Oscilloscope:
Vertical Input:
A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier.
The lower jack is grounded to the case.


69

Horizontal Input:
A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower
terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Trigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out:
Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mill volts for use in
calibrating the gain of the amplifiers. Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%.
Sensitivity is variable. Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of
sweep is variable.
Operating Instructions:
Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the centre of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the centre of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into standard ac wall receptacles (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do
not advance the Intensity Control. Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two
minutes, and then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
Switch on your oscilloscope and adjust the controls to give a straight line across the
centre of the screen. The Y gain should be set at 1V / division and the time base set
at 1 ms / division,
1. Connect one 1.5 V cell to the Y inputs and adjust the Y gain, if necessary,
so that the line moves up 1.5 divisions.
2. Now connect two cells and then three cells. Record the line deflection each
time.
3. Reverse the leads and repeat number two.


70
4. Now connect the 1 V ac supply from the high current power supply (Extra
low voltage supply or Westminster power supply) to the Y inputs. If the
signal source and oscilloscope both have earthed terminals make sure that
the earthed lead of the oscilloscope (often black) is connected to the
earthed terminal of the supply (often yellow), or you will short out the signal
generator through the CRO. Record the size and shape of the trace. Repeat
with the 2 V ac input and then the dc input, recording the trace each time.
Precautions:
An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and expensive)
vacuum tube.

Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these
remain for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt
to examine the inside of an oscilloscope.

Construction of a co-axial lead

Oscilloscope lead and probes kit


71

Setting up an oscilloscope:
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some
care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if
controls are set wrongly. There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of
the many controls so the following instructions may need to be adapted for your
instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.

This is what you should see
after setting up, when there
is no input signal connected

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