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Charles DARWIN
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Causes of Variability
Unconscious Selection
Individual Differences
Doubtful Species
Summary
Finally, varieties cannot be distinguished from species,-
except, first, by the discovery of intermediate linking
forms; and, secondly, by a certain indefinite amount of
difference between them; for two forms, if differing very
little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding
that they cannot be closely connected; but the amount of
difference considered necessary to give to any two forms
the rank of species cannot be defined. In genera having
more than the average number of species in any country,
the species of these genera have more than the average
number of varieties. In large genera the species are apt to
be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little
clusters round other species. Species very closely allied to
other species apparently have restricted ranges. In all these
respects the species of large genera present a strong
analogy with varieties. And we can clearly understand
these analogies, if species once existed as varieties, and
thus originated; whereas, these analogies are utterly
inexplicable if species are independent creations.
We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing or
dominant species of the larger genera within each class
which on an average yield the greatest number of
varieties; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to
become converted into new and distinct species. Thus the
larger genera tend to become larger; and throughout
nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to
become still more dominant by leaving many modified
and dominant descendants. But by steps hereafter to be
explained, the larger genera also tend to break u into
smaller genera. And thus, the forms of life throughout the
universe become divided into groups subordinate to
groups.
CHAPTER III
Divergence of Character
Convergence of Character
Summary of Chapter
LAWS OF VARIATION
Acclimatisation
Correlated Variation
Modes of Transition
INSTINCT
Special Instincts
Summary
HYBRIDISM
Summary of Chapter
First crosses between forms, sufficiently distinct to be
ranked as species, and their hybrids, are very generally,
but not universally, sterile. The sterility is of all degrees,
and is often so slight that the most careful
experimentalists have arrived at diametrically opposite
conclusions in ranking forms by this test. The sterility is
innately variable in individuals of the same species, and
is eminently susceptible to the action of favourable and
unfavourable conditions. The degree of sterility does not
strictly follow systematic affinity, but is governed by
several curious and complex laws. It is generally different,
and sometimes widely different in reciprocal crosses
between the same two species. It is not always equal in
degree in a first cross and in the hybrids produced from
this cross.
In the same manner as in grafting trees, the capacity in
one species or variety to take on another, is incidental on
differences, generally of an unknown nature, in their
vegetative systems, so in crossing, the greater or less
facility of one species to unite with another is incidental
on unknown differences in their reproductive systems.
There is no more reason to think that species have been
specially endowed with various degrees of sterility to
prevent their crossing and blending in nature, than to
think that trees have been specially endowed with various
and somewhat analogous degrees of difficulty in being
grafted together in order to prevent their inarching in our
forests.
The sterility of first crosses and of their hybrid progeny
has not been acquired through natural selection. In the
case of first crosses it seems to depend on several
circumstances; in some instances in chief part on the early
death of the embryo. In the case of hybrids, it apparently
depends on their whole organisation having been
disturbed by being compounded from two distinct forms;
the sterility being closely allied to that which so frequently
affects pure species, when exposed to new and unnatural
conditions of life. He who will explain these latter cases
will be able to explain the sterility of hybrids. This view
is strongly supported by a parallelism of another kind:
namely, that, firstly, slight changes in the conditions of
life add to the vigour and fertility of all organic beings;
and secondly, that the crossing of forms, which have been
exposed to slightly different conditions of life or which
have varied, favours the size, vigour, and fertility of their
offspring. The facts given on the sterility of the
illegitimate unions of dimorphic and trimorphic plants
and of their illegitimate progeny, perhaps render it
probable that some unknown bond in all cases connects
the degree of fertility of first unions with that of their
offspring. The consideration of these facts on
dimorphism, as well as of the results of reciprocal crosses,
clearly leads to the conclusion that the primary cause of
the sterility of crossed species is confined to differences
in their sexual elements. But why, in the case of distinct
species, the sexual elements should so generally have
become more or less modified, leading to their mutual
infertility, we do not know; but it seems to stand in some
close relation to species having been exposed for long
periods of time to nearly uniform conditions of life.
It is not surprising that the difficulty in crossing any
two species, and the sterility of their hybrid offspring,
should in most cases correspond, even if due to distinct
causes: for both depend on the amount of difference
between the species which are crossed. Nor is it surprising
that the facility of effecting a first cross, and the fertility
of the hybrids thus produced, and the capacity of being
grafted together- though this latter capacity evidently
depends on widely different circumstances- should all run,
to a certain extent, parallel with the systematic affinity of
the forms subjected to experiment; for systematic affinity
includes resemblances of all kinds.
First crosses between forms known to be varieties, or
sufficiently alike to be considered as varieties, and their
mongrel offspring, are very generally, but not, as is so
often stated, invariably fertile. Nor is this almost universal
and perfect fertility surprising, when it is remembered
how liable we are to argue in a circle with respect to
varieties in a state of nature; and when we remember that
the greater number of varieties have been produced under
domestication by the selection of mere external
differences, and that they have not been long exposed to
uniform conditions of life. It should also be especially
kept in mind, that long-continued domestication tends to
eliminate sterility, and is therefore little likely to induce
this same quality. Independently of the question of
fertility, in all other respects there is the closest general
resemblance between hybrids and mongrels,- in their
variability, in their power of absorbing each other by
repeated crosses, and in their inheritance of characters
from both parent-forms. Finally, then, although we are as
ignorant of the precise cause of the sterility of first crosses
and of hybrids as we are why animals and plants removed
from their natural conditions become sterile, yet the facts
given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to the
belief that species aboriginally existed as varieties.
CHAPTER X
ON THE IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL
RECORD
On Extinction
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Means of Dispersal
Fresh-water Productions
Classification
Morphology
Summary
THE END
GLOSSARY
END GLOSSARY