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A Dissertation
Presented to the Faculty
of The Abdus Salam International Center
for Theoretical Physics
Condensed Matter Physics
January 2010
ii
© Copyright by Juan Diego Jaramillo Salazar, 2009.
All Rights Reserved
Acknowledgements
iv
To my family
v
Contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Introduction 1
5 Fibonacci Anyons 35
vi
6 Conclusion 42
vii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
and they generalize the concept of fermionic and bosonic statistics. While at 3D
space the only possible particles are bosons and fermions, in 2D a richer type
of statistical particles arise corresponding to a continuum of representations for
the braiding group. For example, the abelian representation U (1) assigns to each
type of anyons a multiplicative phase eiθ after exchanging anyons of the same type
i.e. ψ(r2 , r1 ) = eiθ ψ(r1 , r2 ). Representations of greater dimensions may lead to
non-abelian anyons. Its been experimentally proved that the FQH effect exhibits
abelian anyons at the filling fraction: ν = 1/3, and its been predicted to exhibit
non-abelian anyons at other filling fractions [20]. But anyons may not be exclusive
of the FQH effect, they are also candidates to explain high-Tc superconductivity,
superfluids and the A-phase of 3 H films [23, 29, 16]. It is of great interest to
design new experimental settings leading to topological order, its benefits may be
foresight when looking at the multiple technologies based on symmetry-breaking
phases: magnetic memories, liquid crystal displays, low-Tc superconductivity, etc.
A special motivation for topological order comes after the work of Kitaev [12] which
pointed the benefits for the realization of a fault tolerant quantum computer ex-
ploiting the geometric invariance of topological states. Quantum memories and
gates are naturally robust when encoded in topological degrees of freedom since
they remain -up to an exponential decay- invariant under local perturbations. But
the simplest representation which allows for universal quantum computation has 60
dimensions [19]. Besides initialization, processing and measurement of topological
qubits, the first challenge is to realize a physical system with a suitable repre-
sentation in the latter sense. In these respect, there are many challenges in the
categorization of hamiltonian systems with suitable properties such as scalability,
stability of their topological ground states, addressability of the anyons, etc. The
2
partial answer to many of the big questions in this subject has reveal new insight
into the nature of particles and quasi-particles and encourage the continuing effort
to reveal the mysteries behind exotic statistics. In the following chapters I shall
give a very brief introduction to the theory of anyons, trying to give a unified
description encompassing fields from topology, algebra and (of course) physics.
3
Chapter 2
XN − ∆
MNd = , (2.0.1)
SN
where ∆ are points where at least two particles share the same coordinates and
SN is the permutation group of N objects. To understand how different statistics
emerge from this picture we can take the case of two particles, N = 2. There will
4
be a singularity at (r1 , r2 ) ∈ X 2 : r1 = r2 . The physical process of exchanging
two particles is associated to a Feynman’s path integral, in particular a Wilson
loop, connecting both initial and final events. In the relative space any exchange
corresponds to a closed path of one particle around the origin. The singularity at
r1 = r2 , corresponds to the origin in the relative space. Any “exchange” can either
enclose the singularity or not. If the dimension is d > 2, is easy to check that
there are only two closed paths up to continuous deformations, they correspond
to bosons and fermions depending whether the statistical factor is (+1) or (−1)
after exchange. When d = 1 (interacting) bosons are equivalent to (free) fermions.
But at d = 2 the topological classes associated to closed paths are infinite; paths
differing in the number of loops around the origin belong to a different topological
class. This leads to an infinite set of possible statistical particles. In mathematical
trivia, we have just noted that,
π1 (MNd>2 ) = SN , (2.0.2)
π1 (MNd=2 ) = BN ,
where π1 (MNd ) denotes the fundamental group of the space MNd while SN and BN
are the symmetric and braid groups on N objects, respectively. Recall that BN
is an infinite group generated by N − 1 elements {σ1 , ..., σN −1 } satisfying Artin’s
relations:
σi σj = σj σi , |i − j| ≥ 2. (2.0.4)
5
Both SN and BN are in general non-commutative, but in contrast with BN , if
σi ∈ SN then σi2 = 1. This can be interpreted in terms of tangles as depicted in
Fig.2.1. Further explanation on the role of tangles and its relation to the braid
Figure 2.1: In contrast with the symmetric group, elements in the braid group, in
general, are s.t. σi2 6= 1
A 2D Magnetic Monopole
In order for the path integral to detect the singularity, we have to introduce a force
field to couple to. Since the singularity depends on the position of the two identical
particles, it is reasonable to associate this field to each particle. But this field is
special, it only contributes to distinguish topological states in the latter sense. An
interpretation of it in terms of a known field can be done on the plane; imagine a
magnetic field crossing perpendicularly the plane along an infinitesimal area δA,
then according to the Aharonov-Bhom effect any charged particle (e.g. electron)
enclosing the area δA will gain a multiplicative phase. This singularity is no more
than the 2D version of Dirac’s magnetic monopole, the latter corresponding to
a magnetic flux “intersecting” the 3D space. Furthermore, since the action is
topological, by using geometric deformations we can split the total flux into two
halves and relocate each half flux along the charged particles creating a charge-flux
composite particle as depicted in Fig.2.2. This equivalence can be interpreted as
the two-dimensional generalization of the Jordan-Wigner transformation, which
6
in one dimension transmutes fermions into bosons [18]. The exchange depicted in
Fig.2.2 yields a multiplicative phase made out of the contribution of each particle’s
path:
1 1
exp[i( qΦ + qΦ )] = eiqΦ = e−iπJ (2.0.5)
2 2
where q is the charge, Φ is the magnetic flux and J is the coupling strength between
charge and flux. Notice that when J = 0 or 1 we have bosons and fermions,
respectively. For 0 < J < 1 we have anyons, an infinite set of statistical particles.
As we will see in the following chapters it is possible to realize non-conmutative
statistical “factors” by considering multiple ground states. In general anyon theory
is build on any representation of the braid group Bn . The former example is an
abelian realization of the braid group and they are therefore called abelian anyons.
7
Chapter 3
In chapter 2 a physical, but still heursitic description of anyons was given. In this
chapter I’ll review the connection between anyons and topological field theories by
means of a special case: the realization of abelian anyons through Chern-Simons
fields. This will be done in the 2nd-quantized formalism in order to expose the
connections between anyons and q-deformed lie algebras [17].
Z
1 † 2 κ
S= d3 x [iψ † D0 ψ + ψ (D1 + D22 )ψ + αβγ Aα ∂β Aγ ], (3.1.1)
2m 2
8
where Dα = ∂α +ieAα is the covariant derivative. From now on ~ = c = 1. Varying
S with respect to Aα , we obtain
2e α
αβγ ∂β Aγ = j , (3.1.2)
κ
i
j 0 = ψ†ψ ≡ ρ , ji = (ψ † Di ψ − (Di ψ)† ψ). (3.1.3)
2m
~ · ~j = 0.
∂0 ρ + ∇ (3.1.4)
Imposing the condition ∂i Ai = 0, we can solve Eq.(3.1.2). This can be done using
the Green Function [17] to obtain,
Z
i ∂
A (x) = −ν d2 y Θ(~x − ~y )ρ(y), (3.1.6)
∂xi
where ν = e/2πκ and Θ(~x − ~y ) is the angle under which ~x is seen from ~y , namely
x2 − y 2
Θ(~x − ~y ) = tan−1 . (3.1.7)
x1 − y 1
9
We would like to take the partial derivative outside the integral. Since Θ(~x − ~y )
is a multifunction in the spatial coordinates, we need to fix a branch-cut and a
reference axis to remove the ambiguities; this is allowed, since the charge density
ρ is a sum of δ-functions. We therefore get the expression,
∂
Ai (x) = Λ(x), (3.1.8)
∂xi
where
Z
Λ(x) = ν d2 y Θ(~x − ~y )(ρ(y) − ρ0 ). (3.1.9)
Z
A0 (x) = ν d2 y Θ(~x − ~y )∂0 (ρ(y) − ρ0 ) = −∂0 Λ( x), (3.1.10)
in such a way that we can express the former Chern-Simons potential as a pure
gauge: Aα = −∂α Λ(x). This means that we can obtain a free action by means of
the gauge transformation
10
we can deduce the following equal-time permutation formula,
e
ψ 0 (~x)ψ 0 (~y ) = e−i 2πκ [Θ(~x−~y)−Θ(~y−~x)] ψ 0 (~y )ψ 0 (~x). (3.1.14)
We now turn our attention to Conformal Field Theories (CFT) in our search for
theories exhibiting non-abelian representations of the braid group. It is well known
that Chern-Simons theories in (2+1) dimensions exhibit the same braiding and
1
Notice that we are dealing with identical particles and reversing their order along the refer-
ence axis should yield an equivalent statistics i.e. q −1 ≡ q.
11
fusion properties of two-dimensional CFT [31, 21], in addition we will gain a body
of formalism based on quantum groups which allows us to treat anyon models in
a purely algebraic way. In a two-dimensional CFT, we have correlation functions
of conformally invariant fields φ(z, z̄) taking values on the complex coordinate
z = x + iy. These are real functions and can be decomposed as
n
Y X
h φia (za , z̄a )i = |Fp;i1 ...in (z1 , ..., zn )|2 , (3.2.1)
a=1 p
where the terms Fp are meromorphic functions also called conformal blocks. They
define a vector bundle on (z1 , ..., zn ) transforming under the general action of the
braid group after reordering of particles in the correlator i.e.
X
Fp;i1 ...in (zi1 , ..., zir , ..., zis , ..., zin ) = Bpq [i1 , ..., in ]Fq;i1 ...in (z1 , ..., zn ), (3.2.2)
q
where r < s and {ia ; a = 1, ..., n} denotes the quantum numbers. Integers p and
q labels the elements of the basis associated to the corresponding orderings of the
quantum numbers. Notice the general notation: only if ir = is , r 6= s the exchange
is between identical particles. The ordering between particles is given by the norm
on C. The operator product expansion (OPE) exploits the conformal symmetry of
the fields φi to express the product of two such fields in the limit of z1 approaching
z2 as
X
φi (z1 )φ(z2 ) = ak,d
ij (z1 − z2 )
hk,d −hi −hj
φk,d , (3.2.3)
k
where index d labels all possible “descendants” of φi (z1 ) and φ(z2 ). The structure
constants ak,d
ij are constrained by demanding associativity and braiding consistency.
This constraints are important since our quantum numbers are associated to charge
12
of particles and associativity follows from charge conservation. Notice that to every
field φi there is an associated representation of the braid group, this motivates the
formulation of fusion rules in the same spirit of decomposition of irreps for angular
momentum composition. Nevertheless as we shall see, the fusion rules induced by
OPE belong to a more general class than the one associated to the ordinary tensor
product. The fusion rules are written as
X
φi × φj = Nijk φk , (3.2.4)
k
where the number Nijk counts the number of times that the field φk or its descen-
dants appear in the OPE of φi and φj .
To understand the contrast between the ordinary tensor product and the fusion
rules we can take the example of the quantum group Uq (sl(2)). Recall that a
quantum group is a “q-deformation” of a universal enveloping algebra. In the case
of Uq (sl(2)) its generators {1, H, L+ , L− } satisfy the relations,
where q may take any non-zero complex value. Notice that at q = 1 we recover
the universal enveloping algebra U (sl(2)) and that the transformation q → q −1
preserves the algebra. The new coproduct or fusion associated to the quasi-Hopf
13
algebra (see Appendix) for Uq (sl(2)) is given by
∆(H) = 1 ⊗ H + H ⊗ 1 (3.3.3)
∆ = id ⊗ id (3.3.5)
The representation theory when q is not a root of unity is similar to U (sl(2)); for
every total “angular momentum” j ∈ 12 Z+ there is an irreducible highest weight
representation of dimension d = 2j + 1. We will denote this representation by
π Λ , where Λ = d − 1 = 2j is the highest weight. The modules V Λ of these
representations have orthonormal basis |j, mi, with m = −j, −j + 1, ..., j and the
generating elements H, L+ , L− act on this basis as follows
14
where the q-number bmcq is defined as
q m/2 − q −m/2
bmcq = . (3.3.10)
q 1/2 − q −1/2
Λ+Λ0
Λ0 00
M
πΛ ⊗ π = πΛ , (3.4.1)
Λ00 =|Λ−Λ0 |
15
X j1 j2 j
|j, mi = |j1 , m1 i|j2 , m2 i. (3.4.2)
m1 ,m2 m1 m2 m
q
To find the associated q-6j-symbols we notice that the functors2 (∆ ⊗ id)∆ and
(id ⊗ ∆)∆ lead to different categories; they transform morphisms into (1 ⊗ 2) ⊗ 3
and 1 ⊗ (2 ⊗ 3), respectively (notice the simplified notation: s ≡ π 2js ). Their
modular spaces correspond to two different orthogonal bases in V j1 ⊗ V j2 ⊗ V j3
and can be expressed with the recursive use of the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients as:
X j12 j3 j j1 j2 j12 j1
ejm12 j (j1 j2 |j3 ) =
j j
em1 ⊗ em2 2 ⊗ em3 3 ,
m1 ,m2 ,m3 m12 m3 m m1 m2 m12
q q
X j1 j23 j j2 j3 j23 j1
ejm23 j (j1 |j2 j3 ) =
j j
em1 ⊗ em2 2 ⊗ em3 3 .
m1 ,m2 ,m3 m1 m23 m m2 m3 m23
q q
But we can always find a transformation between these basis. Formally, such a
transformation between functors is called a natural transformation. An explicit cal-
culation of the q-6j-symbols will be performed for the so called Fibonacci anyons 3
in chapter 5 using diagramatic language. As an advance I show the diagrams of
the q-Clebsch-Gordan coefficients,
j1 j2 j
−→ (3.4.3)
m1 m2 m
q
2
These functors act on the category of the quasi-Hopf algebra (morphisms) and its modular
representations (objects).
3
For the Fibonacci anyons the q-6j-symbols are slightly modified because q is a root of unity.
16
and the q-6j-symbols,
X j1 j2 j23
= (3.4.4)
j23 j j j
3
12
q
bk + 2cq = 0. (3.4.5)
17
Figure 3.2: An schematic illustration of indecomposable representations.
to it. This are non-physical representations and the way we get rid of them is
ˆ (abusing of language I will call the new
by redefining the tensor product: ⊗ → ⊗
product fusion just as the coproduct ∆ of the Hopf algebra). But we cannot simply
rule out indecomposable modules because there would be now way to recover
associativity i.e. a natural isomorphism like the one depicted in Eq.(3.4.4). Notice
ˆ k )⊗π
for example that for odd k: (π 1 ⊗π ˆ k+1 = 2π k+1 and π 1 ⊗(π
ˆ k ⊗π
ˆ k+1 ) = {0}.
Clearly there is no isomorphism to identify both functors. But we can “cut from
the bottom” by also projecting out modules of type π k+1 . This additional criteria
assures associativity in the latter sense and defines the truncated product,
min{Λ+Λ0 ,2k−Λ−Λ0 }
Λ0 00
M
π Λ ⊗π
ˆ = πΛ , (3.4.6)
Λ00 =|Λ−Λ0 |
which happens to match the fusion rules of the Wess-Zumino model at level k.
18
Chapter 4
A knot-theoretic approach to
anyons
19
4.1 The Jones polynomial
All knots can be projected into the plane such that crossings divide locally into
four regions. Each region can have one of two labels: A or A−1 . Labeling de-
pends whether you see an under or over-crossing when facing the crossing from
the respective region. The convention is illustrated in the top diagram of Fig.4.1.
To each crossing there are associated two smoothings as shown in the bottom di-
agrams in Fig.4.1. If the smoothing connects two A-regions then we say is an
A-smoothing, likewise for A−1 -smoothings. A state S of the diagram K is a choice
Figure 4.1: Top: Four regions with two labels: A and A−1 . Bottom: two types of
smoothing associated to crossings.
20
X
hKi = hK|Si d||S|| (4.1.1)
s
∪
(i) h i = A ∩
+ A−1 h||i, where the small diagrams stand for parts of larger
ones that differ only as indicated by them.
VK (t) = fK (t−1/4 )
1
The writhe is a Z2 -label for crossings on oriented links.
21
Figure 4.2: Diagram K of the trefoil knot and a choice of smoothing or state S.
The relation between knots and braids was already recognized by J. Alexander
who proved that any oriented link is isotopic to the closure of some braid [1].
This is illustrated in Fig.4.3 where the braid is represented in terms of a tangle: a
planar diagram consisting of n ordered points (objects) at the bottom (input) and
top (output) acting as boundaries to curves in 3D space embedded isotopically
in the plane, where crossings corresponds to labeled vertices. The use of braids
to describe knots and links is appealing since they are clearly defined by Artin’s
relations (Eq. (2.0.4)). Because the representation of knots and links from closed
22
Figure 4.4: Tangle-theoretic interpretation of the generators of the Temperley-Lieb
algebra (AlgT L).
braids is highly non-unique, it took several decades before a complete knot invari-
ant could be discovered2 . This was done by V. Jones using the Temperley-Lieb
associative algebra (AlgT L) an algebra originally found in the study of the Potts
and ice-type models [6]. In Fig.4.4 is shown a tangle-theoretic interpretation of the
generators of AlgT L at level n = 4. Pointwise product is given by vertical stacking
and tensor product is given by horizontal stacking. Combining the property (i)
of the bracket polynomial and the tangle interpretation of AlgT L it is natural to
define the following representation ρ : Bn → Tn of the braid group into AlgT L:
ρ(σi ) = A Ui + A−1 1n ,
23
where σi is a clockwise permutation between the i-th and (i + 1)-th input threads
and A ∈ C and is related with the deformation parameter q as q = A2 . Similarly,
σi−1 corresponds to counterclockwise permutation. The bracket polynomial of a
knot induces a “trace” function on AlgT L via braid closure:
and are illustrated as fn−1 = for every level n in AlgT L. They share the
following properties:
1. fi2 = fi .
2. fi Uj = Uj fi = 0 for j ≥ i.
24
n+1 −n−1
x −x
3. hfˆn−1 i = ∆n (−A2 ), where ∆n (x) = is the n-th Chebyschev
x − x−1
polynomial.
, (4.3.1)
f0 = ,
1 ∪
f1 = = +
,
d ∩
d ∪ ∪ 1
f2 = = − 2 + + + .
d − 1 ∩ ∩ d2 − 1
25
In the present section I will use the AlgT L and the Jones-Wenzl projectors to pro-
Figure 4.5: 3-vertex are the building blocks of diagrams in the q-6j-symbol trans-
formation. They are made from three “compatible” Jones-Wenzl projectors.
i = (a + b − c)/2,
j = (a + c − b)/2, (4.4.1)
k = (b + c − a)/2,
(i) a + b + c ≡ 0 (mod 2)
3
The angular momentum j associated to a given projector a is given by: j = a/2, the reason
is because a single thread in the tangle representation contributes with angular momentum 1/2.
26
(ii) a + b − c, b + c − a, c + a − b are each ≥ 0.
In the case when q is a root of unity and s.t. q = eiπ/r where r ∈ Z+ , we have the
additional constraint:4
(iii) a + b + c ≤ 2r − 4.
From the former construction of 3-vertex blocks and based on the recoupling the-
orem we get a natural derivation of the q-6j-symbols. I will state it and remit the
reader to Ref.[10] for its prove:
X
= αi . (4.4.2)
i
{b,c,i}∈ADMq
{a,d,i}∈ADMq
4
It is designed to address the complications discussed in the last paragraph of section 3.4.
27
We can solve the former equation expanding into the Temperley-Lieb algebra by
means of the recursion relation depicted in Eq.(4.3.1). An alternative way is to use
Markov’s trace. I will show the latter method for the case of Fibonacci anyons in
chapter 5. Before going into Fibonacci anyons some important comments on the
q-6j-symbol should be said. As it was pointed out this is a natural transformation.
It can be shown that diagrams on the left and right hand side of Eq.(4.4.2), con-
stitute two different basis. They generate the vector space of diagrams where four
projectors (a, b, c, d) are connected by any possible flat tangle T as depicted in
Fig.4.6. From this perspective it is clear that the natural transformation given by
Figure 4.6: Horizontal and vertical diagrams form two different bases for the vector
space constituted by four projectors connected by any possible flat tangle T .
the q-6j-symbols is a change of basis. A criteria that assures that this transforma-
tion is consistent with coassociativity as discussed in section 3.4, is to check for its
ergodicity on the set of functors generated by all possible orders of pairwise fusions
on n anyons. The prove of this is reduced by the MacLane coherence theorem to
an array of four anyons. This is the so called pentagon equation. Let F denote the
natural transformation induced by the q-6j-symbols. In the simplified notation:
28
s ≡ π 2js , the former constraint implies that the path
F F F
ˆ ⊗3))
(1⊗(2 ˆ ⊗4
ˆ −→ ˆ ⊗3)
1⊗((2 ˆ ⊗4)
ˆ −→ ˆ ⊗(3
1⊗(2 ˆ ⊗4))
ˆ ˆ ⊗(3
−→ (1⊗2) ˆ ⊗4),
ˆ
(4.4.3)
F F
ˆ ⊗3))
(1⊗(2 ˆ ⊗4
ˆ −→ ((1⊗2)
ˆ ⊗3)
ˆ ⊗4
ˆ −→ (1⊗2)
ˆ ⊗(3
ˆ ⊗4).
ˆ (4.4.4)
It is not difficult to prove that the definition of F in terms of tangles obey the
former relation, nevertheless we remit the reader to Ref.[10] for details. The former
relation can be stated in a diagrammatic fashion as depicted in Fig.4.7. Notice
29
Figure 4.7: Diagrammatic representation of the pentagon equation.
In section 3.3 it was noticed that comultiplication on the algebra i.e. fusion of
anyons was no longer cocommutative. This suggest the definition of an operation
for commuting anyons which is known as braiding, R : A ⊗ A → A ⊗ A, where
A is the quasi-hopf algebra. In section 3.3, we had A ≡ Uq (sl(2)) and R takes
the form of an isomorphism between (1 ⊗ 2) and (2 ⊗ 1). This resembles the ac-
tion of the natural transformation F, but their meaning is very different; while
30
braiding is a physical process, the natural transformation is just a mathematical
aim to express the space of anyons; given an array of anyons fusing into, lets say
the vacuum, there is no way we can inquire the system as to know what was the
specific sequence of decays leading to the former array5 . That is, all compatible
fusion sequences represented with every functor in the pentagon equation is phys-
ically indistinguishable and therefore the claim that F-moves are not a physical
processes, but a choice of “coordinate system”. At this stage, where the structure
of quantum groups has been reformulated in terms of consistency equations such
as the pentagon equation, it seems natural to define braiding in the same terms.
Indeed, the Yang-Baxter equation
σ1 σ2 σ1 = σ2 σ1 σ2 , σi ∈ R (4.5.1)
31
Figure 4.8: Diagrammatic representation of the Yang-Baxter equation.
the prove of it can be found in Ref.[10]. The last constraint is the hexagon equation
which assures consistency between braiding R and the natural transformation F.
Whenever we have more than two anyons, the specific action of braiding depends
on the choice of the category or its associated functor6 . In particular, for every
braiding of adjacent anyons, there is a category (actually many) which is modular
to the action of R i.e. it becomes a diagonal matrix as in Eq.(4.5.2). In such a case
6
Although F acts on functors, by fixing the input category, every functor can be associated
to a given output category.
32
a
the pairwise action of R will be denoted as Rbc with diagonal elements Rbc . The
usual procedure for the implementation of braiding is to use F-moves to approach
the suitable category were braiding looks simple (R → R), apply R and then use
F-moves to come back to the original category. The Fig.4.9 shows this procedure
when the original category is at one F-move from the suitable category. The final
action is denoted by B to emphasize the fact that the new operation has non-
diagonal matrix elements and therefore it constitutes a non-abelian representation
of the braid group in this case of B3 . The hexagon equation is depicted in Fig.4.10.
Figure 4.9: The action of braiding depends on the choice of category used to
describe the array of anyons.
It is defined on an array of three anyons. There are two equivalent paths to braid
anyon 1 around the fusion of anyons 2 and 3. In the modular representations the
equivalence takes the form:
33
where each of these terms is a matrix acting on the space generated by all possible
fusion channels. The anyons involved in each fusion are specified in the subscripts
in their respective order. Considering the fact that R-matrices are diagonal, the
Figure 4.10: The hexagon equation assures the consistency between braiding and
recoupling.
X
c
R13 (F213 )ca R12
a
= (F231 )cb R1b
4
(F123 )ba . (4.5.4)
b
34
Chapter 5
Fibonacci Anyons
Now we will use the former tools to build a representation of the braid group Bn
which is dense in SU (m) and therefore suitable for universal quantum computa-
tion. I have followed the approach of Kauffman and Lomonaco in Ref.[9] which
provides a particularly appealing derivation based on recoupling theory through
the Temperley-Lieb algebra. First, lets notice that any recoupling theory based
35
on AlgT L is fixed after specifying a value of d (or q, or A) and the order n of
the highest Jones-Wenzl projector fn−1 , present in the theory. Fibonacci Anyons
happen to be the simplest non-trivial example of a recoupling theory and is fixed
√
1+ 5
by the values: d = 2
(“golden number”) and n = 2. I will start with the as-
sumption of n = 2 and later show that the value of d follows, at least for Fibonacci
anyons, after demanding symmetry of the recoupling theory. The two non-trivial
3-vertex are depicted in Fig.5.1 and their notation is simplified with a continuous
line for f1 projector and dashed line for the trivial projector i.e. the vacuum.
There is actually a third 3-vertex made of two 2-projectors and one 4-projector
(a = b = 2, c = 4), but as I will show later, it is ruled out by fixing the value of
d at the “golden number”, where q becomes a root of unity with r = 5. We say
that Fibonacci anyons have two fusion channels. The corresponding recoupling
equations are:
= w + x ,
(5.0.1)
= y + z .
Now we use Markov’s trace together with the star-structure discussed in the last
paragraph of section 4.2 to perform a projection between diagrams. There are
three “indecomposable” net evaluations we can find. All other evaluations can be
reduced to products of the former net values. The first net is the Theta-net. Let
36
≡ H0 and ≡ V2 then,
where ∗(V2 ) = V̄2 . The resulting diagram is called the Theta-net and its bracket
evaluation is denoted by Θ. Then we have the so called Tetrahedron-net; it is
found in the closure of H2 V̄2 , where ≡ H2 . We then have,
37
Eq.(4.3.1) we find the values:
∆ = d2 − 1, (5.0.5)
∆
Θ = (d − d−1 )2 − , (5.0.6)
d
Θ
T = (d − d−1 )2 (d2 − 2) − 2 . (5.0.7)
2
1
=w −→ ∆ = w ∆2 ⇒ w = , (5.0.8)
∆
Θ2 ∆
=x −→ Θ = x ⇒ x= , (5.0.9)
∆ Θ
Θ
=y −→ Θ = y ∆2 ⇒ y = , (5.0.10)
∆2
Θ2 T∆
=z −→ T = z ⇒ z= . (5.0.11)
∆ Θ2
Now that we have our natural transformation F , we look for the diagonal form of
the braiding operator R. Since we have only two non-trivial 3-vertex, the linear
operator R acts on a two dimensional space depending on the fusion channel.
38
Using Eq.(4.5.2) we obtain the following values:
= −A−4 , = A8 , (5.0.12)
That is
−4
−A 0
R= . (5.0.13)
8
0 A
Then,
F2 ≡ 1
(5.0.15)
√
1 1 1± 5
=⇒ (F 2 )11 = + 2 = 1 ⇐⇒ ∆ = .
∆ ∆ 2
Further notice that for this values of ∆, we have ∆2 = d2 from Eq.(5.0.5). With
the former constraint, the only way for F to be unitary is that F = F † . This
implies: (i) F : F = F T and (ii) F † = F T . For the first constraint we exploit the
freedom for renormalizing the 3-vertex. Mainly we add a factor α to every 3-vertex
where two 2-projectors fuse into one 2-projector. This changes the recoupling in
39
such a way that Θ → α2 Θ. The corresponding value of F takes the form:
2
1/∆ ∆/α Θ
F = . (5.0.16)
α2 Θ/∆2 T ∆/Θ2
√
1/∆ 1/ ∆
F −→ √ . (5.0.17)
1/ ∆ −1/∆
√
The second constraint i.e. F † = F T is fulfilled by setting ∆ = d = (1 + 5)/2
or q = ei6π/5 . We can now check whether the 3-vertex with projectors a = b = 2
and c = 4 satisfies the third constraint for a 3-vertex mainly: a + b + c ≤ 2r − 4.
First we should find r ∈ Z+ : q r = −1. The first candidate which is 5/6 is not an
integer, in this case we proceed1 to find the smallest integer power of q yielding
either (+1) or (−1) which for q = ei6π/5 corresponds to r = 5. Replacing this
value in the 3-vertex constraint discards a = b = 2 and c = 4 as an admissible
triple. As we mentioned in the introduction of the hexagon equation, if we have
three anyons we can obtain a representation of the braid group B3 by means of the
conjugation F RF i.e. {id, R, F RF } is a unitary representation of B3 . Moreover,
as its been noted, this representation is dense in SU (2) allowing the realization of
one qubit gates with arbitrary precision [22, 9]. If we keep adding anyons we will
end up with a dense “topological” representation of SU (m) and therefore with a
universal quantum computer.
1
This procedure follows after noticing that r is meant to be the smallest integer such that the
Chebischev polynomial ∆r−1 (x) = 0, as explained in chapter 5 of [10].
40
41
Chapter 6
Conclusion
I have reviewed the relation between anyons and topological field theories by means
of a special case: the realization of abelian anyons through a Chern-Simons kinetic
term. I used 2nd quantization in order to expose the relation between anyons and
quantum groups. I also showed the approach based on knot theory to the recou-
pling theory of the Wess-Zumino models and applied these tools to derive Fibonacci
anyons; a model which is known to exhibit, at least in principle, fault-tolerant uni-
versal quantum computation. It should be said that the relation between the
former theories and specific hamiltonian systems (such as Kitaev’s honeycomb
lattice) was not presented here, neither the important relation between quantum
groups and quantum complete integrability as advanced by the work of Faddeev,
Sklyanin and Takhtajan using the quantum inverse scattering method [13, 27, 14].
These are important fields of research for statistical and condensed matter physics.
The brief introduction given in this dissertation should be general enough as to be
useful in these latter subjects as well.
42
NOTE
Some of the additional references which provided me with an introduction to
many of the topics discussed above -many of the figures were adapted from their
publications- are [25, 26, 2, 3, 24].
APPENDIX
43
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47