Introduction and Overview

Why Hydro History Possibilities / Opportunities / Potential Problems / Pitfalls / Regulation Who I am

Why Hydro?
Most common renewable energy Well developed technology Most efficient means of producing electricity Multiple uses of water resource

Hydropower in the U.S.

Renewable Resources

History
From Edison decentralized DC powerhouses to Tesla AC Larger scale power Unreliable grid Availability of smaller scale turbines/generators

Possibilities / Potentials / Opportunities

Significant water resources everywhere, of which only 20% has been developed Dams without power, 2,400 of 80,000 Tax credits Do it yourself Reliable, inexpensive equipment Scalable Acceptable to utility companies
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Technology for Every Flow

Small, Medium, Large and Extra Large New Stuff, Pumped Storage Intakes and Impoundments

Problems / Pitfalls / Regulation

Expensive installation Environmental considerations Drought and flooding Larger installations are expensive to build, heavily regulated, and take up to 8 years to license Unprofitable to sell power
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Resources on Your Land

Local knowledge, mapping Measuring head and flow Feasibility analysis, cost vs. benefit

Who Can Help

Solar Energy International for Micro and other renewable energy education Mountain Property Resources for Medium Hydro Mead & Hunt for Large Hydro Ater / Wynne for Legal Canyon Industries for turbines HTS for turbines
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Who Wants to Know, Who Gets to Know

FERC State and Federal Authorities Fish and Game, Corp of Engineers, Cultural Resources, water rights Local and regional electric companies Transmission companies (WAPA, BPA)

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Loopholes
Conduit Exemption, 15 mW or less for non-municipal, 40 mW for municipal, entirely on non-fed lands 5 mW or less exemption Net metering Direct use Sustainable communities
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Keep it or Sell It
Wholesale vs Retail Wheeling Other costs / considerations

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The Money Part

Capital cost $/kW: $1700-2300/kW: cap. Operation cost/kWh: 4.05 mills (0.4) Maintenance cost/kWh: 2.62 mills(0.3) Total cost/kWh: 23.57 mills (2.4) Operating life: 50+ years Capacity factor: 40-50% Average size: 31 MW
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Types of Hydropower Facilities

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 Impoundment Hydropower- uses a dam to store water. Water may be released either to meet changing electricity needs or to maintain a constant water level.
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 Run-of-River Projects - utilize

the flow of water within the natural range of the river, requiring little or no impoundment. Runof-river plants can be designed using large flow rates with low head or small flow rates with high head
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 Microhydropower Projects - produce 300 kilowatts (kW) or less. Microhydro plants can utilize low heads or high heads

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 Diversion Hydropower - channels a portion of the river through a canal or penstock, but may require a dam

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Pumped storage - pumps water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir at times when demand for electricity is low. During periods of high electrical demand, the water is released back to the lower reservoir to generate electricity.

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What is Micro Hydro?

Micro-hydro is generally less than 300 kW. Hydro power is cost effective in a limited number of places. Hydro is more consistent than wind or solar. Hydro is concentrated solar energy.
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Micro Hydro Costs

High Capital Cost
Labor and Earth Moving Equipment Civil Works and Penstocks

Low Operating Cost

No Fuel Inexpensive maintenance

Especially economic for Do-It-Yourself.

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Micro Hydro is Run-of-River

No water storage. Much simpler to design and build. Less environmental impact. May be seasonally dependent. Some schemes have a small reservoir for supplying peak daily loads.

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Water Rights
Sufficient water must be available. Fish or riparian habitat must not be affected. Other licensed users take precedence. Environmental impact must be addressed. Erosion due to civil works Water temperature increased due to low water. Dams are not recommended. Easements required if crossing private land.
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AC systems
River flow must exceed peak demand. Standard wiring and electrical equipment. Components
Generator
Induction Synchronous

Frequency Control and Governors Voltage Control Diversion loads

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Off-Grid AC systems
River flow must exceed peak demand. Standard wiring and electrical equipment. Components
Generator Frequency Control and Governors Voltage Control Diversion loads

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DC Systems
Makes low power sites feasible. Run-of-river with storage in batteries. Components:
Generators/Alternators Batteries Charge Control Diversion loads Inverters
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AC vs. DC
Amount of Power
2 kW or 3 kW required for AC systems not tied to grid

Energy Storage with Batteries

Surge and peak loads may exceed capacity

Complexity
Batteries require maintenance

Convenience
AC appliances are common and inexpensive

Transmission
AC voltage is easier to change
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Grid Tie Systems

Utility Concerns
Fault Protection Line Worker and Public Safety Power Quality

Metering Options

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Line Worker and Public Safety

Islanding
Generator supplies an isolated portion of grid during a power outage. Poses safety hazard to line workers. Inverters meet UL standards Induction Generators (Motors)

Out of Synchronize Close Accessible, lockable, visible-break switch

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Power
An instantaneous measure. The ability to do work. Measured in Watts and Horsepower. 746 W = 1 hp Hp = Flow (cfs) x Head (feet) x .8 8.8
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Hydro Power
Site Assessment potential power Loads required power System capacity designed power Locating the Intake Locating the Powerhouse

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Site Assessment
Flow
The design flow will be a percentage of the measured stream flow. Design flow determines penstock size Design flow determines nozzle size

Head
- Elevation difference between the penstock intake and the turbine

Penstock length.
Often the major cost.
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Loads
Electric hot water accounts for 40%. The clothes dryer and stove are 20%. Fuel or solar heating must also be used if hydro potential is less than 1000 W. Load voltage, frequency and phase must match the generator.

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Loads
A typical home uses 30 kWh/day. On average that is 1.25 kW continuously. Peak demand is 10 to 20 times the Residential Load Profile average.
Power Peak

Time of Day
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Capacity and Cost

Turbine and Generator costs increase slowly relative to capacity. Penstock costs increase more rapidly with increasing capacity. Generally, as capacity increases, cost per kW decreases. It is usually more economical to install as greater capacity and run heating loads.
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Measuring Flow
Velocity-Area Method Velocity Head Flow Meter Weir method Bucket method

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Determining Area
Average Depth = Sum of (N)depths N Area = Stream Width x Average Depth

N 1 2 3 ...
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Velocity-Area Method
Measures the volume of water flowing across a cross section of the stream. Flow = area x average stream velocity

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Measuring Velocity
Stream velocity varies with depth.

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Weir method

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Reference: Canyon Industries Inc., Micro-hydro Design

Weir Method

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Reference: Inversin, Micro-hydropower Sourcebook

Float Method

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Bucket Method

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Head
Vertical distance from inlet to turbine for impulse turbine. Vertical distance from inlet to tail water for reaction turbine.

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Measuring Head
Inclinometer Altimeter Hose and Pressure gauge Level

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An Inclinometer
Also called an Abney Level. L is measured with a tape or hip chain. H = L x sin (a) H
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L3

a3

H2 a2 L1 a1

L2

H1

a
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Altimeters
Measuring relative height, therefore absolute calibration is not necessary. The interval between measurements must be short to avoid error from weather changes. Best to take multiple readings.

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Hose and Pressure Gauge

Accurate and simple method. Bubbles in hose cause errors. Gauge must have suitable scale and be calibrated. Use hose a measuring tape for penstock length.

H1

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Using a Level
Use a person or a measured pole. Htotal = A + B + C + D

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Static Head vs. Net Head

Static head is the vertical distance from the intake to the power house Net head takes into account friction loss Pipe sizing rule of thumb
A pipe diameter should be chosen so that only 10 15% of the static head is lost in pipe friction. Tables are available for every pipe material, diameter and flow rate.
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Locating the Intake

Choose a site with a stable stream bed.
Constant flow stream Bedrock Small gradient

The inside of bends accumulate sediment. The outside of bends are subject to erosion and flood damage. Place the intake along a straight section.
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Intake and Powerhouse

Flood conditions must be planned for. Composition and nature of stream bed determines erosion and future path changes. Natural features can protect civil works. Locate upstream to avoid competing with other water users. Access for construction and maintenance.
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Locating the Powerhouse

Power house must be above flood height. To maximize head:
Place the turbine below the powerhouse floor. Use draft tubes.

Locate powerhouse on inside of bends. Use natural features for protection. Tail race oriented downstream. May be some distance from stream.
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Civil Works
Diversion Intake Silt Basin Trash Rack Screen Penstock Power House
Silt Basin Trash Rack

Direct Intake Head Race

Weir

Penstock
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Civil Works
The river flow will be seasonally variable. Sediment must be removed. Must be accessible for construction. Erosion occurs if water flows around weirs.
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Diversion
Weirs maintain the water level at the intake. A Weir does not store water. Natural riverbed features may be used. Weirs may also be :
Concrete Gabions Wood
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Weir
The sluice is a short length of pipe for clearing away sediment.
Artificial Weir Sluice

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Weir
If spring run-off is not severe, the penstock may lead directly from the weir.
Screened Intake

Weir Penstock

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Sluice

A Sluice allows sediment removal.

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Wing Walls
Wing walls prevent erosion and flood damage to the civil works. Natural rock walls along a stream can serve the same purpose. Walls may be built from:
Gabions Concrete Rock and mortar Wood
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Intake Depth
Pipe intakes should be submerged deep enough not to draw air. H = (0.0622) Q2 / D4 H = intake depth[in] Q = flow rate [gpm] D = pipe diameter [in]
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Intake Depth
Rule of thumb pipe should be submerged 3x the pipe diameter Screening is the weak point Coanda effect intake boxes work well Intake structures are the most maintenance intensive part of hydro

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Side Intake
Place a side intake far enough upstream to avoid silt deposited behind the weir.
Side Intake Wing Wall Head Race

Silt

Weir
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Direct Intake
A direct intake allows silt to be drawn into the head race to settle in the silt basin.
Silt Basin Direct Intake Wing Wall Head Race

Weir
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Trench Intake
A trench intake in a rapidly flowing stream allows large debris to pass over. The rapid flow keeps the rack clear.

Trash Rack

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Screens
Screens should be half the nozzle diameter. A self-cleaning screen design is best. The screen area must be relatively large.
Screen

Head Race Silt Basin

Penstock

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Trash Rack
The trash rack should be at least two pipe diameters from the pipe inlet. If the trash rack is not situated in the main stream it is easier to clean. If the head race is a pipe a rack is necessary. Drilled PVC Pipe will serve as a trash rack.

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Ice and Snow

Frazil ice super cooled water sticks to everything Submerging the intake allows the ice to float. Snow may prevent penstocks from freezing.

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Penstock
Materials Diameter Friction Pressure Rating Valves Gauges Thrust Block
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Penstocks
A vent prevents vacuum collapse of the penstock. A pressure gauge should always be installed. Valves that close slowly prevent water hammer.

Vent Valve Pressure Gauge Valve

Anchor Block

Penstock
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Penstocks
A short straight penstock is least expensive. A channel or culvert may be used to reduce penstock length. Pipe laid in the creek will abrade. Penstocks deliver water under pressure. Usually the major expense.
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Penstock design
It is more economical to use lower pressure rated pipe at the top of the penstock. Snow may insulate pipes laid above ground. Flow rate is determined by the nozzle at the penstock outlet. Maximum power delivery occurs when friction losses are 33% of gross head.
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Valves
Gate and butterfly valves are most common. Bleed valves should be installed at summits. Drains should be installed at low points.
Bleed Valve

Drain Valve

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Valve Closing Time

Depends on operating pressure, schedule of pipe and length of pipe. The longer the pipe the longer the time. Typically in the 5 to 15 second range for up to 2000 feet of pipe.

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Slide, Anchor and Thrust Blocks

Prevent unwanted movement of penstock. Required at bends and reductions. Anchor blocks use mass to prevent movement. Thrust blocks are used with buried penstocks.
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After bay and Tailrace

Removes water from power house and turbine. Designed to prevent erosion. Must be large with enough slope to prevent water backing up in turbine.

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Head Race
It may be less expensive to run low pressure pipe or a channel to a short penstock.
6 Penstock Head Race 4 Penstock

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