Guide Book On Custom Power Devices

Guidebook on Custom Power Devices
Technical Report
EPRI Project Manager
A. Sundaram
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
Guidebook on Custom Power
Devices
1000340
Final Report, November 2000
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
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PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
EPRI PEAC Corporation
ORDERING INFORMATION
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Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
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Copyright 2000 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
iii
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
EPRI PEAC Corporation
942 Corridor Park Blvd.
Knoxville, TN 37932
Principal Investigator
C. Perry
Investigators
A. Mansoor
W. Sunderman
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Guidebook on Custom Power Devices, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000340.
v
REPORT SUMMARY
This report provides engineers in the electric power industry with a comprehensive guide to
proper selection, specification, operation, and maintenance of custom power devices and
describes in detail the tools necessary to perform these tasks. For proper application and sizing,
the report provides the data equipment vendors require. Possible operation or maintenance
concerns also are discussed to provide engineers with a heads up for possible problem areas.
Background
The move toward a global economy is forcing companies to improve their product quality and
plant efficiency to stay competitive. Electric power disturbances are often seen as one of the
largest causes of equipment shutdown and product defects. Therefore, companies are placing
ever-increasing demands on their energy suppliers to improve the quality and reliability of their
service. To answer this call for better power quality, many energy suppliers are turning to custom
power devices. However, few engineers have had exposure to custom power devices and their
proper application. Those engineers, who may or may not be well versed in power quality, are
the target audience for this report. Though custom power devices continue to mature, they are
not plug and play devices like equipment traditionally used in power distribution and
transmission systems. Therefore, proper selection, sizing, and specification are not always
straightforward processes. Engineers need to first understand the power quality performance of
the energy-supply system, then they must identify the customers production process. Finally,
they must choose a proper range of custom power devices that addresses customers' needs.
Objective
To provide engineers in electric power companies with the tools necessary to properly assess the
application of custom power devices.
Approach
The project team first consulted EPRI reports, scholarly papers, vendor literature, and conference
presentations. When practical, the team incorporated data from these sources into this report. A
survey of existing customer power installations was performed to determine any possible
concerns with regard to installation, operation, and maintenance. The team then determined the
types of information and calculations that the typical engineer would need when approaching a
vendor of custom power devices. Finally, team members examined possible system interaction
problems involving custom power devices.
Results
Although some custom power technologies are quite mature, none are as straightforward to apply
as traditional devices in the power delivery system, such as voltage regulators, reclosers, and
fuses. Engineers need to perform a great deal of up-front work before approaching a vendor of
vi
custom power devices. This helps ensure selection of the proper device as well as a good
installation. Selecting and installing a custom power device that has been forced to fit the
situation by a vendor wanting to push a particular device should be avoided. Proper education of
power engineers can prevent this from occurring. Many custom power devices require control
tuning or modification after installation to guarantee the device's optimum performance in the
system. A well-designed power quality monitoring system can greatly improve the success of
this process by providing data about the device's performance and the energy-delivery system in
which it is installed. With proper engineering, planning, and monitoring, successful application
of a custom power device is possible.
EPRI Perspective
By providing utilities with the tools necessary to evaluate the installation of custom power
devices, EPRI is enabling utilities to effectively use these devices to meet their customers desire
for better power quality and reliability. Discussion of the power quality environment gives
engineers an overview of power quality disturbances in distribution systems as well as
information on their relative frequency of occurrence. The overview of custom power devices
provides engineers with a general description of custom power devices available, as well as a
discussion of power quality events they can mitigate. The chapters dealing with individual
custom power devices provide data needed by engineers to properly size, specify, install, and
monitor a custom power device. They also provide information on possible operation and
maintenance concerns for particular devices. It is important that utilities have this information to
properly apply custom power devices to mitigate power quality events affecting customers.
Keywords
Power quality
Custom power
vii
ABSTRACT
plant efficiency in order to stay competitive. Electric power disturbances are often seen as one of
the largest causes of equipment shutdown and product defects. Therefore, companies are placing
power devices. However, many engineers have had little or no exposure to custom power devices
and their proper application. This report addresses the need of engineers in the electric power
industry for a comprehensive guide to the proper selection, specification, operation, and
maintenance of custom power devices.
The objective of this report is to provide engineers in electric power companies with the tools
necessary to properly assess the application of custom power devices. The target audience for
this report is engineers who may or may not be well versed in power quality. Custom power
devices continue to mature but are not plug and play devices, unlike much of the equipment
traditionally used in a power distribution and transmission system. The proper selection, sizing,
and specification are often not straightforward processes. An engineer needs to first understand
the power quality performance of the energy-supply system. The phenomena of concern to the
customers production process must be identified, and then a proper range of custom power
devices that may address the problem must be chosen. This report gives the engineer the tools
necessary to perform these tasks. The report then provides the engineer with the necessary data
that must be provided to the equipment vendor for proper application and sizing. Also, possible
operation or maintenance concerns are discussed to provide the engineer with a heads up for
possible problem areas.
ix
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 1-1
What is Custom Power? ..................................................................................................... 1-1
Why is a Guidebook Necessary?........................................................................................ 1-1
Contents............................................................................................................................. 1-2
Major Sources .................................................................................................................... 1-3
2 RANGE OF POWER QUALITY VARIATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION CIRCUITS..................... 2-1
Background ........................................................................................................................ 2-1
Categories of Power Quality Variations............................................................................... 2-1
Voltage Sags, Swells, and Interruptions.............................................................................. 2-2
System Faults ................................................................................................................ 2-3
Overvoltages and Undervoltages ................................................................................... 2-4
Voltage Flicker ............................................................................................................... 2-5
Harmonic Distortion........................................................................................................ 2-5
Voltage Notching............................................................................................................ 2-6
Transient Disturbances .................................................................................................. 2-7
Ranges of Power Quality Variations from the EPRI DPQ Project........................................ 2-8
Characteristics of Voltage Sags........................................................................................ 2-13
Point of Initiation .......................................................................................................... 2-13
Point of Recovery......................................................................................................... 2-14
Phase Shift .................................................................................................................. 2-15
Impact of Phase Shift on Sizing of Static Voltage Compensator (SVC) ........................ 2-16
Missing Voltage............................................................................................................ 2-18
3 OVERVIEW OF CUSTOM POWER DEVICES..................................................................... 3-1
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 3-1
Reactive Power and Harmonic Compensation Devices ...................................................... 3-1
Static Var Compensator ................................................................................................. 3-1
x
Static Shunt Compensation............................................................................................ 3-4
Compensation Devices for Voltage Sags and Momentary Interruptions.............................. 3-4
Source Transfer Switch.................................................................................................. 3-4
Static Source Transfer Switch (SSTS) ....................................................................... 3-4
Thyristor (SCR)..................................................................................................... 3-4
Gate-Turnoff (GTO) Thyristor................................................................................ 3-5
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch.................................................................................. 3-6
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch (HSMSTS)..................................... 3-7
Static Series Compensators........................................................................................... 3-7
Static Voltage Regulators............................................................................................... 3-8
Backup Energy Supply Devices ..................................................................................... 3-9
Battery UPS .............................................................................................................. 3-9
SMES...................................................................................................................... 3-10
Flywheel .................................................................................................................. 3-10
Device Matrix.................................................................................................................... 3-12
Cost Analysis for Custom Power Devices......................................................................... 3-13
Equipment Costs vs. System Cost vs. Installation Cost................................................ 3-13
Life-Cycle Cost............................................................................................................. 3-13
Comparing Life-Cycle Costs for Competing Custom Power Systems........................... 3-14
Analysis Method........................................................................................................... 3-15
4 REACTIVE POWER AND HARMONIC COMPENSATION DEVICES ................................. 4-1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................... 4-1
Static Var Compensator ................................................................................................. 4-1
Static Var Compensator Topologies .......................................................................... 4-1
Direct Connected Static Var Compensation for Distribution Systems ........................ 4-4
Static Shunt Compensator (DSTATCOM) ...................................................................... 4-4
Procedure 1 Preliminary Assessment ................................................................................. 4-5
Procedure 2 Data Gathering............................................................................................... 4-7
Procedure 3 Technical Analysis.......................................................................................... 4-9
Substituting Into Equation 4-6.................................................................................. 4-12
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System......................................................... 4-17
Static Var Compensator ............................................................................................... 4-18
Static Shunt Compensator (DSTATCOM) .................................................................... 4-18
Installation Considerations................................................................................................ 4-19
xi
Documentation............................................................................................................. 4-19
Set Points .................................................................................................................... 4-19
General Issues............................................................................................................. 4-19
Maintenance..................................................................................................................... 4-20
Static Var Compensator ............................................................................................... 4-20
Static Shunt Compensator (DSTATCOM) .................................................................... 4-20
Operation.......................................................................................................................... 4-21
Primary Sensing Devices ............................................................................................. 4-21
Voltage Sampling- High-Voltage.............................................................................. 4-21
Current Sampling- Fixed Current Transformers....................................................... 4-22
Current Sampling Clamp-On Devices................................................................... 4-22
Recommended On-Hand Instrumentation ............................................................... 4-22
Operation Experience .................................................................................................. 4-22
5 HIGH-SPEED SOURCE TRANSFER SWITCH DEVICES ................................................... 5-1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................... 5-1
Static Source Transfer Switch........................................................................................ 5-1
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch....................................................................................... 5-2
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch .......................................................... 5-3
Availability of Sources.................................................................................................... 5-3
Independent Feeders..................................................................................................... 5-4
Feeder Capacity for Load............................................................................................... 5-4
Synchronization ............................................................................................................. 5-4
Procedure 3 Technical Analysis.......................................................................................... 5-6
Step 1: Sag Performance at the Proposed Location....................................................... 5-6
Step 2: Voltage Drop Due to Transfer ............................................................................ 5-8
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System ......................................................... 5-10
Documentation............................................................................................................. 5-11
Set Points .................................................................................................................... 5-12
General Issues............................................................................................................. 5-12
Maintenance..................................................................................................................... 5-12
Static Source Transfer Switch...................................................................................... 5-13
xii
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch..................................................................................... 5-13
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch ......................................................... 5-13
Operation.......................................................................................................................... 5-13
Voltage Sampling - High-Voltage............................................................................. 5-14
Operation Case Study 1............................................................................................... 5-15
Year 1 ..................................................................................................................... 5-15
Year 2 ..................................................................................................................... 5-16
System Description.................................................................................................. 5-16
PQ Monitoring Data................................................................................................. 5-17
Lesson Learned....................................................................................................... 5-19
System Description.................................................................................................. 5-19
PQ Monitoring Data................................................................................................. 5-19
Lesson Learned....................................................................................................... 5-22
6 STATIC SERIES COMPENSATORS................................................................................... 6-1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................... 6-1
Procedure 3 Technical Analysis........................................................................................ 6-12
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System ......................................................... 6-17
Documentation............................................................................................................. 6-18
Set Points .................................................................................................................... 6-18
General Issues............................................................................................................. 6-19
Maintenance..................................................................................................................... 6-19
Operation.......................................................................................................................... 6-19
xiii
Recommended On-Hand Instrumentation ............................................................... 6-21
Case Study Waveform Indicates Interaction between Utility and Static Series
Compensation Device.................................................................................................. 6-21
Case Study - Lessons Learned from Application of Leading Edge Technology............ 6-25
Overview................................................................................................................. 6-25
Device Operation History......................................................................................... 6-25
Lessons Learned..................................................................................................... 6-26
Case Study Failure of SSC Due to Bypass Breaker Problem.................................... 6-27
Overview................................................................................................................. 6-27
Operation History .................................................................................................... 6-27
7 BACKUP ENERGY SUPPLY DEVICES .............................................................................. 7-1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................... 7-1
Battery UPS................................................................................................................... 7-2
SMES............................................................................................................................. 7-2
Mechanical Energy......................................................................................................... 7-2
Power Quality Events..................................................................................................... 7-3
Physical Space .............................................................................................................. 7-3
Circuit Protection............................................................................................................ 7-3
Procedure 2 Data Gathering ............................................................................................... 7-4
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System ........................................................... 7-5
Installation Considerations.................................................................................................. 7-5
Documentation............................................................................................................... 7-5
Set Points ...................................................................................................................... 7-6
General Issues............................................................................................................... 7-6
Maintenance....................................................................................................................... 7-7
Operation............................................................................................................................ 7-7
Primary Sensing Devices ............................................................................................... 7-8
Voltage Sampling - High-Voltage............................................................................... 7-8
Current Sampling- Fixed Current Transformers......................................................... 7-8
Current Sampling Clamp-On Devices..................................................................... 7-8
Operation Experience .................................................................................................... 7-8
xiv
8 STATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS .................................................................................... 8-1
Fundamentals..................................................................................................................... 8-1
Procedure 1 Preliminary Assessment ................................................................................ 8-3
Verify the source of the power quality issue ................................................................... 8-3
Procedure 2 Data Gathering .............................................................................................. 8-3
Procedure 3 Technical Analysis........................................................................................ 8-10
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System......................................................... 8-11
Documentation............................................................................................................. 8-12
Set Points .................................................................................................................... 8-13
General Issues............................................................................................................. 8-13
Maintenance ................................................................................................................ 8-13
Operation.......................................................................................................................... 8-14
Operation Experience .................................................................................................. 8-15
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................. 9-1
A APPENDIX..........................................................................................................................A-1
Survey Data for Utility Feedback on Custom Power Demonstration Projects......................A-1
Target 19: Distribution Systems Integrated Custom Power Guidebook ..........................A-1
Section 1. Type of Custom Power Technology ...................................................................A-2
Section 2. Purpose of Installation........................................................................................A-2
Section 3. Customer Description.........................................................................................A-3
Section 4. Distribution System Description .........................................................................A-5
Section 5. Point-of-Service Monitoring................................................................................A-7
Section 6. Utility-Side Improvements ..................................................................................A-8
Section 7. Selection of Specific Mitigation Technology .......................................................A-9
Section 8. Employed Mitigation Technology .......................................................................A-9
Section 9. Energy Storage Media (If Applicable)............................................................... A-10
Section 10. Project Development...................................................................................... A-13
Section 11. Changes Necessitated by the Installation....................................................... A-14
xv
Section 12. Project Installation.......................................................................................... A-17
Section 13. Project Commissioning .................................................................................. A-18
Section 14. Project Performance ...................................................................................... A-19
Section 15: Future Deployment of Future Units ................................................................ A-24
B MANUFACTURERS OF CUSTOM POWER DEVICES.......................................................B-1
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Typical Short Duration RMS Voltage Variations ..................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-2 Example RMS Measurement of Undervoltage........................................................ 2-5
Figure 2-3 Example of Voltage Flicker Caused by an Arc Furnace.......................................... 2-5
Figure 2-4 Example Voltage Waveform with 3
rd
Harmonics and 17.42% Total Harmonic
Distortion ......................................................................................................................... 2-6
Figure 2-5 Example Waveform with Notching.......................................................................... 2-7
Figure 2-6 Impulsive Transient Waveform............................................................................... 2-8
Figure 2-7 Oscillatory Transient Waveform Caused by a Capacitor Energizing....................... 2-8
Figure 2-8 Sag and Interruption-Rate Magnitude Histogram, One-Minute Aggregation,
6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites................................................. 2-9
Figure 2-9 Sag and Interruption Rate Magnitude Duration Histogram, One-Min
Aggregation 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites........................... 2-10
Figure 2-10 Histogram for Magnitude of Oscillatory Transients Measurement Events,
3/1/95 to 9/1/95, Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites............................................... 2-10
Figure 2-11 Magnitude and Duration of Oscillatory Transients Measurement Events,
Figure 2-12 Voltage THD and Individual Harmonics, 6/1/93 to 3/1/95, All Sites..................... 2-11
Figure 2-13 Histogram of Point of Initiation for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated
by Sampling Weights, All Sites ...................................................................................... 2-14
Figure 2-14 Histogram of Point of Recovery for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated
by Sampling Weights, All Sites ...................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-15 Histogram of Maximum Transition Angle during Event for RMS Variations
Figure 2-16 Voltage Injection Required to Correct Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal
with No Phase Shift ....................................................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-17 Voltage Injection Required to Correct Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal
with 60-Degrees Phase Shift ......................................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-18 Missing Voltage - Duration Summary Table: Rate of RMS Variations per 365
days 60-Second Temporal Aggregation 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Unweighted, All Sites............ 2-19
Figure 3-1 FC/TCR (Fixed Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor)......................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2 TSC (Thyristor Switched Capacitor) ....................................................................... 3-3
Figure 3-3 TSC/TCR (Thyristor Switched Capacitor/ Thyristor Controlled Reactor) ................. 3-3
Figure 3-4 Thyristor (SCR) ...................................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-5 Medium-Voltage Static Source Transfer Switch...................................................... 3-6
xviii
Figure 3-6 Hybrid Source Transfer Switch............................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-7 SSC Using Line Energy Supply (LES) .................................................................... 3-7
Figure 3-8 Static Voltage Regulator......................................................................................... 3-9
Figure 3-9 Medium-Voltage Standby UPS............................................................................. 3-10
Figure 4-1 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) ....................................................................... 4-2
Figure 4-2 Typical Static Var System Configuration (FC/TCR) for Arc Furnace
Applications ..................................................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-3 Thyristor Switched Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC/TCR) .................. 4-3
Figure 4-4 Example Diagram of Static Shunt Compensator..................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-5 Example of Flicker. Note the Correspondence Between the Voltage and
Current ............................................................................................................................ 4-9
Figure 4-6 Example Distribution System................................................................................ 4-10
Figure 5-1 Preferred/Alternate Configuration........................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2 Split Bus Configuration........................................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-3 Hybrid Source Transfer Switch............................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-4 One-Line Diagram of System With Instrument Transformer Locations ................. 5-17
Figure 5-5 Plot of Daily Average Even Harmonic Current at the Output of the SSTS............. 5-18
Figure 5-6 Normal Voltage and Current Waveforms.............................................................. 5-18
Figure 5-7 Voltage and Current Waveforms with Increased Even Harmonics........................ 5-19
Figure 5-8 Preferred Source Phase A Voltage and Current ................................................... 5-20
Figure 5-9 Preferred Source Phase B Voltage and Current ................................................... 5-20
Figure 5-10 Preferred Source Phase C Voltage and Current ................................................. 5-21
Figure 5-11 Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase A Current................................... 5-21
Figure 5-12 Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase B Current................................... 5-22
Figure 5-13 Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase C Current................................... 5-22
Figure 6-1 Basic Configuration of a Stored Energy Supply Static Series Compensator ........... 6-2
Figure 6-2 Voltage Sag to 50% with 0 Phase Shift ............................................................... 6-14
Figure 6-3 RMS Plot of Voltage Sag to 50% with No Phase Shift .......................................... 6-15
Figure 6-4 Missing Voltage Required for Full Compensation for Voltage Sag to 50% with
No Phase Shift............................................................................................................... 6-15
Figure 6-5 Voltage Sag to 50% with 30 Phase Shift ........................................................... 6-16
Figure 6-6 RMS Plot for Voltage Sag to 50% with 30 Phase Shift ...................................... 6-16
Figure 6-7 Missing Voltage Required for Full Compensation for Voltage Sag to 5-% with
30 Phase Shift............................................................................................................ 6-17
Figure 6-8 Diagram of the Medium-Voltage Distribution System, Including Capacitor
Banks ............................................................................................................................ 6-22
Figure 6-9 Voltage Captured on the Utility Side Before and During the Event ....................... 6-22
Figure 6-10 Voltage Captured on the Load Side Before and During the Event ...................... 6-23
Figure 6-11 Voltage Captured on the Utility Side During the Clearing of the Event................ 6-23
xix
Figure 6-12 Voltage Captured on the Load Side During the Clearing of the Event ................ 6-24
Figure 6-13 Increase in Peak Voltage Caused by the Interaction Between the SSC
Device and the Utility System........................................................................................ 6-24
Figure 6-14 Increase in the Sixth Harmonic Voltage Distortion Caused by the Interaction
Between the SSC.......................................................................................................... 6-25
Figure 7-1 Typical Medium Voltage Offline UPS...................................................................... 7-1
Figure 8-1 Typical Static Voltage Regulator............................................................................. 8-2
xxi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Categories of Power Quality Variation IEEE 1159-1995 ....................................... 2-2
Table 2-2 Service Conditions for the Voltage Supply at Medium Voltage ............................. 2-12
Table 2-3 Voltage Injection Required by an SVC for a Range of Voltage Sag Magnitude
and Phase Shift ............................................................................................................. 2-18
Table 2-4 Rate of Occurrence for Various Levels of Cumulative Voltage Compensation
for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Unweighted, All Sites............................................ 2-18
Table 3-1 Custom Power Device Application Matrix .............................................................. 3-12
Table 4-1 Source Characteristics ............................................................................................ 4-7
Table 4-2 Calculate Required Size for Voltage Control and Power Factor Control................. 4-13
Table 5-2 Example Voltage Sag Performance Table............................................................... 5-8
Table 5-3 Voltage Drop Calculation......................................................................................... 5-9
Table 6-1 Transmission Line Fault Performance Table ........................................................... 6-4
Table 6-2 Area of Vulnerability Calculation Table for the Transmission System ...................... 6-5
Table 6-3 Calculating Expected Performance at End User for a Specific Sag Severity............ 6-6
Table 6-4 Effect of Transformer Connections Given a Line to Ground Fault on Phase A
of the Primary .................................................................................................................. 6-7
Table 6-5 Table for Collecting Data Concerning Distribution Feeder Circuits........................... 6-8
Table 6-6 Worksheet for Calculating Voltage Sag Performance for Distribution Faults.......... 6-10
Table 6-7 Load Characteristic Data....................................................................................... 6-11
Table 6-8 Source Characteristics .......................................................................................... 6-12
Table 6-9 Static Series Compensation .................................................................................. 6-13
Table 6-10 SSC Operation Summary(Rose, Thomas, Custom Power Reduces Wafer
Production Losses: A Case Study, Power Quality 2000 Proceedings, October
2000) ............................................................................................................................. 6-28
Table 8-1 Static Voltage Regulator Compensation Ranges..................................................... 8-2
Table 8-2 Effect of Transformer Connections Given a Line to Ground Fault on Phase A
of the Primary .................................................................................................................. 8-5
Table 8-3 Table for Collecting Data Concerning Distribution Feeder Circuits........................... 8-6
Table 8-4 Worksheet for Calculating Voltage Sag Performance for Distribution Faults............ 8-8
Table 8-5 Load Characteristic Data......................................................................................... 8-9
Table 8-6 Source Characteristics .......................................................................................... 8-10
xxii
Table B-1 Shunt Reactive Compensation Devices .................................................................B-1
Table B-2 Source Transfer Switch..........................................................................................B-2
Table B-3 Static Series Compensation...................................................................................B-2
Table B-4 Backup Energy Supply Devices .............................................................................B-3
Table B-5 Static Voltage Regulators.......................................................................................B-3
1-1
1
INTRODUCTION
What is Custom Power?
Custom power is the employment of power electronic or static controllers in distribution systems
rated at 1 kV through 38 kV for the purpose of supplying a level of reliability and/or power
quality that is needed by electric power customers who are sensitive to power variations. Custom
power devices, or controllers, include static switches, inverters, converters, injection
transformers, master-control modules, and/or energy-storage modules that have the ability to
perform current-interruption and voltage-regulation functions in a distribution system.
A custom power device is a type of power-conditioning device. Power-conditioning technology,
in general, includes all devices used to correct the problems faced by end-user loads in response
to voltage sags, voltage interruptions, voltage flicker, harmonic distortion, and voltage-regulation
problems. While the term power conditioning has no voltage boundary, the term custom
power is bound by the scope of IEEE P1409 to include power conditioners with input and/or
output voltage ratings between 1 and 38 kV. This scope limits the location of a custom power
device to a medium-voltage primary distribution system. However, the technologies used at
medium voltage and low voltage are frequently very similar.
Why is a Guidebook Necessary?
plant efficiency in order to stay competitive. Electric power disturbances are often seen as one of
the largest causes of equipment shutdown and product defects. Therefore, companies are placing
power devices. However, many engineers have had little or no exposure to custom power devices
and their proper application
The application of a custom power device is much more complicated than the application of
traditional distribution equipment, such as a voltage regulator. Couple this with the fact that
many utility engineers are not well versed in power quality and you get a situation in which a
successful application of a custom power device is difficult. Manufacturers can be a very good
source of information for the engineer. However, the engineer needs to know what type of device
bests fits a particular situation before contacting manufacturers. Otherwise, a manufacturer may
try to promote a less-than-ideal solution in order to sell a particular device that it produces.
Introduction
1-2
There are also many technical reports and papers written on custom power devices in general, as
well as specific devices, such as static series compensators. However, the average utility
engineer will not have all of these at his or her disposal. Taking the time to research the subject
and acquire the related documents may not be an option when a customer is demanding a
solution to a particular problem. Due to the long lead times of custom power devices and the
distribution construction often necessary for their installation, an engineer often has a very short
period of time in which to choose a type of device and begin contacting manufacturers. Knowing
what types of information a manufacturer will need to properly size and specify a custom power
device will help the engineer reduce the time needed to get the proper device on order.
This guidebook addresses these issues by collecting pertinent information into a single
document, providing education to the engineer with regard to power quality disturbances,
providing information about the types of disturbances each custom power device can mitigate,
and providing information about the information needed for sizing and specification of custom
power devices. The guidebook also provides the engineer with any operation and maintenance
concerns that may be associated with a particular type of device, as well as pointing out the types
of issues than can arise when using a leading-edge device.
Contents
This guidebook begins with a description of power quality events and a discussion of their
prevalence in distribution systems. The purpose is to give someone who is unfamiliar with power
quality the information necessary to determine the types of events that need to be mitigated. Next
is an overview of the types of custom power devices currently available. A brief discussion of
the operation of each type of device is provided along with information on the types of power
quality events that each can mitigate. Also, a discussion of the relative cost and cost/benefit
analysis of custom power devices is provided.
The available custom power devices are then divided into chapters, with each chapter covering
specific detail relevant to the particular type of device. Items covered include sizing, specifying,
operation, and maintenance. Case studies are also provided to illustrate the possible concerns.
These case studies provide the engineer with some insight as to the possible problems that may
be encountered during the installation and operation of the device.
The results of a survey of utilities that have applied custom power devices are provided. The
survey results illustrate the fact that custom power devices cannot, at this point, be applied as
easily as traditional distribution equipment. The results also indicate some of the barriers
financial and technicalto applying custom power devices. It also indicates the need to work
with the manufacturer before and after installation in order to ensure a successful project.
Last, a list of manufacturers of custom power devices is provided, along with some information
on the ratings of the devices they offer. The list of available devices increases every year as
advances in power electronics are made. This list provides a good starting point when looking for
a device of a certain type.
Introduction
1-3
Major Sources
The goal of this guidebook is not to duplicate work currently available, but rather to collect
information into a single location and then supplement it with the information and procedures
needed by a utility engineer. To that end, information from the following sources was used when
possible. Other sources are listed in the Bibliography. However, those sources listed here
provided the bulk of the currently available information on the application of custom power
devices.
IEEE P1409 Guide for Application of Power Electronics for PQ Improvement on
Distribution Systems Rated 1kV through 38kV.
EPRI, Custom Power Primer: Power Quality Solutions for Energy Delivery Systems. Palo
Alto, California, 1999.
EPRI, StaticTransfer Switch Primer. Palo Alto, California, EPRI Report TR-111697, 1998.
EPRI, System Compatibility Test Protocol for Static Voltage Restoration Devices, Palo Alto,
California, 1999.
2-1
2
RANGE OF POWER QUALITY VARIATIONS IN
DISTRIBUTION CIRCUITS
Background
Proper application of custom power devices requires a good understanding of the electrical
environment in which the custom power device will be installed. This requires an understanding
of the characteristics of the power quality events and the range of expected variation of these
events in a typical distribution circuit. Understanding the electrical environment is critical not
only to properly specify the performance requirement for custom power devices but also to
ensure that such devices have the proper immunity to survive the electrical environment of the
distribution system.
In this chapter, we review the definition of power quality events as described in IEEE Std. 1159-
1995, Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality, review the expected
ranges based on the EPRI Distribution Power Quality Project, describe some of the subtle
characteristics of electrical disturbances (specifically characteristics of voltage sags such as
phase shift and point-of-initiation), and describe any standards pertaining to the range of
variation in electrical environment for distribution-level voltages. The material in this section of
the report has been compiled from several EPRI reports that have been published over the last
decade and represent a vast body of knowledge about the range of power quality variations in
distribution circuits. For a more detailed treatment of power quality variations, refer to the
sources referenced in the Bibliography.
Categories of Power Quality Variations
The recent proliferation of electronic equipment and microprocessor-based controls has caused
electric utilities to redefine power quality in terms of the quality of voltage supply rather than
availability of power. In this regard, IEEE Std. 1159-1995, Recommended Practice for
Monitoring Electric Power Quality, has created categories of power quality disturbances based
upon duration, magnitude, and spectral content. Table 2-1 shows the categories of power quality
disturbances with spectral content, typical duration, and typical magnitude.
Range of Power Quality Variations in Distribution Circuits
2-2
Table 2-1
Categories of Power Quality Variation IEEE 1159-1995
Categories
Spectral
Content
Typical
Duration
Typical
Magnitudes
1.0 Transients
1.1 Impulsive
1.1.1 Voltage
1.1.2 Current
1.2 Oscillatory
1.2.1 Low Frequency
1.2.2 Medium Frequency
1.2.3 High Frequency
2.0 Short-Duration Variations
2.1 Sags
2.1.1 Instantaneous
2.1.2 Momentary
2.1.3 Temporary
2.2 Swells
2.1.1 Instantaneous
2.1.2 Momentary
2.1.3 Temporary
3.0 Long-Duration Variations
3.1 Overvoltages
3.2 Undervoltages
4.0 Interruptions
4.1 Momentary
4.2 Temporary
4.3 Long-Term
5.0 Waveform Distortion
5.2 Voltage
5.3 Current
6.0 Waveform Notching
7.0 Flicker
8.0 Noise
> 5 kHz
> 5 kHz
< 500 kHz
3002 kHz
> 2 kHz
0100th Harmonic
0100th Harmonic
0200 kHz
< 30 Hz
0200 kHz
< 200 s
< 200 s
< 30 cycles
< 3 cycles
< 0.5 cycle
0.530 cycles
30120 cycles
2 sec2 min
0.530 cycles
30120 cycles
2 sec2 min
> 2 min
> 2 min
< 2 sec
2 sec2 min
> 2 min
steady-state
steady-state
steady-state
intermittent
intermittent
0.11.0 pu
0.11.0 pu
0.11.0 pu
0.11.8 pu
0.11.8 pu
0.11.8 pu
0.11.2 pu
0.81.0 pu
0
0
0
020%
0100%
0.17%
Voltage Sags, Swells, and Interruptions
Figure 2-1 shows a typical voltage sag, swell, and interruption. A voltage sag is a short-duration
decrease of the RMS voltage value, lasting from 0.5 cycles to 120 seconds. Sags are caused by
faults on the power system or by the starting of a relatively large motor or other large load. A
voltage swell may accompany a voltage sag.
A voltage swell occurs when a single line-to-ground fault on the system results in a temporary
voltage rise on the unfaulted phases. Removing a large load or adding a large capacitor bank can
also cause voltage swells, but these events tend to cause longer-duration changes in the voltage
magnitude and will usually be classified as long-duration variations.
2-3
A voltage interruption is the complete loss of voltage. A disconnection of electricity causes an
interruption, usually by the opening of a circuit breaker, line recloser, or fuse. For example, if a
tree comes into contact with an overhead electricity line, a circuit breaker will clear the fault
(short circuit), and the customers who receive their power from the faulted line will experience
an interruption.
Figure 2-1
Typical Short Duration RMS Voltage Variations
System Faults
Customers located on a faulted feeder will experience one or more interruptions, depending on
the type of fault and the reclosing practices of the utility. For a temporary fault, one or two
reclosing operations may be required before normal power is restored. For a permanent fault, a
number of reclosing operations (usually no more than three) will occur before the breaker locks
out. In this case, the customers will experience a sustained interruption. Note that the
interruptions associated with successive operations of the breaker may be of varying duration
depending on relay characteristics. This gives the fault multiple opportunities to clear. The
multiple operations also give sectionalizers the opportunity to operate. These devices typically
open during the dead time after counting a certain number of consecutive incidents of fault
current within a short time period. The number of fault-current incidents is typically two,
although it could be one if the sectionalizer is at the head of an underground cable, where all
faults are assumed to be permanent.
Reclosing practices vary from utility to utility and, perhaps, from circuit to circuit. Feeders that
are mostly underground will typically not have any reclosing operations because most faults on
underground feeders are permanent. Some utilities are experimenting with faster reclosing times
(0.3 to 0.5 seconds) for the first reclosing operation in order to solve residential customer
problems with momentary interruptions. Residential electronic equipment such as clock radios,
VCRs, microwaves, and televisions can often ride through a 0.5-second interruption but cannot
ride through longer-duration interruptions. At medium-voltage levels, it usually takes a minimum
of 10 to 12 cycles of dead time to ensure that the ionized gases from faults are dispersed.
Customers located on parallel feeders (that is, feeders that are supplied from the same bus as the
faulted feeder) will experience a voltage sag for as long as the fault remains on the line. On
medium-voltage systems, nearly all faults are cleared within one second and can be cleared in as
short as three cycles, depending on the magnitude of the fault current and the relay settings. This
means that customers on parallel feeders will experience at least one voltage sag lasting from
2-4
three cycles to about one second and, possibly, additional voltage sags if reclosing operations are
required. Voltage sags are much less severe than interruptions, and the duration of interest is
only the period of time that the fault is on the line.
If there are more than two feeders supplied from a common distribution bus, then voltage sags
will occur more frequently than actual interruptions because a fault on any one feeder will cause
voltage sags on all the other feeders.
Customers that are fed directly from the high-voltage system (that is, transmission-fed or large
industrial customers) usually have more than one line supplying the facility. Therefore,
interruptions should be very infrequent for these customers. However, these customers will
experience voltage sags during fault conditions over a wide range of the transmission system.
Voltage sags caused by faults in a high-voltage system generally have more consistent
characteristics. The faults that originate in the medium- and low-voltage systems tend to have
more variation.
Because voltage sags can be much more frequent than interruptions, it is important to consider
the impacts and possible remedies for voltage sags separately from the required solutions for
complete interruptions.
Overvoltages and Undervoltages
Long-duration voltage variations that are outside the normal magnitude limits are most often
caused by unusual conditions on the power system. For example, out-of-service lines or
transformers sometimes cause undervoltages, as shown in Figure 2-2. These types of RMS
voltage variations are normally short-term, lasting less than one or two days. Voltage variations
lasting for a longer period of time are normally correcting by adjusting the tap on a step-voltage
regulating transformer.
The root cause of most voltage-regulation problems is that there is too much impedance in the
power system to properly supply the load. The load draws the current that gives a voltage drop
across the system impedance. The resistive drop is in phase with the current, and the reactive
drop is 90 degrees out of phase. Therefore, the load voltage drops low under heavy load. High
voltages can come about when the source voltage has been boosted to overcome the impedance
drop and the load suddenly diminishes.
2-5
Figure 2-2
Example RMS Measurement of Undervoltage
Voltage Flicker
Voltage flicker is an amplitude modulation of voltage at frequencies less than 25 Hz, which the
human eye can detect as a variation in the light intensity of a lamp. Voltage flicker, as shown in
Figure 2-3, is caused by an arcing condition on the power system. The arcing condition may be a
normal part of a production process, such as a resistance welder or an electric arc furnace.
Voltage step changes greater than 3% usually caused by the starting of large motors may also
cause light flicker, but these events are better classified as sags. Flicker problems can be
corrected with the installation of filters, static VAR systems, or distribution static compensators.
Figure 2-3
Example of Voltage Flicker Caused by an Arc Furnace
Harmonic Distortion
The phenomenon known as harmonic distortion is the presence of frequencies in the voltage that
are integer multiples of the fundamental system frequency, which is 60 Hz for the North
2-6
American system. Electronic loads and saturable devices generate harmonic distortion.
Computers, lighting, and electronic office equipment generate harmonic distortion in commercial
facilities. In industrial facilities, adjustable-speed motor drives and other power electronic loads
can generate significant amounts of harmonics.
It is generally safe to assume that the sine wave voltage generated in central power stations is
very good. In most areas, the voltage found on transmission systems typically has much less than
1% percent distortion. However, the distortion may reach 5% to 8% as we move closer to the
load. At some loads, the current waveforms will barely resemble a sine wave. Figure 2-4, for
example, shows a waveform with over 17% harmonic distortion.
Figure 2-4
Example Voltage Waveform with 3
rd
Harmonics and 17.42% Total Harmonic Distortion
Electronic power converters can chop the current into a variety of waveforms. Most distortion is
periodic, or harmonic. That is, it repeats cycle after cycle, changing very slowly, if at all. This
has given rise to the widespread use of the term harmonics to describe perturbations in the
waveform. However, this term must be carefully qualified to make sense.
Solutions to problems caused by harmonic distortion include the installation of active or passive
filters at the load or bus, or taking advantage of transformer connections that enable cancellation
of zero-sequence components.
Voltage Notching
Voltage notching is caused by the commutation of power electronic rectifiers. It is an effect that
can cause concern over power quality in any installation where converter equipment, such as
variable-speed drives, are connected. The effect is caused by the switching action of a drives
input rectifier. When the DC-link current in a drive is commutated from one rectifier thyristor to
the next, there is an instant during which a line-to-line short circuit occurs at the input terminals
of the rectifier. The result is a phase voltage with four notches per cycle caused by a six-pulse
electronic rectifier, as shown in Figure 2-5.
2-7
Figure 2-5
Example Waveform with Notching
Transient Disturbances
Transient disturbances are caused by the injection of energy by switching or by lightning. The
disturbance may either be unidirectional or oscillatory. Lightning, electrostatic discharge, load
switching, or capacitor switching may cause a unidirectional transient, as shown in Figure 2-6,
which is characterized by its peak value and rise time. On the other hand, an oscillatory transient,
as shown in Figure 2-7, is characterized by its frequency content. It can be caused by a switching
operation such as the energization of a capacitor bank, distribution line, or cable, or the opening
of an inductive current. Low- and medium-frequency oscillations, with principle frequencies less
than 2 kHz, are normally caused by power system switching. The switching of a load close in
proximity to the point of interest may cause high-frequency oscillations with principle
frequencies above 2 kHz. Common solutions to problems caused by transients include the
application of surge arresters, passive and active filters, and isolation transformers.
2-8
Figure 2-6
Impulsive Transient Waveform
Figure 2-7
Oscillatory Transient Waveform Caused by a Capacitor Energizing
Ranges of Power Quality Variations from the EPRI DPQ Project
The EPRI project RP3098, commonly known as the EPRI Distribution System Power Quality
Monitoring Project, or EPRI DPQ Project, consisted of a power quality monitoring survey of 277
measurement locations on the primary distribution feeder of 24 electric utilities across the
continental United States, which provided geographical and operating-practice diversity. The
result of the site-selection process was a set of 100 distribution feeders in the voltage range of 4
kV to 33 kV.
The monitoring sites were determined by using a systematic and controlled selection process to
provide a wide diversity of distribution system conditions. The monitored feeders ranged in
voltage level from 4.16 kV to 34.5 kV and in length from 1 to 80 km. The 27 months of
2-9
monitoring resulted in a staggering collection of data that was statistically summarized in a three-
volume EPRI report
1
. The data collected during the measurement period provides a statistically
valid sample of the range of power quality events in a distribution system, although not
necessarily valid at any given site.
Figures 2-8 through 2-12 provide some results from the DPQ study to quantify the electrical
environment based on the monitoring results. The data shows the sag and interruption rate,
average magnitude and duration of sags and interruptions, oscillatory transient rate, average
magnitude of oscillatory transients, voltage THD, and individual harmonics from all monitoring
sites.
Sag and Interruption Rate Magnitude His togram
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0

t
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RMS Voltage Magnitude (%)
S
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C
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Sag and Interruption Rate
Cumulative Frequency
All Sites, One-Minute Aggregate Window
Figure 2-8
Sag and Interruption-Rate Magnitude Histogram, One-Minute Aggregation, 6/1/93 to 6/1/95,
Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites

1
An Assessment of Distribution System Power Quality : Volumes 1-3; TR-106294-V1, TR-106294-V2, TR106294-
V3
2-10
1

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3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Duration
Voltage (%)
Sag and Interruption Rate
per Site per 365 Days
RMS Voltage Variation Sag and Inte rruption Rate
Figure 2-9
Sag and Interruption Rate Magnitude Duration Histogram, One-Min Aggregation 6/1/93 to
6/1/95, Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites
Peak Magnitude of Oscillatory Transients
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
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4.0
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Absolute Peak Magnitude (pu)
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Events per Month
Cumulative Frequency
Figure 2-10
Histogram for Magnitude of Oscillatory Transients Measurement Events, 3/1/95 to 9/1/95,
2-11
1
3
5
7
9
1
1
1
3
1
5
1.05
1.2
1.35
1.5
1.65
1.8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
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0.7
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0.9
1
Peak Magnitude and Duration of Os cillatory Trans ients
M
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D
a
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s
Pe ak Magnitude
(pu)
Duration (ms)
Figure 2-11
Magnitude and Duration of Oscillatory Transients Measurement
Events, 3/1/95 to 9/1/95, Treated by Sampling Weights, All Sites
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
THD 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Voltage THD and Individual Harmonics
%

o
f

F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
CP05
Me an
CP95
Figure 2-12
Voltage THD and Individual Harmonics, 6/1/93 to 3/1/95, All Sites
In addition to the DPQ results, Table 2-2 shows the expected electrical environment in the
distribution level as defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in IEC
61800-3.
2-12
Table 2-2
Service Conditions for the Voltage Supply at Medium Voltage
Phenomenon Reference
document
Level
Frequency variations IEC 61800-3 f
LN
2%
f
LN
4% (for separated supply networks)
Frequency rate-of-change IEC 61800-3 2% f
LN
/s
Voltage variations IEC 61800-3 t 10%
+ 10%, -15% 1 min
Voltage fluctuations IEC 61800-3 Maximum step amplitude:
12% within the tolerance band
minimum interval between steps: 2s
rise time: 5 periods of the supply
Voltage dips IEC 61800-3 10 50% t 300 ms
(noticeable changes of operating
characteristics, self recoverable)
Voltage unbalance IEC 61800-3 HV supply:
2% (zero- and negative sequence components)
LV supply:
3% (zero- and negative sequence components)
Voltage harmonics:
steady state
transient
IEC 61800-3 THD 8% steady state
THD 10% t 15 s
Voltage interharmonics:
steady state
transient
IEC 61800-3 THD 0,5%
THD 0,75% 5 15s
Commutation notches IEC 61800-3 depth: 40% U
LWM
area: 120% x degrees
2-13
Characteristics of Voltage Sags
Voltage sags are the principal power quality concern for process industries. Typically, these
disturbances are described in terms of RMS magnitude and duration. However, compatibility
testing has shown that other characteristics of a disturbance play a role in whether a process will
be affected. In order to develop effective mitigation methods and better define power quality
contracts between a power provider and a power consumer, we need better information on how
these characteristics impact process industries and statistically how much the characteristics vary
in magnitude, duration, and frequency of occurrence.
EPRI initiated a project under WO5460 to identify the characteristics of voltage sags, develop
mathematical definitions to quantify these characteristics and determine statistics describing the
range of values and frequency of occurrence for certain waveform characteristics. These
characteristics were described by EPRI project WO5460 through the use of the database of
voltage waveforms collected during EPRI DPQ project. Key findings of the project that impact
proper application of custom power devices are summarized in the following sections. For a
complete assessment of the statistics for waveform characteristics, refer to EPRI TR- 112692,
Waveform Characteristics of Voltage Sags: Statistical Analysis.
Point of Initiation
Figure 2-13 shows statistics related to the point of initiation for the RMS variation measurements
recorded during the EPRI DPQ Project. The point of initiation indicates where the disturbance
begins to deviate from the expected waveform in the measurement. The point of initiation value
is reported in degrees with a range from -180 degrees to 180 degrees. The reference sine wave
for this characteristic has zero values at -180, 0, and 180 degrees; a negative peak is at -90
degrees, and a positive peak is at 90 degrees. It is interesting to note that the sag initiation was
not biased to voltage peaks. That is to say, sags are no more likely to occur at a voltage peak than
any other location on the waveform. Figure 2-13 shows that the characteristic known as point of
initiation is fairly random. However, the eight tallest columns in the histogram suggest that there
are points in a waveform where a voltage sag seems slightly more likely to initiate. These eight
columns represented 36.7% of the weighted samples and represent these four ranges: from -180
to -160 degrees, from -70 to -50 degrees, from 0 to 20 degrees, and from 110 to 130 degrees.
2-14
Histogram of Point of Initiation
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
-
1
8
0
-
1
6
0
-
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4
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Point of Initiation (degrees)
R
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0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Records: 101779
Minimum: -178.594
Average: -6.617
Maximum: 180.0
C
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F
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Figure 2-13
Histogram of Point of Initiation for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated by Sampling
Weights, All Sites
Point of Recovery
The point of recovery indicates where the disturbance begins to return to the expected waveform
based on a pre-disturbance phase-locked loop in the measured waveform. It estimates where the
voltage disturbance ends. Figure 2-14 shows a histogram of the point of recovery for the RMS
variation measurements from the EPRI DPQ Project. In creating the plot, an additional filter was
applied that ignored records with a point of recovery less than -180 degrees or greater than 180
degrees. It is interesting to note that nearly 60% of the measurements showed a point of recovery
between two ranges: from -150 to -80 degrees and from 30 to 100 degrees. The two favored
recovery ranges are separated by 180 degrees and suggest that recovery occurs as the voltage
approaches a positive or negative peak.
2-15
Histogram of Point of Recovery
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
-
1
8
0
-
1
6
0
-
1
4
0
-
1
2
0
-
1
0
0
-
8
0
-
6
0
-
4
0
-
2
00
2
0
4
0
6
0
8
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
4
0
1
6
0
Point of Recovery (degrees)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Records: 102219
Minimum: -178.594
Average: -10.311
Maximum: 180.0
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 2-14
Histogram of Point of Recovery for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Treated by Sampling
Weights, All Sites
Phase Shift
Figure 2-15 shows a histogram of the maximum phase shift experienced during each RMS
variation event of the EPRI DPQ Project. Interestingly, a greater number of samples exhibited a
negative initial transition angle. This tendency may be explained through the inductive nature of
fault currents. However, this is speculation because no in-depth analysis of this relationship was
performed.
2-16
Histogram of Maximum Phase Angle
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
-
4
5
-
4
0
-
3
5
-
3
0
-
2
5
-
2
0
-
1
5
-
1
0
-
505
1
0
1
5
2
0
2
5
3
0
3
5
4
0
Maximum Phase Angle (degrees)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Records: 101835
Minimum: -179.988
Average: -3.758
Maximum: 179.998
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 2-15
Histogram of Maximum Transition Angle during Event for RMS Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95,
Impact of Phase Shift on Sizing of Static Voltage Compensator (SVC)
Because an SVC injects voltage on an instantaneous basis, the amount of required boost to
correct a given voltage sag depends not only on the magnitude of the sag but also on the phase
shift. This situation can be explained using the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in Figure
2-16 and Figure 2-17. If phase shift is ignored for a 60% voltage sag, an SVC needs the
capability of injecting 40% voltage, as shown in Figure 2-16.
However, as shown in Figure 2-17, if the voltage sag down to 60% is associated with a 60-
degree phase shift, then the required boost capability of the SVC must be greater than 40%.
2-17
Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal for 5 Cycles Without
any Phase Shift
-100%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Voltage Injection Capability Required by the SSC to Correct
Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal for 5 Cycles Without any
Phase Shift
-100%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
V
nom
= 100% V
sag
= 60%
V
inj
= 40%
Figure 2-16
Voltage Injection Required to Correct Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal with No Phase
Shift
Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal for 5 Cycles with 60
Degrees Phase Shift
-100%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

Injection Capability Required by the SSC to Correct Vltage
Sag Down to 60% of Nominal for 5 Cycles with 60 Degrees
Phase Shift
-100%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
V
nom
= 100%
V
sag
= 60%
Phase Shift = 60
o
V
inj
= sqrt{V
2
nom
+ V
2
sag
- 2 V
nom
V
sag
Cos ()}
= 56%
Figure 2-17
Voltage Injection Required to Correct Voltage Sag Down to 60% of Nominal with 60-
Degrees Phase Shift
The phase shift at any given site will vary based on the fault characteristics and the system
characteristics of the site. If statistical data for phase shift at the SVC site is available, the
required boost capacity for the SVC should be sized based on this information. Table 2-3 shows
the required voltage injection capability of an SVC for different phase shifts. If site-specific
phase-shift data is not available, then data based on the DPQ results shown in Figure 2-17 may
2-18
be used. Based on that, 95% of the voltage sag events during the DPQ project had a phase shift
of 15 degrees or less. As can be seen from Table 2-3, for a 15-degree phase shift, the error
introduced in the sizing of the SVC is negligible, and the impact of phase shift can be ignored for
SVC sizing.
Table 2-3
Voltage Injection Required by an SVC for a Range of Voltage Sag Magnitude and Phase
Shift
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
80% 20% 23% 31% 40% 50% 61% 71%
60% 40% 41% 45% 50% 57% 64% 72%
40% 60% 61% 62% 65% 68% 72% 77%
20% 80% 80% 81% 82% 83% 85% 87%
Voltage Injection Capability in % of RMS nominal Voltage Required by the
SSC for Correcting Voltage Sags with Phase Shift in Degrees
Voltage Sag Magnitude
In % of RMS Nominal
Missing Voltage
Missing voltage is the instantaneous difference between a measured waveform and an ideal
waveform based on pre-fault conditions. It is the voltage that is required to be injected to make
the actual voltage waveform become a continuation of the pre-fault waveform. Instantaneous
missing voltage can be computed at any point in the voltage waveform. However, a good
procedure to summarize the statistics of missing voltage is to examine the duration that the
missing voltage is above a given level.
Table 2-4 shows the rate of occurrence required for various cumulative voltage compensation
requirements. In each case, a determination of how many times per 365 days various levels of
missing voltage occur is made. For example, the average site in the EPRI DPQ Project would
have required at least 75% compensation at least 17.35 times per 365 days.
Table 2-4
Rate of Occurrence for Various Levels of Cumulative Voltage Compensation for RMS
Variations 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Unweighted, All Sites
Missing Voltage for Full Compensation
RMS Variations
per 365 days
>5% >25% >50% >75% >100% >125% >150% >175%
142.07 142.07 71.42 33.97 17.35 8.50 3.61 1.56 1.05
Figure 2-18 presents a summary of the duration of missing voltage that was measured for RMS
variations from the EPRI DPQ Project. One example interpretation of the graph is that an
average compensation of at least 25% was required for no more than 30 ms a total of 20 times
per 365 days. The results were computed by using 60-second temporal aggregation, which means
that measurements that were recorded close chronologically were not counted more than once.
2-19
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
>5%
>25%
>50%
>75%
>100%
>125%
>150%
>175%
Duration (msec)
M
i
s
s
i
n
g

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Missing Voltage - Duration Requirements (60-Sec Aggregation )
60-70
50-60
40-50
30-40
20-30
10-20
0-10
Rate of Occurrence
per 365 Days
Figure 2-18
Missing Voltage - Duration Summary Table: Rate of RMS Variations per 365 days 60-
Second Temporal Aggregation 6/1/93 to 6/1/95, Unweighted, All Sites
3-1
3
OVERVIEW OF CUSTOM POWER DEVICES
Introduction
When a power-conditioning device is applied in a medium-voltage distribution system of an
electric utility, its purpose is to protect an entire plant, an entire feeder, or a block of customers
or loads. These devices generally have voltage input and/or output ratings between 1 kV to 38
kV, with load ratings in excess of 500 kVA. The concept of applying a power-conditioning
device at this level is known as custom power. The following is a brief discussion of the types of
custom power devices, their application, and economic considerations.
Reactive Power and Harmonic Compensation Devices
Static Var Compensator
There are three basic configurations of static var compensators (SVCs):
1. FC/TCR (Fixed Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor)
The FC/TCR shown in Figure 3-1 behaves like an infinitely variable reactor. The unit consists of
one reactor in each phase, controlled by a thyristor switch. The reactive power is changed by
controlling the current through the reactor by means of varying the firing angle on the thyristor
valve--that is, by controlling the duration of the conducting interval in each half cycle by issuing
gating pulses to the thyristors. A fixed harmonic filter provides the capacitive VARs necessary
for voltage regulation under the worst design conditions. With the filter supplying VARs, the
TCR controls the amount of reactive power supplied.
Overview of Custom Power Devices
3-2
Figure 3-1
FC/TCR (Fixed Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor)
2. TSC (Thyristor Switched Capacitor)
The TSC shown in Figure 3-2 consists of several sets of thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) steps.
The major components include capacitors, thyristor switches, fuses, and possibly a soft-start
resistor system. The control valve, or switch, is often an anti-parallel connected thyristor/diode or
thyristor/thyristor pair. A parallel diode would keep the capacitors charged while in standby.
When the control turns on a capacitor step, the charged capacitor results in no voltage across the
closing thyristor. This is a result of the natural operation of the thyristor in which the device,
when gated, waits until the correct forward biasing voltage is applied across its terminals (t few
volts). This results in no inrush current, no generated harmonics, and no over duty on the
capacitors. A capacitor is switched off at current zero, leaving it charged and ready to be
switched again. The controlled switching allows for thousands of operation per day.
When the TSC is started, a resistor in series with the capacitors can ensure that they are charged
slowly, avoiding high inrush currents and system disturbances. After the capacitors are initially
charged, a contactor can automatically bypass the resistor.
3-3
Figure 3-2
TSC (Thyristor Switched Capacitor)
3. TSC/TCR (Thyristor Switched Capacitor/ Thyristor Controlled Reactor)
As shown in Figure 3-3, a combination o
f TSC and TCR is, in the majority of cases, the optimum solution. With a combined TSC/TCR
compensator, continuously variable reactive power is obtained throughout the complete control
range, as well as full control of both the inductive and the capacitive parts of the compensator.
This is a very advantageous feature, permitting optimum performance during large disturbances
in the power system.
Figure 3-3
TSC/TCR (Thyristor Switched Capacitor/ Thyristor Controlled Reactor)
3-4
Static Shunt Compensation
The term STATCOM (STATic COMpensator) is typically used to describe an SVC used in both
transmission and distribution applications. However, the term DSTATCOM (Distribution
STATCOM) specifically applies to equipment used for power quality improvement in
distribution applications.
The DSTATCOM is a shunt-connected, solid-state switching power converter that exchanges
reactive current with the distribution system. It uses three-phase inverters to transfer leading and
lagging reactive current with the distribution system via a coupling transformer. The
DSTATCOM supplies reactive power by synthesizing its output for insertion into the AC power
system via high-frequency power-electronic switching. More specifically, the DSTATCOM
employs a pulse-width modulation (PWM) scheme to generate higher-than-fundamental-
frequency currents for injection into the distribution system. This injection of high-frequency
current allows the DSTATCOM to provide harmonic-load-current compensation.
Compensation Devices for Voltage Sags and Momentary Interruptions
Source Transfer Switch
Source transfer switches have been used throughout the industry for many decades for protecting
critical loads from power system disturbances. However, within the last decade, the technology
available for such devices has broadened their application. Solid-state switches can now be used
for the switching operation, thus decreasing the switching time and allowing for a more seamless
transfer of load from one source to another.
This section focuses on the newer technology available to utilities, specifically the static source
transfer switch. In addition, traditional automatic transfer switches, high-speed vacuum-switched
transfer systems, and hybrid (both solid-state and electromechanical) systems will be addressed.
Static Source Transfer Switch (SSTS)
The almost seamless transfer of the load from the preferred feeder to the alternate feeder is made
possible with the use of solid-state devices. The most common solid-state device used in a static
source transfer switch (SSTS) is the thyristor, or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). The thyristor
was first developed in 1957 by General Electric Research Laboratories and offers one of the
highest power-handling capabilities of solid-state devices. The gate-turnoff (GTO) thyristor has
also been tested for use in static SSTSs.
Thyristor (SCR)
Figure 3-4 shows a schematic diagram of an SCR, which is one of the simplest of devices to
control. The thyristor only requires two things to operate it: 1) forward biasing and 2) a gate
current. Applying a positive voltage to Vac forward biases the thyristor. Once the thyristor is
3-5
forward biased, a gate signal can be applied and the thyristor will begin to conduct. The current
path during conduction is from the anode to the cathode. Once the device begins to conduct, it is
latched on until it is reverse biased, and the gate signal can be removed. The voltage drop across
the thyristor during conduction is typically 2 to 3 volts.
Figure 3-4
Thyristor (SCR)
The thyristor cannot be turned off from the gate. Only when the anode-to-cathode current tries to
go negative, under the influence of the circuit in which the thyristor is connected, does the
thyristor turn off.
Due to the high power ratings that have been available, thyristors have been the preferred solid-
state device used in SSTSs. The thyristor is a proven device and is cheaper than devices of
similar type (GTO, MCT, and so on).
Gate-Turnoff (GTO) Thyristor
The gate-turnoff thyristor, often called GTO, is very similar to the thyristor in that it requires a
gate signal and forward bias in order to conduct, and ceases to conduct when the anode-to-
cathode current tries to go negative. The difference lies in turning the thyristor off. Unlike the
thyristor, which is a line-commutated device, the GTO can be turned off with the gate. During
conduction, if a large enough negative gate signal is applied, the device will cease to conduct.
The gate signal required to turn the device off is typically one-fifth to one-third the amount of the
anode current.
Unfortunately, due to the nature of the device, such functionality sacrifices the availability of
high power ratings. GTOs are currently not available in ratings equivalent to that of the thyristor,
and in order to control when the GTO is turned off, a significant amount of power is required.
For these reasons, the GTO is not currently being used in stand-alone SSTS systems, but has
worked its way into the design of other protection devices. For example, Superconductivity, Inc.
uses a GTO in the static switch of its SSD (Superconducting Storage Device).
Recently, due to the development of higher-rated thyristors, medium-voltage SSTS systems have
found their way into the industry (see Figure 3-5). These types of devices can range up to 35
MVA at 35 kV, thus allowing the SSTS to be a facility-wide solution.
3-6
Figure 3-5
Medium-Voltage Static Source Transfer Switch
Hybrid Source Transfer Switch
One company uses a hybrid static switch in parallel with a vacuum switch (see Figure 3-6).
During normal operation, the preferred-side vacuum switch conducts, thus supplying power to
the load. When the need for a transfer arises, the vacuum switch opens and the appropriate
thyristor is gated. The opening of the vacuum switch produces an arc voltage, which in turn
forward biases one of the preferred-side thyristors. Once this occurs, the load current begins to
conduct through the preferred-side static switch. The load is then transferred to the alternate
source similar to the standard static SSTS. Once the alternate-side static switch picks up the load,
it is then transferred to the alternate-side vacuum switch. This method increases efficiency to
almost 100% and also eliminates the need for cooling devices.
Figure 3-6
3-7
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch (HSMSTS)
Due to the increased cost of medium-voltage SSTSs, some manufacturers have decided to reduce
the cost of the device by replacing the traditional thyristor with a vacuum switch. Although less
expensive and more efficient (at approximately 99% or greater) than the thyristor-controlled
switch, the transfer time is longer. Typical transfer times associated with the HSMSTS are on the
order of 1 cycles, with no crossover time (paralleling of the two sources). Therefore, this
approach is only a viable solution if the particular load in need of protection can withstand a 1-
cycle system disturbance.
Static Series Compensators
The purpose of a static series compensator (SSC) is to mitigate the effect that voltage sags and
interruptions have on a sensitive customer loads. An SSC is a waveform-synthesis device based
on power electronics that is series-connected directly into the utility primary distribution circuit
by means of a set of single-phase insertion transformers. An SSC can be configured to use line
energy supply (LES) to provide the energy from the utility feeder that is to be injected into the
distribution circuit. LES systems may incorporate energy drawn from the incoming affected line,
as in Figure 3-7. In this system configuration, when the voltage of one or more phases of the
incoming supply drops below a preset threshold, the SSC injects a controlled amount of voltage
into the affected phase or phases to boost load voltage back to a more suitable level. The load,
therefore, is buffered from the disturbance.
Figure 3-7
SSC Using Line Energy Supply (LES)
LES is an alternative to stored energy supply (SES), where the injected energy is provided from
some form of onboard, precharged energy source such as DC energy-storage capacitors, flywheel
energy storage, superconducting magnetic energy storage, or batteries. An SSC may be
configured to operate as a standby compensator, where the inverter is not actively in the circuit
until triggered by a power quality event that requires action to restore the incoming source
3-8
voltage to acceptable quality. Alternatively, the SSC may be continually online providing voltage
injection during idle conditions that will be able to offset voltage drop caused by sudden increase
in load current through the series-insertion transformer.
Static Voltage Regulators
A traditional step-voltage regulator is a regulating transformer in which the voltage of the
regulated circuit is automatically controlled in steps by means of taps, without interrupting the
load. Such a transformer can boost or buck the voltage supplied to a load with a delay on the
order of seconds. In contrast, a static voltage regulator (see Figure 3-8) provides voltage boost
during voltage sags by using thyristor switches that rapidly change taps on three single-phase
transformers. This type of device is generally limited in design to provide up to 50% boost. The
rating of an SVR needs to be the same as the full rating of the load that it will protect, because
during sag or swell events, the SVR will carry the entire load. An SVR is not effective during
voltage interruptions since there is no voltage to transform.
An SVR can be configured to have a 1:1 transformer winding ratio to act solely as a load
protection device. However, it can also be configured to operate as a step-down transformer, in
lieu of a traditional step-down transformer.
During voltage sags in which the SVR switches to full 50% boost, the current drawn by the unit
can be twice as high as normal. Therefore, upstream protection devices need to be coordinated
with the SVR so that they do not operate in response to the higher current levels. The SVR does
not compensate for the change in the voltage waveshape that occurs during voltage sags. If the
load is sensitive to changes in waveshape, such as phase angle jump, then it may still
malfunction during the event, even though the magnitude of the voltage is within design
requirements.
Since an SVR is designed to operate with individual phase control, an SVR can also correct for
unbalanced voltages during steady-state operation.
3-9
Figure 3-8
Static Voltage Regulator
Backup Energy Supply Devices
Battery UPS
In a traditional online UPS system, the load is always fed through the protection unit. The
incoming AC power is rectified into DC power, which is used charge a bank of batteries. This
DC power is then inverted back into AC power to feed the load. If the incoming AC power fails,
the inverter is fed from the batteries and continues to supply the load. Generally, UPS systems
are designed to provide five to fifteen minutes of backup. In addition to providing ride through
for power outages, an online UPS system provides very high isolation of the critical load from all
power line disturbances. Online UPSs can be purchased in a variety of sizes.
An offline UPS allows the utility to power the equipment until a disturbance is detected and a
mechanical switch transfers the load to the battery-backed inverter. The transfer time from the
normal source to the battery-backed inverter is important. Since there is a very short-duration
interruption during the time it takes to detect a mains failure, start the inverter, and transfer the
load to battery power, a load with some inherent ride-through capability is required for the
interruption to go unnoticed. A standby UPS utilizing a static, rather than mechanical, switch can
provide nearly seamless transfer from utility power to battery power during utility events.
Currently available medium-voltage UPSs are standby using a static switch (Figure 3-9). When
3-10
applying a standby UPS, it is important to remember that it does not provide any transient
protection or voltage regulation.
Figure 3-9
Medium-Voltage Standby UPS
SMES
In a superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system, energy is stored within a magnet
that is capable of releasing megawatts of power within a fraction of a cycle to replace a sudden
loss in line power.
When the SMES is in standby mode, the current continually circulates through the normally
closed switch of the voltage regulator and power supply, and back to the magnet. The power
supply provides a small trickle charge to replace the power lost in the non-superconducting part
of the circuit. When a voltage disturbance is sensed, the controller directs real and reactive power
from the inverter to the load, while automatically opening the solid-state isolation switch within
two milliseconds. When the voltage across the capacitor bank reaches a pre-set level, the switch
closes. This sequence repeats until normal voltage from the utility feeder is restored. This
systematic transfer of energy from the magnet to the load keeps the load interruption free for
optimum performance of your critical processes.
The SMES recharges quickly and can repeat the charge/discharge sequence thousands of times
without any degradation of the magnet. Recharge time can be accelerated to meet specific
requirements, depending on the systems capacity. Currently, there is no manufacturer of SMES-
based UPS systems, as the only manufacturer has redirected its focus on other applications of
SMESs.
Flywheel
Kinetic energy is stored in a rotating mass (the flywheel), and this energy is drawn upon when
needed to smooth the operation of the machine. A flywheel, in essence, is a mechanical battery
storing kinetic energy. Until recently, flywheels were only useful for short ride through or output
3-11
modulation on mechanical devices. Modern power electronics, bearing and composite
technologies are making flywheels a viable way to provide ride-through and mitigate power
quality events.
An electric motor is used to accelerate the flywheel up to speed, converting electrical to
mechanical energy. When the flywheel reaches its "fully charged" speed, it enters a mode
comparable to a chemical batterys "float" state, in which a small amount of power is drawn from
the supply to maintain a constant RPM (overcoming the friction losses of the bearings). This
same motor is then used as a generator to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy when
needed. In order to provide useful ride-through duration and power, flywheel systems are run at
high speeds (>3600 rpm), and therefore use what is effectively an ASD to control the speed and
acceleration of the flywheel whenever line power is available. When energy is removed from the
flywheel, these same electronics are used to modulate the power returned to the supply, ensuring
consistent required voltage levels for as long as possible.
Because retrieving stored power from a flywheel requires only mechanical slowing and no
chemical reactions, flywheels have several advantages when compared with batteries:
Frequent cycling of flywheel systems does not appreciably diminish useful life.
Flywheels are relatively unaffected by ambient temperature extremes.
The rate at which energy can be exchanged into or out of the flywheel is limited only by the
motor-generator and power electronics design. Therefore, it is possible to withdraw large
amounts of energy in a far shorter time than with traditional chemical batteries.
Environmental issues present with batteries are not present with flywheel systems.
For all of their advantages, Current flywheels have relatively low specific energy, making them
more suited to dealing with momentary PQ events rather than to long outages.
3-12
Device Matrix
Table 3-1 is a matrix meant to give an overview of the types of events which can be mitigated by
the custom power devices discussed in this guidebook. Using this matrix, a distribution engineer
can narrow down the types of devices that need to be investigated as possible solutions for a
particular power quality problem.
Table 3-1
Custom Power Device Application Matrix
Static VAR
Compensati
on
Static Shunt
Compensati
on
Source
Transfer
Switch
Static
Series
Compensat
or
Static
Voltage
Regulator
Backup
Energy
Supply
Device
Voltage Sag
1
3

5

Voltage
Swell

Momentary
Interruption

Capacitor
Switching
Transient

Voltage
Regulation

Flicker
Harmonics
2
4
Reactive
Power
Compensati
on

Cost Range
(US $)
50-200/kvar
120-
175/kvar
500-
1000/amp
150-
250/kVA
80-125/kVA
750-
1500/kVA
1
Generally corrects up to 100% of nominal for a sag to 65%-70% of nominal. Corrects up to 90% of nominal for a
sag to 55%-60%.
2
One model corrects 5
th
and 7
th
. Other two models have de-tuning filters provided for harmonics determined to be
present.
3
Generally corrects up to between 90% and 100% for a sag to 20% of nominal.
4
One model corrects 25
th
harmonic, the other corrects to the 17
th
.
5
One device corrects for voltage sags to 0%. Others typically correct for voltage sags down to 50%.
3-13
Cost Analysis for Custom Power Devices
Custom power devices and most other power quality mitigation technologies are costed on the
basis of power rating in either $/kW or $/kVA. With proper duediligence, this number can be
helpful in arriving at a rough-estimated equipment cost, but the total cost of a complete system
includes a number of additional elements besides the equipment cost. For leading edge
technologies such as custom power devices, the total system cost can be greater than the
equipment cost by a factor of two. A life cycle cost analysis should be conducted in order to
assess the system cost for the device or technology under consideration.
Equipment Costs vs. System Cost vs. Installation Cost
A totally integrated system will include input/output switchgear, possibly a by-pass switch, and a
user interface that may include remote monitoring and data acquisition system. Other items could
include auxiliary thermal management equipment (water-cooling, air conditioning), packaging or
cabinets, and special safety equipment. These items can drive the aggregate cost well beyond the
initial individual equipment cost estimates for storage and power system equipment. Some
equipment manufacturers include these items in their cost estimates and sometimes, especially if
there are optional features, these other system elements costs are extra.
Beyond the system cost, which usually means as delivered to the customer site, there is
installation cost. In order to better estimate these costs, it would be prudent to include
preliminary sketches for the proposed equipment installation, and to develop budgetary materials
and labor requirements for use in estimating total project cost. Hand-marked drawings and
sketches should be prepared to better understand any installation issues of concern. Included
should be a one-line electrical diagram of how the proposed custom power device will fit into the
electrical distribution system. It is advisable to approximate the site location of equipment
layouts, proposed cabling and wiring routing with ratings, and conduit and cable tray sizes. A
proposed system control interface with the facilities operations center should be included. From
this information, an accurate estimate of a bill of materials with labor costs can be attempted.
Life-Cycle Cost
Beyond capital cost for all custom power systems there is another consideration: the life-cycle
cost. Components of life-cycle cost are carrying charges for the capital equipment, fixed
operating and maintenance costs, and variable operating and maintenance costs. Included in the
variable cost is the cost of charging electricity for auxiliary power and, if an energy storage
system is involved, to recharge the storage system and to keep it ready between discharges. This
will differ for each technology because of differing energy efficiencies or losses, and differing
parasitic energy needs. Batteries, for example, require trickle charging, flywheels have losses due
to bearing friction, and superconducting magnetic energy storage operates with a continually
running refrigeration. Also included in the variable cost is the replacement cost of system
components with relatively short life, such as some battery cells. Thus, the different systems
have very different operating and maintenance (O&M) requirements in addition to varying up-
front capital costs.
3-14
Comparing Life-Cycle Costs for Competing Custom Power Systems
An adequate economic comparison between competing systems requires an analysis of all of the
costs incurred over the entire life cycle of the equipment. In addition to the purchase price of the
device and related equipment, this includes all of the material and labor costs required to obtain
and install the equipment and put it into operation, plus all of the costs to operate and maintain
the equipment during the entire time it is expected to be in service.
The best way to determine which is the most economical system is to perform a detailed
analysis. There are no rules of thumb that will consistently and accurately predict the outcome
of an analysis. The following is an outline of elements typically included in total life-cycle cost.
The items marked with a check () are the most significant items.
Procurement expenses:
Project engineering expenses of selecting and specifying the equipment
Purchasing department expenses
Freight and receiving expenses
Cost of equipment and installation materials
Controller, options, and accessories
() Customer power device and energy storage (if required)
Operator interface equipment
Supervisory control equipment
Machine interface equipment
() Transformer and other power distribution equipment
Wire, cable, conduit, and miscellaneous materials
() Installation and commissioning expenses
Operating expenses
Electric power
Periodic maintenance
Planned downtime
Unplanned downtime
Repair
Spare and/or replacement parts and equipment
3-15
Analysis Method
The net present value (NPV) method of investment is used for analyzing the life-cycle cost of
custom power systems. The NPV method of investment evaluates accounts for the time value of
money by discounting all cash flows to present value using the required rate of return. NPV can
be presented by the following formula.
( )
1
]
1
n
0 t
t
1
A
NPV
t
r
Where
At cash flow for the period
n equipment life in years
r required rate of return
After the cash flow for competing systems has been transformed to NPV, a comparative analysis
could be done to assess the life-cycle cost of the system.
4-1
4
REACTIVE POWER AND HARMONIC COMPENSATION
DEVICES
Fundamentals
This class of devices will be referred to as Var Control devices throughout this chapter since they
operate by supplying or absorbing vars from the distribution system.
These devices are designed to mitigate the effects of voltage fluctuations (voltage flicker) created
by arc welders, arc furnaces, and mill-type motor loads, among others. They provide the
additional feature of harmonic filtering. The filtering is achieved through passive or active means
depending on the control device selected. Some of the devices also assist in mitigation of voltage
sags and swells. None of the devices surveyed provides ride-through for momentary
interruptions.
The Var Control devices can be sub-divided into two groups: (1) Static var compensators
(SVCs), and (2) Static Shunt Compensators. Although only the second group has the word
shunt in its name, both groups of compensators are connected in parallel with the distribution
system like common distribution capacitor banks.
SVCs are available from a variety of manufacturers. These are analogous to traditional switched
shunt connected capacitor banks that have been in use for decades in distribution and
transmission systems. In an SVC, the traditional mechanical switch is replaced with a static
switch. SVCs consist of some combination of switched and/or fixed capacitors and reactors and
can be connected to the distribution system either directly, or through the use of a voltage-
matching transformer.
Static Var Compensator Topologies
There are three basic configurations of static var compensators: 1) thyristor switched capacitor,
2) fixed capacitor/thyristor controlled reactor, and 3) thyristor switched capacitor/thyristor
controlled reactor. Each configuration has advantages and disadvantages with regards to
parameters such as installed cost, no-load losses, harmonic generation, and controllability to
name a few.
4-2
1. Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
A TSC (Figure 4-1) consists of several sets of thyristor switched capacitors. The major
components include capacitors, thyristor switches, fuses, and possibly a soft-start resistor system.
The control valve, or switch, is often an anti-parallel connected thyristor/diode or
thyristor/thyristor pair. A parallel diode would keep the capacitors charged while in standby.
When the control turns on a capacitor step, the charged capacitor results in no voltage across the
closing thyristor. This is a result of the natural operation of the thyristor in which the device,
when gated, waits until the correct forward biasing voltage is applied across its terminals. This
results in no inrush current, no generated harmonics, and no over duty on the capacitors.
A capacitor is switched off at current zero leaving it charged and ready to be switched again.
When the TSC is started, a resistor in series with the capacitors can insure that they are charged
slowly, thereby avoiding high inrush currents and system disturbances. After the capacitors are
initially charged, a contactor can automatically bypass the resistor.
Figure 4-1
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
2. Fixed Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC/TCR)
The FC/TCR (Figure 4-2) behaves like an infinitely variable reactor. The unit consists of one
reactor in each phase, controlled by a thyristor switch. The reactive power is changed by
controlling the current through the reactor by means of varying the firing angle on the thyristor
valve (that is, by controlling the duration of the conducting interval in each half cycle by issuing
gating pulses to the thyristors). Delaying the firing of the thyristor valve in relation to the natural
current zero controls the on-state interval.
4-3
A fixed harmonic filter provides the capacitive vars necessary for voltage regulation. With the
filter supplying vars, the TCR controls the amount of reactive power supplied.
FC/TCRs are employed where control requirements demand finer resolution that is not possible
or economical with switched capacitor steps. For example, in applications where the short circuit
ratio is low, very small compensation steps are needed to reduce flicker.
Figure 4-2
Typical Static Var System Configuration (FC/TCR) for Arc Furnace Applications
3. Thyristor Switched Capacitor/ Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC/TCR)
With a combined TSC/TCR compensator (Figure 4-3), continuously variable reactive power is
obtained throughout the complete control range as well as full control of both the inductive and
the capacitive parts of the compensator. This is a very advantageous feature permitting optimum
performance during large disturbances in the power system.
Figure 4-3
Thyristor Switched Capacitor/Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC/TCR)
4-4
Direct Connected Static Var Compensation for Distribution Systems
Historically static var compensation systems have required a voltage-matching transformer for
application at medium voltage. This was done because of the requirement to use low voltage
(600 volt) static devices. Recently static var compensation devices that are designed to connect
directly to medium voltage distribution systems have become available. These SVCs are
available in TSC (thyristor switched capacitor) and TSC/TCR (thyristor switched
capacitor/thyristor controlled reactor) topologies. The TSC devices are best suited for cases
where a predictable amount of capacitance is needed frequently on a circuit. An example of this
is the starting of a large induction motor where the required var compensation is relatively
consistent. The TSC/TCR devices are best suited for applications where more stable var control
is required on a system with continuously varying var demand, such as a circuit supplying an
induction furnace.
Static Shunt Compensator (DSTATCOM)
A typical static shunt compensator (Figure 4-4) consists of three single-phase voltage source
inverters with a common DC bus. Connection to the distribution network is via a standard
distribution shunt transformer; hence simply by altering the turns ratio the static shunt
compensator can be made suitable for all classes of distribution voltages.
Figure 4-4
Example Diagram of Static Shunt Compensator
4-5
In its basic form, the static shunt compensator injects a voltage in phase with the system voltage,
thus providing voltage support and regulation of var flow. Because the device generates a
synchronous waveform, it is capable of generating continuously variable reactive or capacitive
shunt compensation at a level up to the maximum MVA rating of the static shunt compensator.
An advantage of the inverter method is that the amount of compensation the device can provide
varies linearly with the line voltage. For instance, at 70% voltage the static shunt compensator
can provide 0.7 pu compensation, whereas a switched component bank is only capable of
providing about 0.5 pu support.
The static shunt compensator can also be used to reduce the level of harmonics on the
distribution system. The use of high frequency inverters to synthesize the necessary signal means
that the device can inject complex waveforms to cancel out voltage harmonics generated by non-
linear loads. Because the static shunt compensator continuously checks the line waveform with
respect to a reference AC signal, it always provides the correct amount of harmonic
compensation. By a similar argument the static shunt compensator is also suitable for reducing
the impact of voltage transients.
When coupled with a solid-state breaker (mounted upstream of the static shunt compensator) and
energy storage, the static shunt compensator can be used to provide full voltage support to a
critical load. In the event of supply disturbance, the solid-state breaker isolates the line and the
static shunt compensator supports the entire load from its own energy storage. The time interval
that support to the critical load can be maintained is determined by the amount of energy storage
provided while the load power level that can be carried is limited by the MVA rating of the static
shunt compensator inverters.
Procedure 1 Preliminary Assessment
Purpose. Verify the source of the power quality issue. Assess other options.
In the Application Matrix, it is assumed that the Var Control devices were chosen as at least one
possibility for a Custom Power Solution. The distribution engineer should be reminded that only
the DSTATCOM can be equipped to protect the load from large utility events; however, not
from complete interruptions. The other devices in this class do not provide the same level of
protection.
1. Verify the source of the power quality issue.
One of the first steps is to determine the source of the power quality issue. For instance, if the
problem is one of flicker, taking spot measurements at several locations on the utility distribution
system and inside customers facilities will help to find the offending load(s).
Even if the flicker issue is definitely tied to customer-owned production equipment, the
investigator should keep the following points in mind (for any power quality investigation):
Characterize the issue
4-6
Using spot measurements as the problem is manifesting itself, help identify characteristics
unique to the issue. Capability of the monitoring equipment is covered in more detail in the
following procedure for the range of problems that are being dealt with in this document.
Identify the general range of solutions
It may be found that the characteristics of the waveforms and other monitored data will point
directly to a piece of equipment. Careful review of the captured data can possibly point to a
wider range of solutions than just Var Control devices.
As an example, in May 1997 a flicker problem developed after a new resistive spot welder was
installed at a manufacturer of condenser tubes for residential refrigerators. To fill a backlog of
condenser orders, the manufacturer installed the new welder and operated it at full capacity,
while continuing to operate an older resistive spot welder, also at full capacity. The utility
company serving the manufacturer began receiving numerous complaints about flickering lamps.
Rather than focus strictly on static var compensation, which would have been a logical choice,
the investigators also looked at other options like:
a. Stiffening the electrical system by closing the bus tie at the utility substation
b. Changing the welder configuration to reduce the pulse loading.
c. Reducing the size of the welders service transformer to reduce the short-circuit current
drawn by the welder.
d. Moving the welder distribution feeder to a non-residential circuit.
e. Adding VAR compensation at the factory service entrance.
The investigation found that the most cost-effective solution was changing the welder
operational cycle. The solution also led to an optimization of the welding process and allowed
the manufacturer to achieve maximum throughput of high-quality welds.
2. Assess other options.
All options should be investigated for solving the power quality issue. Failure of a component in
a piece of equipment may manifest itself after years of normal operation. Problems with input-
output may result in poor or unstable control of the piece of equipment.
In summary, the power quality problem might indeed require Var Control devices to be installed,
but other issues, like equipment malfunction, may be the culprit. These other items must be
investigated and the most economic solution must be found.
4-7
Procedure 2 Data Gathering
Purpose. Identify and collect the required information for proper sizing, configuration, and
customization of the control device.
1. Collect information regarding the source characteristics
Capacity of the substation transformer supplying this circuit/load
Equivalent impedance at the secondary of the substation transformer supplying this
circuit/load
Distribution Circuit type: Delta, wye, impedance grounded
Distribution line wire types, resistances, and reactances from the substation to the
offending load
Be prepared to calculate the available fault current (with X/R information) for the entire
circuit, and into the offending customers facility.
Use the following, Table 4-1 to record the information.
Table 4-1
Source Characteristics
Parameter Value
Substation Transformer Size (MVA)
Equivalent impedance at the secondary of the
substation transformer
Positive Sequence (pu)
Negative Sequence (pu)
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
Distribution Circuit Type
2. Collect information regarding the load characteristics
Obtain an up-to-date short-circuit study from the offending customer if they have one.
Else, a one-line diagram of the entire facility with major loads recorded should be
sufficient information to perform short-circuit calculations.
Monitor voltage, current, displacement power factor, real power, reactive power voltage
distortion (individual harmonics to the 25
th
), and current distortion (individual harmonics
to the 25
th
) at the point where the problem is manifesting itself. This will usually be at the
point of common coupling. It can also be out on the distribution circuit or within the
facility.
4-8
Monitor with cycle-by-cycle resolution at a sampling rate of at least 128 samples/cycle.
The cycle-by-cycle data can be summarized in longer blocks of time (for example, 60-
second blocks) with minimum, average, and maximum information. However, detailed
data showing the complete worst-case loading sequence should be captured.
Must monitor through a complete plant/building production cycle to capture the worst-
case conditions.
Determine from the customer if they intend to add any additional load in the short or
long-term. Record the particulars of the load(s) to be added, such as type, manufacturer,
model, operational cycle.
3. Collect information regarding the desired improvements in power system performance
Determine the acceptable voltage fluctuations required by the offending customer.
Determine the acceptable voltage fluctuations desired by other key customers in the area,
if there have been complaints or if the control device is being purchased solely by the
utility.
Establish the acceptable voltage fluctuations required by utility operations.
Determine the acceptable step voltage changes that the offending customers equipment
can withstand. That is, can the equipment withstand step changes of a particular
percentage (1%, 2.5%, etc.) from the previous voltage level? This will be important if
cost is a more of a critical factor than fine control over the voltage. Also determine the
acceptable step voltage change that the other customers and the utility can withstand.
Find out what, if any, improvement in harmonic distortion at the point of application of
the Var Control device is desired.
4-9
Figure 4-5
Example of Flicker. Note the Correspondence Between the Voltage and Current
Procedure 3 Technical Analysis
Purpose. Perform detailed analysis on the collected data and information for use in determining
the solution(s) to the power quality problem. This procedure will consider the interactions
between the Var Control device, the distribution system, and the load.
1. Verify that the load which is suspected of causing the voltage fluctuations is, in fact, the
offender.
The first place to look for the answer to this question is in the monitored data. Do the voltage
fluctuations coincide with the operation of the offending load? If current transformers on the
monitor were measuring load current that includes the large load, this can be determined fairly
readily from observation.
In the absence of monitored current (of the large load), use the information collected from the
customer about the load (i.e., short-circuit current/MVA or maximum current draw). This can be
incorporated with the short-circuit availability at the point of monitoring to calculate the
expected voltage drop at that point.
4-10
Other key information regarding the offending load should be collected such as:
Efficiency curves
One-line diagram
Relay and metering one-line diagrams
Size and location of reactors, if any
Existing power factor correction equipment in place
Surge arresters in place
Results of recent system studies like:
Load flow
Harmonic
Short circuit
Coordination
Insulation Coordination
Switching transient
2. Calculate the required size of the Var Control device.
The two operating modes of the devices are voltage control and power factor control. Because
the operation of the device in the field can be changed from voltage to power factor control, it
would be wise to calculate the amount of capacitive and inductive reactance as the greater
required of the two operating modes Table 4-2 is a step-by-step procedure for calculating the size
of a static var compensator. Its use is best illustrated by an example (Figure 4-6).
Figure 4-6
Example Distribution System
4-11
For this example, a plant has just added an arc furnace. The plant is served by a 12,470 V
distribution circuit and other customers on the same feeder are experiencing flicker due to this
expanded operation. It is desired to correct the voltage to 100% of nominal.
The chosen base for this example is 10 MVA, 12.47 kV. Zbase is 15.55 ohms
So far the following information has been gathered:
R
system
= 0.05 per-unit = 0.7775 ohms
X
system
= 0.13 per-unit = 2.0215 ohms
The supply transformer to the plant is : 10 MVA 12470/480Y/277V, 5%. For simplicity, assume
all the impedance is reactance. The rated reactance in ohms is:
778 . 0 05 .
10
47 . 12
(%)
2
2
X
MVA
kV
X
system
xfmr
(4-1)
The load during maximum current draw is 7500 kVA at a 40 percent lagging power factor (3000
kW and 6900 kvar). The equivalent single-phase resistance is found by:

83 . 51
4 . 0 * 5 . 7
47 . 12
2
2
pf MVA
kV
R
system
parallel
(4-2)
The inductive reactance for the load is:
62 . 22
874 . 6
47 . 12
2
2
ar M
kV
X
system
parallel
(4-3)
The series equivalent impedances of the load are:

+

29 . 8 0
62 . 22 83 . 51
62 . 22 83 . 51
2 2
2
2 2
2
xfmr
parallel parallel
parallel parallel
load
R
X R
X R
R (4-4)

+

23 . 18 778 . 0
62 . 22 83 . 51
62 . 22 83 . 51
2 2
2
2 2
2
xfmr
parallel parallel
parallel
parallel
load
X
X R
X R
X (4-5)
To verify the uncompensated voltage drop, at the point of monitoring (and the expected point of
installation of the SVC), use voltage division.
4-12
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
system xfmr load system xfmr load
xfmr load xfmr load
S SVC
X X X j R R R
X X j R R
V V
+ + + + +
+ + +
(4-6)
where
V
SVC
is the uncompensated voltage drop, in per-unit
V
S
is the voltage source (1.0+j0), in per-unit
Substituting Into Equation 4-6
905 .
) 0215 . 2 778 . 0 23 . 18 ( ) 7775 . 0 0 29 . 8 (
) 778 . 0 23 . 18 ( ) 0 29 . 8 (
0 . 1
+ + + + +
+ + +

j
j
V
SVC
The voltage dropped to 90.5% of nominal, or dropped 9.5%.
Although there is an exact algebraic solution to determine the size of the SVC to compensate the
voltage, it is unwieldy. A quicker and more manageable method is to arrive at the size through
iterations.
For the first iteration, start with a value near the reactive load in Vars. In this case, the reactive
load is approximately 6.9 MVAR, so 7 MVAR will be attempted initially. The capacitive
reactance would be:

214 . 18
7
) 905 . 0 47 . 12 (
2
2
ar M
kV
X
SVC
(4-7)
The reason for the .905 multiplier is due to the fact that the voltage at which the capacitors in the
SVC are to be applied is 90.5% of 12,470 volts and the vars vary with the applied voltage
squared.
In order to re-calculate V
SVC
with the static var compensator in the circuit a new parallel
impedance will be introduced into equations 4 & 5. The new parallel impedance is:

+

+
48 . 93
) 21 . 18 ( 62 . 22
21 . 18 62 . 22
SVC parallel
SVC parallel
X X
X X
parallel
X
(4-8)
The re-calculation of equations 4-4 & 4-5 are:

+

64 . 39 0
48 . 93 83 . 51
48 . 93 83 . 51
2 2
2
sated loadcompen
R
4-13

+

76 . 22 778 . 0
) 48 . 93 ( 83 . 51
) 48 . 93 ( 83 . 51
2 2
2
sated loadcompen
X
The compensated voltage is solved for, by re-applying equation 4-6:
006 . 1
) 0215 . 2 778 . 0 76 . 22 ( ) 7775 . 0 0 64 . 39 (
) 778 . 0 76 . 22 ( ) 0 64 . 39 (
0 . 1
+ + + + +
+ + +

j
j
V
SVC
So, on the first iteration, the estimated SVC size of 7 Mvar resulted in voltage of 100.6% of
nominal.
Had the size resulted in too much voltage increase, the next iteration would probably have used a
size between 7 Mvar and the reactive load. Alternatively, had the compensated voltage been too
low, a larger size would have been attempted.
Table 4-2
Calculate Required Size for Voltage Control and Power Factor Control
Voltage
Control
1. Enter the system voltage in kilo-volts (e.g., 13.8): kV
system
kilo-volts
2. Enter the equivalent resistance from the short-circuit
information up to the point where the SVC may be
installed: R
system
ohms
3. Enter the equivalent reactance from the short-circuit
information up to the point where the SVC may be
installed: X
system
ohms
4. Enter the size of the transformer in MVA supplying the
load(s) (e.g., 5 for 5 MVA): MVA
xfmr
MVA
5. Enter the impedance of the transformer supplying the
load(s) (e.g., .05 for 5 percent): Z
xfmr
6. Take Line 1 and square it, divide that result by Line 4,
multiply that result times Line 5. Z
xfmr
ohms
7. Enter the X/R ratio of the transformer (e.g., 10): X/R
8. Square Line 6. Then take that result and divide it by
(1+1/(Line 7)
2
). Take the square root of that result: X
xfmr
ohms
9. Square Line 6 and subtract Line 8 squared. Take the
square root of the remainder: R
xfmr
ohms
10. Enter the load in MVA, during the lowest voltage
condition under current draw: MVA
load
MVA
11. Enter the displacement power factor coincident with Line
10 (e.g. 0.4 lagging for a 40% lagging power factor): PF
load
4-14
12. Square Line 1, divide it by Line 10, and divide that result
by Line 11. This is the parallel resistance representation
of the load : R
parallel
ohms
13. Using the equation below, calculate the parallel reactance
representation of the load. If Line 11 has the word leading
place a minus sign in front of the result:
2 2
2
) 11 10 ( ) 10 (
1
Line Line Line
Line

X
parallel
ohms
14. Convert the parallel resistance representation of the load
to a series representation by:
xfmr
parallel parallel
parallel parallel
R
X R
X R
2 2
2
R
load
ohms
15. Convert the parallel reactance representation of the load
to a series representation by:
xfmr
parallel parallel
parallel
parallel
X
X R
X R
2 2
2
X
load
ohms
16. Determine the uncompensated voltage level at the SVC
with the following equation:
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
system xfmr load system xfmr load
xfmr load xfmr load
X X X j R R R
X X j R R
+ + + + +
+ + +
V
SVCuncomp
per-unit
17. Estimate the size of the SVC by looking at the worst-case
Mvar. Enter the opposite of that value here: Mvar
SVC
Mvar
18. Calculate the SVC reactance from (Line 1 times Line
16)^2, that result divided by Line 17 X
SVC
Ohms
19. Calculate a new parallel load/SVC reactance from Line
18 times Line 13, divided by the sum of Line 18 and Line
13. X
parallelprime
Ohms
20. Substitute Line 19 for X
parallel
in the equation of Line 14
and re-calculate, enter the result here: R
loadprime
Ohms
21. Substitute Line 19 for X
parallel
in the equation of Line 15
and re-calculate, enter the result here: X
loadprime
Ohms
22. Substitute Line 20 for R
load
and Line 21 for X
load
in the
equation of Line 16 and re-calculate, enter the result
here: V
SVCcomp
per-unit
23. If the per-unit voltage in Line 22 is still not at the desired
compensation level, enter another estimate for the static var
compensator Mvar size and repeat steps 18 through 22.
4-15
Power Factor Control
The desired minimum power factor is: PF
minimum
whose angle is found from cos
(PF
minimum
)
minimum
The capacitive kvar required to
achieve the maximum power factor is
under lowest voltage conditions is (use
angle at lowest voltage for
lowest
): kW*(tan(
minimum
) tan(
lowest
)) kvar
capacitive/PF
The inductive kvar required to achieve
unity power factor is equal to the
maximum capacitive kvar (the kvar
recorded during the highest voltage): kvar
inductive/PF
4-16
The final results are calculated by finding the maximum capacitive kvar, and the maximum
inductive kvar, between that required for voltage control and that required for power factor
control.
Final Results
The capacitive kvar required is kvar
capacitive
The inductive kvar required is kvar
inductive
For the DSTATCOM, the current rating, in amperes, is determined from:
2 2
2
) cos( * * 2
X R
V V V
lowest lowest desired
I
+
+

where V
desired
is the desired voltage in volts
V
lowest
is the lowest single-cycle voltage in volts
is the phase angle of the displacement power factor, in degrees, during
the lowest single-cycle voltage.
R is the equivalent resistance, in ohms, up to the point where the Var
Control device is to be installed.
X is the equivalent resistance, in ohms, up to the point where the Var
Control device is to be installed.
DSTATCOM CURRENT RATING amps.
3. Calculate Parallel Resonance Frequency with the source
This section only applies to the SVC class of devices. The resonant points can be calculated
from:
CAP
SC
ar M
MVA
r
h
where h
r
is the harmonic number
MVA
SC
is the short-circuit availability in MVA at the point under
consideration
Mvar
CAP
is the amount of capacitance in Mvar that are on-line.
4-17
This calculation must be repeated for each switching configuration in which there is net
capacitive reactance. It is highly likely that the capacitor units will have to be converted to tuned
filters.
4. Calculate the voltage change for the capacitor step sizes.
The thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) and the TSC/TCR configurations of static var
compensators which switch in discrete amounts of capacitance must be reviewed for changes in
voltage. Particularly on weak systems, this will result in a substantial change in the voltage.
Since the approximate size of the SVC is known from Step 2 in this procedure, the capacitor
sizes can be obtained from the manufacturer. With the capacitor size in Mvar, the change in
voltage (as a percentage) can be calculated from:
% 100 ) (
SC
MVA
ar M
V

where
MVA
SC
is the short-circuit availability in MVA at the point under consideration
Mvar is the amount of capacitance in Mvar that are on-line.
5. Protective equipment
By protective equipment, we are referring to the over-current/over-voltage equipment that
protects the VAr Control device from the distribution system and vice-versa. Some of these
devices come with their own protection built-in, such as circuit breakers, current limiting fuses,
etc. As a general rule, defer to the manufacturer on sizing and specifying protective equipment
for these devices.
Interaction with Distribution Equipment and System
Whatever the specific design basis, the purpose for the Var control device is improvement to the
electrical characteristics of the voltage as seen by the connected equipment, thereby increasing
the productivity of the plant operation. This prime consideration dictates the following
requirements:
The device shall be at least as capable of surviving in the distribution environment as the
standard equipment used to deliver the supply to the site. This relates to BIL levels,
withstand voltages, MCOV, and other parameters traditionally associated with transformers,
breakers, insulators, surge arrestors, and traditional distribution equipment.
The device shall not cause any unacceptable decrease in the quality of supply while being
placed into, or removed from service.
4-18
Failure of the device shall cause no interruption or decrease in the level of normally supplied
voltage while it automatically isolates itself from service.
The device shall be tolerant of any and all source conditions, which may be anticipated due
to distribution-system operation.
The device shall be tolerant of any and all loading conditions that may be expected due to
plant operation.
The device shall perform in a predictable manner for events exceeding its design capability.
It shall not cause any degraded condition that would be worse than those seen by the plant
were it not installed.
The device shall not, itself, be the source of any degradation to the utilitys distribution
system to which it is connected, or radiate any emissions exceeding established standards.
Self-monitoring shall provide annunciation of the failure so that repairs may be initiated.
Ideally the custom power device should incorporate a means of verifying its operation during
events. This recorder should furnish not only the input/output parameters but also any
internal conditions, such as state of energy storage, in order to facilitate post-event
reconstruction.
Specific issues already identified from manufacturer and other information sources are listed
below.
Failure of major power components may result in clearing by the overhead fuses. This will
result in a fault commensurate with the impedance of the fault and short-circuit availability.
The duration is defined by the time current characteristics of the fuse.
The initial connection of the SVC to the distribution system will likely cause some regulator
hunting as the system conditions will have changed significantly. After a few iterations
between the SVC and the regulator, the regulator will likely cease hunting and will resume
its normal operation. Thereafter, if there is a failure on the SVC, the same sequence of events
will take place once the SVC is placed back into operation. If additional capacity is added to
the SVC similar responses can be expected.
Loss of circuit voltage will result in a shut down. In some systems a reboot will occur while
in others the system will stay in shut-down mode.
The DSTATCOMs which are on the market are three-phase controlling devices. Under
conditions such as a continuous low voltage on one phase, it will average the three-phase
voltages. The device will then attempt to increase the target voltage based upon that average.
If the one phase voltage is very low, the other two phases may be increased beyond the upper
end of the ANSI C84.1 limits. Said another way, the units currently on the market can
respond to changes of positive and negative phase sequence components due to circuit
abnormalities, but cannot respond to changes of zero sequence.
4-19
As with the SVC, the initial connection of the DSTATCOM will likely cause some regulator
hunting as the system conditions will have changed significantly. After a few iterations
between the DSTATCOM and the regulator, the regulator will likely cease hunting and will
resume its normal operation.
At least with one of the units, an outage with a duration longer than 90 minutes will require a
manual re-start.
Installation Considerations
As with the installation of any complicated piece of power equipment, good preparation and
planning is essential. The following sections provide a guide of the type of information that is
required for a good installation plan.
Documentation
Detailed engineering describing the operation of the device is required. Thermal limits, upper
and lower alarm and trip points, real and reactive power limits, limited start cycling, etc. must be
completely described. Auxiliary power requirements for cooling devices, etc. must also be
specified.
Documentation should include:
Wiring diagrams and grounding requirements
General circuit diagram of the var control device
Basic principle of operation
Operation and/or service manual
The location and magnitudes of input and output values used for device control
Set Points
Particularly important is the possibility that the device has adjustable setpoints or control modes
that may greatly affect its operation. These should be known prior to energization and the
specific values in place at the time of commissioning should be recorded.
General Issues
To improve the chances of a successful installation, the following questions should be answered:
1. What are the dimensions of the specified var control device and its associated equipment?
2. What are the placement options available: pad-mount, pole-mount, platform-mount, inside
the customers facility?
4-20
3. Can the device be placed in accordance with the appropriate codes (NESC, NEC, OSHA,
etc.)?
4. Is there sufficient space for bus/conductor routing?
5. Is there sufficient space for breaker or switch installation?
6. Is control power available, if required?
7. What are the environmental conditions that the equipment can withstand (primarily
temperature and humidity)? Will additional cooling or heating be required? Is there sufficient
space and electrical capacity if additional cooling or heating is required?
8. What are the controls options? How far from the var control device can the control-
pad/cabinet be located? Are modem or LAN connections available?
9. Are all parts of the VAr control device accessible for repair and replacement?
10. Is there sufficient physical space for expansion of the unit?
Maintenance
If applicable, check oil level every six months for the first year, then once a year thereafter.
If applicable, check for oil leaks every six months for the first year, then once a year
thereafter.
Replace battery serving controller approximately every 5 years.
Clean yearly.
Change air filters yearly.
Re-calibrate, if applicable, yearly.
Inspect controls every two years.
Inspect power electronics every two years.
4-21
Operation
All the devices have internal self-diagnostic monitoring. Of additional importance is ongoing
monitoring should take place to ensure the proper operation of the var control device in the
distribution circuit. Given changes in source and load characteristics, as well as power quality
problems (voltage sags, swells, transients, etc.) it is desirable to record these and the devices
response.
Monitors should be located on the line and load sides of the var control device. The monitors
should be capable of storing steady-state and waveform measurements. The sampling rate for
steady-state measurements should be at least 128 samples/cycle. The accuracy of voltage and
current measurements should be such that power calculations will have an accuracy better than
0.5%. The sampling rate for transient measurements should be on the order of 1 MHz. Finally,
cross-triggering capability should be available so that one of the monitors can trigger the other
and vice-versa.
Traditional substation-installed monitors, known as oscillographs, format their output data in an
IEEE defined format known as Comtrade. The advantage of Comtrade is the existence of relay
test sets that are able to reproduce the waveshapes. Although designed to recreate utility system
faults to determine protective relay response, it is a relatively easy matter to reproduce the input
and response signals using data recorded under Comtrade for later testing of modifications to the
control circuitry hardware or algorithms.
IEEE and EPRI are currently working to standardize on a common platform for power quality
data. Known as Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF), this will allow users to use
monitoring equipment from different vendors and compare the data in a common format. Several
instrument specific translators are currently available that allows conversion of equipment
specific protocol data to PQDIF.
Primary Sensing Devices
Voltage Sampling- High-Voltage
Resistive dividers that are designed for wide-band frequencies in the DC to 10MHz range are
recommended. The accuracy should be better than 1% for DC and 60 Hz and better than 3% up
to 1 MHz. If resistive dividers are not practical, magnetic potential transformers with a flat
frequency response from a few hertz to 3 kilohertz is recommended. Capacitive Coupled Voltage
Transformers (CCVT) are to be avoided. A CCVT is tuned to respond properly at 60hz, therefore
measurements of phenomena at any other frequency are suspect.
4-22
Current Sampling- Fixed Current Transformers
The minimum current ratings should be at least 1.5 times that of anticipated current of the test
application. Frequency range should be DC to 100 kHz with a better than 1% overall accuracy.
The full-scale accuracy should be at least t 1%.
Current Sampling Clamp-On Devices
Current Rating should be as required by the load. These devices should preferably be Hall-effect
devices with capability of measuring DC as well as AC signals.
Recommended On-Hand Instrumentation
Due to the necessity to re-adjust configuration frequently and the high voltages involved, it is
recommended that electrically isolated, portable current and voltage sensors be available. These
units should be hot-stick adaptable and transmit a low-level signal replicating the measured high-
voltage parameter via a fiber-optic cable to a standard handheld instrument. The same device
should be usable at 480 V with rubber gloves (no hot stick). These devices will greatly simplify
and increase safety during the test setup.
Operation Experience
There are approximately 22 medium voltage STATCOMs installed around the world. The
majority of these are in service in Japan. The sizes range from 2 MVA to 20 MVA. These
devices have most often been installed to mitigate voltage fluctuations caused by loads such as
induction furnaces, welders, and large motors.
Recently there have been several installations of directly connected medium voltage static var
compensators in North America. TSC/TCR type systems have been used to mitigate flicker from
arc furnaces, arc welders, and large motors. TSC type systems are gaining favor for the
mitigation of voltage flicker caused by the starting of large induction motors. These systems
have the advantage of being compatible with pole or platform mounting much as other
distribution equipment.
5-1
5
HIGH-SPEED SOURCE TRANSFER SWITCH DEVICES
Fundamentals
Automatic source transfer switches are often used in existing distribution systems when there is a
need to automatically switch a load from one source to another in the case of an outage. The
most common configuration is a break-before-make transfer in which the power to the load is
interrupted by opening the switch for the preferred source before closing the switch for the
alternate source. This transfer can take several seconds. Improvements in control and switch
technology, including the use of high-voltage power electronics, have led to the development of
high-speed source transfer switches. These devices can transfer a load from one source to
another in as little as of a cycle. Most often these switches still employ a break-before-make
switching scheme. This switching scheme avoids paralleling the two sources. This is important
since paralleling two sources, one of which is experiencing a power quality event, such as a fault,
would expose the alternate source to the event. There are currently three main categories: 1)
static source transfer switch (SSTS), 2) hybrid source transfer switch (HSTS), and 3) high-speed
mechanical source transfer switch (HSMSTS).
Static Source Transfer Switch
SSTSs use solid state switches to provide an almost seamless transfer from one source to
another. The most commonly used solid state device in SSTSs is the thyristor, or silicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR). This device requires a forward bias voltage and a gate signal to
conduct. A drawback to using an SCR is the fact that it cannot be turned off until the current
crosses zero to change polarity. Thus the transfer time can be cycle rather than the cycle
often stated.
As with other automatic source transfer technologies, there are two common configurations:
preferred/alternate, and split bus. Under a preferred alternate configuration (Figure 5-1), one
source is designated the preferred source. Under normal conditions, the protected load will be
supplied from this source. When an event occurs that requires a transfer, the preferred source
will be disconnected and the alternate source will be connected. After the preferred source is
detected to be healthy once again, the switch may, or may not, transfer back to the preferred
source depending on the control settings.
High-Speed Source Transfer Switch Devices
5-2
Figure 5-1
Preferred/Alternate Configuration
The other popular configuration of source transfer switches is the split bus configuration (Figure
5-2). In this configuration, the load is split among the two sources. During an event on one of the
sources, the static switch associated with that source is opened while a central static switch is
closed. This configuration is more expensive due to the increased number of static switches and
bypass switches required.
Figure 5-2
Split Bus Configuration
HSTSs use a combination of traditional vacuum switches and solid-state switches to provide an
almost seamless transfer (Figure 5-3). A high-speed vacuum switch carries the load under normal
conditions. When a transfer is needed, the solid-state switch for the preferred source is activated
at the same time as the high-speed vacuum switch is opened. The solid-state switch on the
alternate source is then activated as the source solid-state switch is deactivated. Finally, the high-
speed vacuum switch on the alternate source is closed and the alternate solid-state switch is
5-3
deactivated, completing the transfer. These devices have the advantage of very low losses during
normal operation.
Figure 5-3
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch
HSMSTS use high-speed vacuum switches and a sophisticated microprocessor based control to
provide break-before-make transfers in approximately 25ms, or 1.5 cycles. The two sources
are not paralleled during the transfer, therefore the load will experience an outage of
approximately 1.5 cycles. This level of protection may be acceptable for some equipment, but
will allow some sensitive equipment to trip during the transfer. This may require the installation
of other, targeted, mitigation devices to protect such equipment as relays and PLCs. These
switches have the advantage of being very efficient (99%+), inexpensive (1/5 to 1/10
th
the cost of
an SSTS), and small. Both pole-mounted and pad-mounted versions are available.
In the Application Matrix (Table 3-1), it is assumed that a high-speed source transfer switch is at
least one possibility for a custom power solution.
Purpose. Determine if the installation meets the general requirements for installation of a high-
speed source transfer switch device and thus warrants additional study.
Availability of Sources
In order for an HSSTD to be effective, both sources must have a high degree of availability. For
example, it would be impractical to expect to be able to transfer from a utility feed to an offline
generator during an event. With transfer times on the order of to cycle, there is not time to
bring an offline source online. If the secondary source is to be from a device such as an offline
5-4
generator, a backup energy supply device (Chapter 7) will be necessary to supply the load while
the generator starts.
Independent Feeders
In order for a HSSTD to be effective in protecting critical loads from power system disturbances,
the two feeders need to be independent from one another. If the feeders are not independent, a
power quality event affecting both sources becomes more likely and reduces the level of
protection for the critical load.
The following list describes preferred situations for STS installations.
Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substations This configuration
allows the utmost protection. For example, if the preferred feeder substation trips, the
alternate feeder will not lose power. One possible source of failure for this configuration is if
the transmission system feeding both substations has a disturbance. This situation would
obviously result in both feeders experiencing the disturbance.
Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substation transformers If both
feeders are fed from the same substation, using different substation transformers offers
increased isolation for each feeder. If both feeders are fed from the same transformer, a fault
on either feeder could cause the transformer circuit breaker to trip, resulting in a loss of both
feeders. Using two transformers allows the transformer feeding the fault to be taken off line
without affecting the unfaulted feeder.
Different ROW for preferred and alternate feeders Using different ROW (right-of-
way) increases the independence of system disturbances on the feeders. Assuming the same
ROW was being used, and a fault occurs on the line (downed pole, fallen tree, etc.), the
probability of both feeders experiencing the fault increases considerably.
Fault studies are essential in determining the independence of each feeder during system
disturbances. These studies are usually available from the utility. Fault data from previous years
can also offer insight into the dependence of parallel feeders.
Feeder Capacity for Load
Both feeders must have capacity to serve the load to be served by the high-speed source transfer
device. Capacity must be reserved on the alternate feeder for the load served by the switch.
Transferring the load to a feeder with insufficient capacity could cause the voltage to sag,
equipment damage, and/or operation of overcurrent protection devices.
Synchronization
Synchronization of the two sources is not required but is recommended. Typical HSSTD systems
can transfer the load when the two sources are out of phase, but particular load may be adversely
5-5
affected by the phase change (e.g. motor loads). Therefore, it is recommended that both sources
be in phase to allow a more seamless transfer of the protected load.
customization of the control device.
Capacity of the substation transformers supplying the preferred and alternate circuits.
Equivalent impedance at the secondary of the substation transformers supplying the
preferred and alternate circuits.
Distribution Circuit type: Delta, wye, impedance grounded. The circuits must be the same
type and voltage in order to apply any type of source transfer system.
Distribution line wire types, resistances, and reactances from the substation to the load
for both the preferred and alternate circuits.
Be prepared to calculate the available fault current (with X/R information) for the both
circuits.
Use the following table (see Table 5-1) to record the information.
Table 5-1
Parameter Value
Substation Transformer Size (MVA) Preferred Source
Substation Transformer Size (MVA) Alternate Source
Equivalent Impedance at the Secondary of the Substation
Transformer Preferred Source
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
Equivalent Impedance at the Secondary of the Substation
Transformer Alternate Source
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
5-6
th
to the 25
th
) at the point of common coupling.
Must monitor through a complete plant/building production cycle to capture the worst-
case conditions.
model, operational cycle.
Purpose. Perform detailed analysis on the collected data and system information for use in
determining the effectiveness of the solution.
Step 1: Sag Performance at the Proposed Location
The purpose of this step is to determine the sag performance at the proposed location of the
high-speed source transfer device attributed to transmission system performance.
A high-speed source transfer switch will be unable to protect against voltage sags that occur as
the result of faults on the transmission system. This is due to the fact that a sag caused by a
transmission fault will likely be present on both the preferred and alternate sources. It is
important to characterize this performance when evaluating the installation of a HSSTS.
a. Build a transmission line performance table
This table includes the historical performance information or expected performance for each line
section in terms of number of faults expected per year for both single line-to-ground and three
phase faults. Single line-to-ground are the most common.
Table 6-2 provides a format that can be used for this table.
b. Calculate the area of vulnerability
Perform short circuit simulations to determine the voltage sag severity at the proposed switch
location for fault locations throughout the transmission system. This can be performed
automatically in most transmission system fault analysis packages such as CAPE and
ASPEN. This will identify the fault locations that can cause a sag below a specified
threshold. The total circuit miles of possible fault locations that can cause a sag severe
enough to cause misoperation of end-use equipment is know as the area of vulnerability for
that equipment. Table 6-3 provides a convenient format in which to collect the area of
vulnerability data.
5-7
c. Calculate expected number of voltage sags that will cause equipment misoperation
Convert the area of vulnerability data to actual expected events per month at the specified
location. This is done using the area of vulnerability and the expected performance for three
phase and single line-to-ground faults over that area. Summing up the expected number of
faults on each line section within the area of vulnerability will give the total expected number
of events that can cause equipment misoperation. This will usually be expressed as events per
month or events per year. The worksheet shown in Table 6-3 can be used to perform this
calculation. This step can also be performed by using the voltage sag module of the Power
Quality Diagnostic System software package developed by EPRI. (CD-111194). This
package takes the output of Step 2 produced by ASPEN and creates a table or histogram
indicating the number of expected events below a specified voltage per year. Output from
other short circuit applications, like CAPE, can also be used if it is properly formatted. For
this to be meaningful, the level of sag which will upset the protected load needs to be known.
d. Calculate the number of momentary interruptions
The momentary interruption for a customer due to transmission system faults should be
calculated if the transmission segment feeding the medium voltage transformer is capable of
being interrupted due to a fault on the segment. An example of when this would not be
necessary would be when the transformer is served from a transmission bus containing
breakers for all of the transmission lines leaving the bus. In this case, a fault on any of the
lines would be interrupted by a breaker but the bus would remain energized. The number of
momentary operations would be the number of expected transmission faults on the line
segment feeding the medium voltage transformer. If the preferred and alternate sources for
the switch are served from different transmission buses, the switch will protect the load from
the momentary outage, but the load will likely be subjected to a voltage sag present on the
alternate source due to the fault on the transmission line.
Example calculation for a voltage sag severity of 75% is show below. Note that the calculation
uses an average fault performance level for each voltage class (FP1 and FP3) instead of the
historical performance for individual lines as can be listed in Table 6-1. FP1 and FP3 are usually
available for the overall system fault performance.
5-8
Table 5-2
Example Voltage Sag Performance Table
Example
Calculating Expected Performance at End User for a Specific Sag Severity
Location: _Sample Site_________________________________
Performance Calculation for a Threshold of _______75%_______ %
Fault Performance
(faults/100 mi/year)
Expected Sag Performance
(sags/year at specified location)
Voltage
Level
Exposure
(miles) SLGF (FP1)
3 Phase
Fault (FP3)
1 Phase
(miles x FP1/100)
3 Phase
(miles x
FP3/100)
525 kV 2.5 2 0.05
230 kV 20.7 10 2.07
115 kV 13.7 18 2.47
Total 4.59
Therefore, if the customers load was affected by voltage sags to 75% or lower, there should be
4.59 events per year caused by single line-to-ground faults on the transmission system that could
adversely affect the customers process. When applying a high-speed source transfer switch
device, this would represent the number of events per year for which the switch would provide
little, or no, protection. This is because the sag would likely be present, although possible at a
different level, on the alternate feeder as well. The number of momentary outages on the primary
feeder represent events for which the switch would transfer the load into a voltage sag on the
alternate feeder.
Step 2: Voltage Drop Due to Transfer
The purpose of this step is to determine the affect on the voltage of the alternate feeder during
load transfer. The transfer of a large block of load can cause the voltage on the alternate to drop
until automatic voltage regulators are able to bring the voltage back into the normal operating
range. On a strong system, this voltage drop will be minimal and should cause no problems.
However, if the load to be transferred is large, and the alternate source is weak, the voltage drop
can be large enough to cause problems for the protected load as well as other customers served
by the alternate circuit.
5-9
Table 5-3
Voltage Drop Calculation
1. Choose MVA
base
. Usually 100 MVA or the nominal
size of the station transformer (e.g. 12 MVA) is
chosen as the base. If the station fault power is
given in per unit, use the associated MVA base. 1) MVA
base
2. Choose kV
base
. Select the line to line voltage of the
alternate distribution source as the kV base (e.g.
12.47 kV). 2) KV
base
3. Calculate Z
base
using the following formula:
( )
base
base
base
MVA
kV
Z
2
3) Z
base
4a) MVA or
4b) R + jX ohms or
4. Enter available fault power on the medium voltage
bus of the bus supplying the alternate source.
If entering in MVA go to step 5. If entering in
ohms, go to step 6. If entering in per unit, got to
step 7. 4c) R + jX per unit
5. Calculate the equivalent system impedance in per
unit using the following formula:
,
_
+
fault
base
fault
MVA
MVA
j Z 0
Continue to step 7. 5) R + jX per unit
6. Convert the ohm based fault impedance to per
unit using the following formula:
base
fault
fault
Z
Z
Z
) (
6) R + jX per unit
7. Add up the line impedance of the alternate source
distribution line. Tables are available from various
sources for different construction methods and
wire sizes that provide impedance in ohms per
mile or ohms per 1000 feet. Enter the TOTAL
here. 7) R + jX ohms
5-10
8. Convert the line impedance to per unit using the
following formula:
base
line
line
Z
Z
Z
) (
8) R + jX per unit
9. Convert the load to be switched at the HSSTSD
to an equivalent per unit impedance using the
following formula:
The load must be in the form of MW + jMvar
load
base
load
S
MVA
Z
9) R + jX per unit
10. Calculate the supply impedance using the
following formula:
Z
Supply
= Z
source
(4, 5, or 6) + Z
line
(8) 10) R + jX per unit
11. Calculate the total impedance using the following
formula:
Z
total
=Z
load
(9) + Z
supply
(10) 11) R + jX per unit
12. Calculate the expected voltage drop from
switching the load using the following formula:
100 % x
Z
Z
V
total
Supply
drop

,
_
12) Percent drop.

This voltage drop will be present until the automatic voltage regulators on the alternate source
distribution circuit have had time to react. This can be on the order of 15 seconds to 2 minutes,
depending on the time delay settings of the regulator and LTC controls. This voltage drop will be
present at the location of the switch. The voltage drop will be lower closer to the station and
greater closer to the load being switched.
Whatever the specific design basis, the purpose for the high-speed source transfer switch device
is improvement to the electrical characteristics of the voltage as seen by the connected
equipment, thereby increasing the productivity of the plant operation. This prime consideration
dictates the following requirements:
5-11
plant operation.
internal conditions in order to facilitate post-event reconstruction.
Documentation
specified.
General circuit diagram of the high-speed source transfer switch device
Location and magnitudes of input and output values used for device control
5-12
Set Points
Particularly important is the possibility that the device has adjustable setpoints or control modes
General Issues
1. What are the dimensions of the specified high-speed source transfer switch and its associated
equipment?
etc.)?
8. What are the controls options? How far from the high-speed source transfer switch can the
control-pad/cabinet be located? Are modem or LAN connections available?
9. Are all parts of the high-speed source transfer switch accessible for repair and replacement?
Maintenance
The equipment vendor should provide detailed maintenance requirements specific to the device
being installed. The following is meant to give the engineer considering one of these devices a
good idea of the types of maintenance that will be required.
5-13
Static Source Transfer Switch
Clean yearly.
Inspect controls yearly.
Inspect power electronics yearly.
Units requiring air conditioning require the HVAC system be inspected yearly.
Clean yearly.
Check dielectric fluid every five years.
High-Speed Mechanical Source Transfer Switch
Clean filters as necessary.
Inspect controls every five years.
Inspect electronics every five years.
Operation
As with any leading-edge technology, equipment adjustments and modifications must be
expected when installing a first generation device. Case Study 1 provides some insight to the
experiences of one utility when applying a first-generation static source transfer switch. The
information is provided so an engineer can appreciate the possible difficulties of such an
installation, as well as the need to work closely with the manufacturer to ensure success.
All the devices have internal self-diagnostic monitoring. Ongoing monitoring should take place
to ensure the proper operation of the high-speed source transfer device in the distribution circuit.
This monitoring will provide valuable information as to the performance of the switch during
power quality events on the circuit. It will also provide some indication as to the health of the
device. In each of the examples below (Case Study 2 and Case Study 3), permanent monitoring
was able to detect a problem with the device that its own diagnostic system did not detect.
Monitors should be located on both the preferred and alternate sources and on the load side of
the switch. Both current and voltage should be monitored. The monitors should be capable of
storing steady-state and waveform measurements. The sampling rate for steady-state
5-14
measurements should be at least 128 samples/cycle. The accuracy of voltage and current
measurements should be such that power calculations will have an accuracy better than 0.5%.
The sampling rate for transient measurements should be on the order of 1 MHz. Finally, cross-
triggering capability should be available so that one of the monitors can trigger the others.
Voltage Sampling - High-Voltage
frequency response from a few hertz to 3 kHz is recommended. Capacitive coupled voltage
transformers (CCVT) are to be avoided. A CCVT is tuned to respond properly at 60hz, therefore
application. Frequency range should be DC to 100kHz with a better than 1% overall accuracy.
5-15
Operation Case Study 1
In an effort to demonstrate the viability of medium voltage static source transfer switch (SSTS)
as a solution for various power quality and reliability problems, a utility installed a first
generation unit. The unit was configured as preferred/alternate as in (Figure 5-1).
The switch had the following characteristics:
15 kV class voltage rating
600 ampere continuous rating (13 MVA)
10,000 ampere fault withstand (symmetrical)
Light-fired thyristors
Redundant series SCR module (9-4500 V modules per phase)
Modular SCR stack design
Redundant A/C units (two)
Redundant cooling fans (four)
Remote terminal unit (RTU) interface
PQ monitoring - sources and load
This installation, while now a success, had many of the types of problems typical of cutting-edge
power electronic equipment. Over the first two years of its life, many upgrades and repairs were
required to improve the performance and reliability of the switch. This work was performed in
cooperation with the manufacturer. Below is a chronological list of these improvements and
repairs:
Year 1
Installation and testing
Minor control algorithm upgrades
Single-phase testing
Replaced gate drive power supply
Modified control algorithm
Modified control power configuration
Replaced laser and gate power supply
Upgraded SCADA system
Placed in permanent operation
Replaced door magnets
5-16
Year 2
Changed out blower (bad bearing)
Replaced controller
Broken fiber cable
System bypassed
Replaced lasers
Replaced controller
A/C maintenance
During the first two years of service, the control unit for the SSTS was replaced 3 times in an
effort to improve the transfer time during single-phase sag events. This effort was successful.
Many of the other repairs were due to infant mortality issues. A few of the repairs were
performed to upgrade the performance of particular systems and were identified by the field
experience with the operation of the device. The cooperation of the equipment supplier was
crucial to eventual success of the installation.
The types of issues encountered with this installation can be expected with any first generation
medium-voltage custom power device. It is important to have the vendor sufficiently engaged so
that the proper level of maintenance and engineering support can be obtained when working
through these events. Working together, the vendor and utility can greatly increase the chances
of a successful implementation of a custom power device.
Static source transfer switches (SSTS), because of their use of power electronics, cannot be
treated the same as traditional mechanical transfer switches. In some cases, these switches can
introduce power quality events into the system they are meant to improve. This case study shows
how an SSTS can cause high harmonics in a medium voltage distribution system due to gating
error. The harmonic content of the voltage and current were being measured at both inputs and
the output of the SSTS.
System Description
The following figure (see Figure 5-4) shows the layout of the SSTS in a medium-voltage utility
distribution system feeding multiple sensitive customers. A monitoring system was used to
monitor the voltage and current at both inputs and the output of the SSTS. The locations of the
instrument transformers are shown.
5-17
Figure 5-4
One-Line Diagram of System With Instrument Transformer Locations
PQ Monitoring Data
Figure 5-5 shows the levels of even harmonic current measured at the output of the SSTS. Figure
5-6 shows the voltage and current waveforms for a single phase when the system was operating
normally. Figure 5-7 shows the same phase after the increase in harmonic content. After noticing
the increase in harmonic current, the utility inspected the switch. There were no alarms and the
switch appeared to be working correctly. They next turned their attention to the customers served
by the switch. It was assumed that one of the customers was the source of the harmonic current,
but it was discovered that no single customer was the source of the harmonics. Each customer
seemed to be supplying an amount of harmonic current proportional to his load. The SSTS came
under suspicion once again. The utility bypassed the switch and the harmonic levels returned to
normal. Upon further investigation, it was discovered that one SCR was not gating properly. The
gating circuit had deteriorated and was not producing a signal strong enough to gate the SRC
fully. This caused a slight difference between the positive and negative half-cycles of the
voltage. This difference caused the downstream transformers to produce high levels of even
5-18
harmonic current. The gating circuit was repaired and the SSTS returned to service. The
harmonic levels returned to normal low values.
Even Harmonic Current
Daily Average
0.1
1
10
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (Days)
Even Harmonics (amps)
Figure 5-5
Plot of Daily Average Even Harmonic Current at the Output of the SSTS
CHA Volts CHA Amps
16:40:00.000 16:40:00.005 16:40:00.010 16:40:00.015 16:40:00.020
Volts
-15000
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
15000
Amps
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 5-6
Normal Voltage and Current Waveforms
5-19
CHA Volts CHA Amps
18:30:00.000 18:30:00.005 18:30:00.010 18:30:00.015 18:30:00.020
Volts
-15000
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
15000
Amps
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 5-7
Voltage and Current Waveforms with Increased Even Harmonics
Lesson Learned
It is important to maintain permanent power quality monitoring at the location of static source
transfer switches. In this case, the customers were not adversely affected other than the presence
of increased harmonic levels. However, if this had not been detected, identified, and repaired, it
could have led to a switch outage. In cases of switch failure, the load is transferred to a
traditional source transfer system in this case. In the event of a catastrophic SSTS failure, this
transfer could result in an event that could adversely affect the customers loads.
System Description
A utility installed a static source transfer switch in a preferred/alternate configuration as similar
to Figure 5-1. Both inputs and the output are monitored with power quality monitors. While
reviewing data from switch transfers, it was determined that during most transfers the preferred
and alternate sources were paralleled for approximately cycle. The figures below illustrate a
transfer that resulted in both sources being paralleled.
PQ Monitoring Data
Figure 5-8, Figure 5-9 and Figure 5-10 show the voltage and current waveforms for each phase
during a source transfer. As can be seen, the transfer was due to a waveshape fault on the
preferred source phase A voltage. The transfer also appears to take longer than expected, nearly
2 cycles.
5-20
Figure 5-8
Preferred Source Phase A Voltage and Current
Figure 5-9
Preferred Source Phase B Voltage and Current
5-21
Figure 5-10
Preferred Source Phase C Voltage and Current
Figure 5-11, Figure 5-12, and Figure 5-13 show the preferred source and alternate source current
waveforms for the same transfer. Figure 5-12, phase B, shows a seamless transfer as is expected
in a break before make setup. However, Figure 5-11 and Figure 5-13, phases A and C, show
the results of a poorly controlled transfer allowing the preferred and alternate sources to be
paralleled for approximately cycle. The figure shows that there is a transfer of current from the
alternate source to the preferred source.
Figure 5-11
Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase A Current
5-22
Figure 5-12
Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase B Current
Figure 5-13
Preferred Source and Alternate Source Phase C Current
Lesson Learned
Paralleling the two sources during a transfer can adversely affect the quality of the service to the
protected load, as well as the service to customers connected to the alternate source. As an
illustration, assume there is a fault on the preferred source. Under normal conditions with a well-
controlled transfer, the switch would detect the fault and transfer the load to the alternate source
in as little as cycle. The load would see a voltage sag as short as cycle while the alternate
source would see no sag. However, if the switch parallels the two sources for cycle, the
duration of the voltage sag seen by the protected load increases. Also, a voltage sag will occur on
5-23
the alternate source. This will subject the other customers served by the alternate source to a
power quality event that they would normally not have seen.
In this case, a better control algorithm reduced the likelihood that such a paralleling would occur.
As better control algorithms are developed, the switch control will likely be updated.
6-1
6
STATIC SERIES COMPENSATORS
Fundamentals
The purpose of a static series compensation device (SSC) is to mitigate the effect of voltage sags
and interruptions on a customers sensitive load(s). An SSC is a waveform synthesis device
based on power electronics that is series-connected directly into the utility distribution circuit by
means of a set of single-phase insertion transformers.
The entire family of devices have two energy supply source configurations. The first type, called
line energy storage (LES) extracts energy from the distribution system and uses that to restore
the missing portion of the voltage waveform. The second type, called stored energy supply (SES)
uses capacitors, batteries, flywheels or some other means to store the energy required for the
operation of the compensation device. The advantage to having available storage is the ability to
provide some small amount of ride-through for complete interruptions in voltage.
Regardless of the type of energy storage, the devices are connected to the distribution system in
the same way. This is done through means of series insertion transformers (see Figure 6-1 for a
typical SES installation). There are three series insertion transformers; one per phase. Each series
insertion transformer has taps that can be set to change the available load that the SSC can
provide compensation for. The maximum injectable voltage is also limited by the tap settings.
There is essentially an inverse relationship between maximum feeder load and maximum
injection voltage. Proper SSC sizing should minimize the affects of feeder loading on maximum
injection voltage.
6-2
Figure 6-1
Basic Configuration of a Stored Energy Supply Static Series Compensator
Operationally, the SSC devices are either online or standby. In the standby mode, the system
waits for a power quality event to trigger it into operation. Alternatively, the online SSC
devices are constantly in the circuit making minor adjustments as necessary. A key parameter to
review when specifying the SSC device is how quickly it responds to events. Typical response
times vary from less than cycle to less than 1 cycle. By varying the firing delay angle (alpha)
alone on the AC-DC converter, it is possible to control the output voltage in a very fast manner.
Functionally an SSC operates in the following manner. First it has a sensing mechanism that is
tracking the voltage waveforms for deviations outside of the pre-set limits. Second, once it has
sensed a deviation the SSC begins generating a waveform that is opposite in polarity, but equal
in magnitude (up to the limit of the SSC) of the deviation. The up-shot of this is that the SSC
delivers the missing voltage to the waveform to make it a sinusoid of the correct amplitude.
Purpose. Verify the source of the power quality issue. Perform voltage sag estimation.
In the Application Matrix (Table 3-1), it is assumed that the SSC Devices were chosen as at least
one possibility for a custom power solution. The distribution engineer should be reminded that
not all of the SSC devices can be operated with energy storage for riding-through interruptions.
1. Verify the source of the power quality issue
If voltage sags are the key issue and can be definitively tied to customer operational problems,
the investigator should keep the following points in mind (for any power quality investigation):
6-3
2. Characterize the issue
Using spot measurements, as the problem is manifesting itself, help identify characteristics
3. Identify the general range of solutions
wider range of solutions than just static series compensation devices.
For example, a problem with a large 2000 Hp motor may be traceable to a small relay, after
thorough investigation. Therefore, instead of looking for solutions for the entire motor it may be
found that applying a solution to the relay will solve the entire voltage sag vulnerability issue.
In summary, the power quality problem might indeed require Static Series Compensation
Devices to be installed, but other issues, like extreme equipment sensitivity, may be the culprit.
These other items must be investigated and the most economic solution must be found.
customization of the compensation device.
1. Perform a Voltage Sag Estimation.
This procedure is also known by the phrase: Area of Vulnerability. Voltage sag estimation is a
procedure whereby the user calculates the voltage sags that would be expected for faults at
different points in the distribution and transmission system. This analysis is usually performed
with a short circuit program. The purpose of the procedure is to identify locations that cause
voltage sags below a certain threshold at key points within the system. The threshold is usually
defined by the most sensitive piece of customer process-equipment.
The user places faults on the system at the key locations and calculates what the expected voltage
will be at the end-user (customer) bus. Combining that with information regarding fault clearing
times, a time duration plot can also be made in addition to the typical area of vulnerability map.
a. Calculate the performance of the transmission system
q Build a transmission line fault performance table
Table 6-1, a transmission line fault performance table, includes the historical performance
information or expected performance for each line section in terms of number of faults expected
per year for both single line-to-ground and three phase faults. Usually, single line-to-ground
faults will be the most common.
6-4
Table 6-1
Transmission Line Fault Performance Table
Fault (Faults/
Performance Year)
Line ID
Voltage
(kV) From Bus To Bus
Length
(miles) SLGF 3 Phase
q Calculate the area of vulnerability
Perform short circuit simulations (Table 6-2) to determine the voltage sag severity at a selected
system location for fault locations throughout the transmission system. This will identify the
fault locations that can cause a sag below a specified threshold. The total circuit miles of possible
fault locations that can cause a sag severe enough to cause misoperation of end user equipment is
known as the area of vulnerability for that equipment.
6-5
Table 6-2
Area of Vulnerability Calculation Table for the Transmission System
Voltage
(kV) From Bus To Bus
Length
(miles) SLGF
Phase
Voltage at
End User Bus
(per unit)
Fault
clearing
time
q Calculate the expected number of voltage sags that will cause equipment
misoperation
Convert the area of vulnerability data (Table 6-3) to actual expected events per month at the
specified location. This is done using the area of vulnerability and the expected performance for
three phase and single line-to-ground faults over that area. Summing up the expected number of
faults on each line section within the area of vulnerability will give the total expected number of
events that can cause equipment malfunction. The will usually be expressed as events per month
or events per year.
6-6
Table 6-3
Location: ____________________________________________
Performance Calculation for a Threshold of __________________ %
Fault Performance
(faults/100 mi/year)
Expected Sag Performance
(sags/year at specified location)
Voltage
Level
Exposure
(miles) SLGF (FP1)
3 Phase
Fault (FP3)
1 Phase
(miles x FP1/100)
3 Phase
(miles x
FP3/100)
Total
q Calculate the expected number of momentary interruptions
The momentary interruption performance for a customer due to transmission system
faults should be calculated if the customer is supplied as a tap from a switched
transmission line (i.e., there are no transmission line breakers at the customer locations).
In this case, the expected number of momentary interruptions per year due to
transmission events is the expected number of operations on that line. This should be
calculated separately from the voltage sag performance.
q Evaluate the effect of end user transformer connections
Single line-to-ground faults on the transmission system will have different impacts at the
end user level, depending on the transformer connections. The following table (Table
6-4) can be used to estimate the voltages on a transformer secondary for a fault on the
primary as a function of the connection.
6-7
Table 6-4
Effect of Transformer Connections Given a Line to Ground Fault on Phase A of the
Primary
b. Calculate the performance of the distribution system
q Obtain data for distribution feeder circuit supplied from a common
substation bus.
6-8
Table 6-5
Table for Collecting Data Concerning Distribution Feeder Circuits
q Calculate the expected interruption performance at the specified location
This is determined by the length of exposure that will cause a breaker, or other protective
device in series with the customer, to operate. For instance, if the protection is designed
to operate the substation breaker for any fault on the feeder, then this length is the total
feeder length.
Length of exposure that can cause interruptions, L
int
________________ miles
Expected Number of Interruptions
6-9
) ( *
3 1 int int p p
N N L N + _________________________ inter./ month
q Calculate the expected voltage magnitude at the substation as a function
of the fault location on the parallel feeders
This needs to be done for three-phase and single line-to-ground fault conditions. Convert
the substation voltage to the voltage at the specified location using necessary
transformations.
This calculation is made separately for single line-to-ground faults and multi-phase (e.g.,
three-phase) faults.
q Calculate the expected voltage sag magnitude at the specified location
(including transformations) as a function of fault location on the same feeder.
This is for fault locations that will result in a sag, but will not result in a momentary
interruption. Locations include faults beyond a downstream recloser or a branched fuse
that is coordinated to clear before the substation recloser. Again, this calculation needs to
be performed separately for single line-to-ground faults and three phase faults.
q Calculate the expected number of voltage sags per month below a
specified severity level.
Convert the data in the previous two steps to expected number of voltage sags per month
below the specified thresholds, using the expected performance data from the first step.
Present the data as a histogram of expected performance. The following worksheet (Table
6-6) can be used to calculate the performance.
6-10
Table 6-6
Worksheet for Calculating Voltage Sag Performance for Distribution Faults
2. Identify the load characteristics
During this stage, the user will quantify the characteristics of the load or loads to be served
through the SSC device. Remember, at this point, that the device is a series device and must be
sized to provide full load, voltage injection capability.
6-11
Collect the following information (Table 6-7):
Table 6-7
Load Characteristic Data
Minimum Average Maximum
Instantaneous MVA
MVA Demand
Mvar Demand
MW Demand
Define the Demand Interval Minutes
Instantaneous Load Current
Future load growth expectations
(instantaneous MVA)
Emergency load contingencies
(instantaneous MVA)
In the above table, instantaneous refers to single cycle values.
When approaching the manufacturer of the SSC device the following additional information will
be required from a load characteristic standpoint:
q At all metering points, recorded power factor data including daily trends in power
factor, highest and lowest expected power factor
q Voltage and current harmonic spectra, as both snapshots, and trended over a complete
production cycle
q For large motors, the maximum starting current, transient reactances, starting times,
starting methods (e.g., autotransformer, reactance, soft start, etc.) and speed control
Capacity of the substation transformer supplying this circuit/load
circuit/load
offending load
6-12
Use the following table (Table 6-8) to record the information.
Table 6-8
Parameter Value
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
Short-circuit availability at point where SSC to be
installed
X/R ratio at point where SSC to be installed
Determine the acceptable voltage deviations required by the offending customer.
Determine the acceptable voltage deviations desired by other key customers in the area, if
there have been complaints or if the control device is being purchased solely by the
utility.
Establish the acceptable voltage deviations required by utility operations.
the solution to the power quality problem.
1. Determine the injection amount.
The amount of injected voltage must be determined first. This requires a judgment call to
determine the appropriate value. First, the user should determine the extent to which the
equipment will be protected. That is, how much, in the area of vulnerability calculations, are the
voltage sags to be protected against?
Based upon frequency of occurrence, on voltage dip amount, and on equipment sensitivity, the
user must select a percentage of nominal voltage to be injected. The injected voltage should be
6-13
chosen so that the combination of the injected voltage and the voltage remaining during an event
will be greater than the voltage level which will adversely affect the equipment.
Record that value here: ___________ V
injected
(%)
2. Calculate the required size of the SSC Device.
The size of the SSC device is based upon full-load (or maximum) kVA times the voltage
injection. Therefore, the size is:
(%) * . ) (
injected
V MVA t MaximumIns MVA Size
Record that value here: ____________________________________ Size (MVA)
3. Calculate the amount of energy required
The duration of time that the SSC device is called upon to inject and the amount of injection
directly determine the energy requirements. As mentioned earlier, this energy can come from the
other phases or from energy storage like capacitors.
The duration of the event should be the same as the duration of the event chosen as the worst
case in step 1 of this procedure.
) (sec * ) ( onds duration MVA Size Energy
Energy = _________________________________________ MJ.
This calculation will provide the energy required in Mega-joules.
For those devices that use stored energy from batteries, capacitors, or flywheels, the
following costs and losses (Table 6-9) can be used:
Table 6-9
Static Series Compensation
Manufacturer Name Losses Device
Rating
Cost/kVA
ABB DVR 2% steady-
state
3 to 50
MVA
$150 to $250 per kva of load
American
Superconductor
PQ VR 3% during
standby
1.7 MVA to
10 MVA
$1000/kVA of load
GE SSVR 0.5% of
served load
2 MVA to 8
MVA
NA
Siemens MVDVR 2% of MVAR
rating
2 MVA to
20 MVA
$150 to $300 per kva of load
6-14
protects the SSC Device from the distribution system and vice-versa. Some of these devices
come with their own built-in protection, such as circuit breakers, current limiting fuses, etc.
Defer to the manufacturer on sizing and specifying protective equipment for these devices.
5. Effects of phase shift on size
Many disturbances have phase shift (phase jump) associated with them, especially in the case of
line-to-line faults. This can make it difficult to size a static series compensator for an application.
An ideal (i.e., theoretical) voltage sag to 0.5 pu with no phase jump is examined in the figures
below (Figure 6-2,Figure 6-3, and Figure 6-4). Its rms value is computed using a sliding-window
rms algorithm, which shows a minimum voltage of 0.5 pu. The missing voltage from the ideal
voltage sag is the difference in voltage between the voltage waveform prior to the sag and the
waveform during the sag. It is the voltage that, if added to the ideal waveform, would yield a
completely compensated sag. For this case, the peak value of the missing instantaneous voltage
matches the peak value of the missing rms voltage.
Figure 6-2
Voltage Sag to 50% with 0 Phase Shift
6-15
Figure 6-3
RMS Plot of Voltage Sag to 50% with No Phase Shift
Figure 6-4
Missing Voltage Required for Full Compensation for Voltage Sag to 50% with No Phase
Shift
Another ideal voltage sag to 0.5 pu, but with a -30 phase jump is examined in Figure 6-5, Figure
6-6, and Figure 6-7. Note that this waveform, appears very similar to rms value of a voltage sag
that has no phase jump. However, the missing voltage for the sag with phase jump has a peak
voltage magnitude of 1.0 pu. So the peak value of the missing instantaneous voltage is twice the
peak value of the rms voltage. For the theoretical case of a voltage sag with a phase jump of
180, the peak magnitude of the missing voltage would be 1.5 pu. A static series compensator
6-16
with a maximum of 0.5 pu voltage injection capability, which is a common design value, will not
be able to compensate the sag to 1.0 pu.
The difference between instantaneous voltage compensation and rms compensation needs to be
addressed when sizing an SSC.
Figure 6-5
Voltage Sag to 50% with 30 Phase Shift
Figure 6-6
RMS Plot for Voltage Sag to 50% with 30 Phase Shift
6-17
Figure 6-7
Missing Voltage Required for Full Compensation for Voltage Sag to 5-% with 30 Phase
Shift
Whatever the specific design basis, the purpose for the static series control device is
improvement to the electrical characteristics of the voltage as seen by the connected equipment,
thereby increasing the productivity of plant operations. This consideration dictates the following
requirements:
plant operation.
6-18
reconstruction.
below:
Device goes into by-pass for open single-phase events.
Device may go into current oscillation for transient voltage oscillations. May go into a
positive feedback loop until it goes into bypass mode.
Documentation
specified.
General circuit diagram of the static series control device
Location and magnitudes of input and output values used for device control
Set Points
Particularly important is the possibility that the device has adjustable set points or control modes
6-19
General Issues
1. What are the dimensions of the specified SSC Device and its associated equipment?
etc.)?
8. What are the controls options? How far from the SSC Device can the control-pad/cabinet be
located? Are modem or LAN connections available?
9. Are all parts of the SSC accessible for repair and replacement?
Maintenance
Visual inspection yearly
Thermographic scan yearly
Oil testing yearly
Component testing yearly
Cleaning as required (twice/year)
Check controls every two years
Operation
All SSC devices have internal self-diagnostic monitoring. Of additional importance is ongoing
monitoring should take place to ensure the proper operation of the SSC device in the distribution
circuit. Given changes in source and load characteristics, as well as power quality problems
(voltage sags, swells, transients, etc.) it is desirable to record these and the devices response.
6-20
Monitors should be located on the line and load sides of the SSC Device. The monitors should be
capable of storing steady-state and waveform measurements. The sampling rate for steady-state
measurements should be at least 128 samples/cycle. The accuracy of voltage and current
measurements should be such that power calculations will have an accuracy better than 0.5%.
The sampling rate for transient measurements should be on the order of 1 MHz. Finally, cross-
triggering capability should be available so that one of the monitors can trigger the other and
vice-versa.
frequency response from a few hertz to 3 kHz is recommended. capacitive coupled voltage
transformers (CCVT) are to be avoided. A CCVT is tuned to respond properly at 60hz, therefore
6-21
Recommended On-Hand Instrumentation
Due to the necessity to re-adjust configuration frequently and the high-voltages involved, it is
recommended that electrically isolated, portable current and voltage sensors be available. These
units should be hot-stick adaptable and transmit a low-level signal replicating the measured high
voltage parameter via a fiber-optic cable to a standard handheld instrument. The same device
shall be usable at 480 V with rubber gloves (no hot stick). These devices will greatly simplify
and increase safety during the test setup.
Case Study Waveform Indicates Interaction between Utility and Static Series
Compensation Device
Power electronic or static controllers are used in medium-voltage distribution systems to supply
a level of reliability and/or power quality for power customers with sensitive loads. However,
these devices can interact with other utility equipment such as voltage regulators or capacitors.
Such an interaction can be triggered by a utility switching operation or a sudden load rejection on
the customer side.
This case study describes how a sudden load rejection triggered an interaction between a static
series compensation (SSC) device and downstream utility capacitor banks. The disturbances
resulting from the event were captured by power quality monitors installed on the line side and
load side of the device.
Figure 6-8 shows the layout of the SSC device in a medium-voltage utility distribution system
feeding a sensitive customer. Monitors were located on the line side and load side of the SSC
device, as shown in the figure. Capacitor banks were located on the load side of the SSC to
correct the power factor at the load and to reduce the line current in the feeder. Depending on the
loading conditions at the customer site, the capacitor banks were automatically switched in the
circuit. During a fault at the customer sitewhich resulted in significant load dropmonitors
recorded events that showed possible interaction between the SSC and the utility system.
6-22
Figure 6-8
Diagram of the Medium-Voltage Distribution System, Including Capacitor Banks
Figure 6-9 and Figure 6-10 show the voltage waveforms captured on the line (utility) side and
load side of the SSC before and during the event. After the onset of the event, the voltage
waveforms have a significant amount of harmonic distortion and a higher peak voltage than
normal. Figure 6-11 and Figure 6-12 show the clearing of the event when the SSC device went
into bypass mode. The investigators theorized that the sudden load rejection resulted in an
interaction between the SSC device and the natural frequency of the system, which may have
resulted in instability of the SSC device. This led to a gradually increasing voltage distortion and
overvoltage scenario that was ultimately cleared when the SSC went into bypass mode.
Figure 6-9
Voltage Captured on the Utility Side Before and During the Event
6-23
Figure 6-10
Voltage Captured on the Load Side Before and During the Event
Figure 6-11
Voltage Captured on the Utility Side During the Clearing of the Event
6-24
Figure 6-12
Voltage Captured on the Load Side During the Clearing of the Event
Figure 6-11and Figure 6-12 show the unique characteristics of the interaction described in this
case study. Figure 6-13 shows the increase in the peak voltage during the event, and Figure 6-14
shows the increase in the 6th harmonic voltage distortion during the event.
Figure 6-13
Increase in Peak Voltage Caused by the Interaction Between the SSC Device and the Utility
System
6-25
Figure 6-14
Increase in the Sixth Harmonic Voltage Distortion Caused by the Interaction Between the
SSC
This case study describes an event resulting from an interaction between utility capacitor
switching and a distribution-class SSC device. Ferro-resonance can produce a similar signature.
Case Study - Lessons Learned from Application of Leading Edge Technology
Overview
A first generation static series compensation (SSC) device was installed at a customers location
in an effort to improve the level of power quality provided to the customer and to demonstrate
the capability of this new device. As with any leading-edge technology, many operation and
design problems had to be addressed in the early stages of its operation in order to improve the
devices availability and reliability.
Device Operation History
The utility engaged the SSC vendor in an extended service agreement to provide for operation
and maintenance support as well as device upgrades. The need for such an agreement became
obvious during the five-month demonstration period. The period of the contract was three years.
During this time the vendor agreed to monitor the performance of the unit, provide maintenance,
and to make reasonable enhancements to improve the overall performance and availability.
The two key factors that the utility and the vendor measured to determine the reliability of the
unit were operation factor and potential availability. Operation factor is simply the ration of the
number of hours the device is online and the total number of hours in the period of interest.
potential availability is a ratio of the sum of the following: number of hours on, the scheduled off
6-26
time, and the response delay time, and the total number of in the period of interest. This measure
avoids penalizing the rating of the device for outages caused by the utility or customer.
The first year yielded an operation factor of 69.5% and a potential availability of 93.3%. The
operation factor was considerable affected by a number of scheduled outages for utility system
and SSC improvements. During this year the control system was modified to allow auto restart
and remote start functions. This allows the utility to restart the machine after a control lockout if
the data deemed that it was safe to do so. This addressed a problem of the SSC locking out for
minor transient conditions originating from the customers facility. Other modifications included:
system software upgrade to improve serial communications, replacement of a DC reactor that
was experiencing temperature rise problems, and control algorithm updates to correct a current
oscillation problem that sometimes caused the SSC to trip.
The second year yielded an operation factor of 73.4% and a potential availability of 85.7%. A
large number of hardware failures resulted in the drop in potential availability. This year saw the
following failures:
Insulation failure of an internal high voltage cable
Excessive electrical noise in a voltage feedback circuit
Control circuit UPS failure
Nine IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) failures, which were traced to a design
problem in a snubber circuit
As a result of these failures the following improvements were made:
High voltage cables were inspected and routed away from areas of mechanical stress.
The voltage feedback circuit was rewired to reduce susceptibility to radiated noise.
Nine IGBT modules were replaced and an improved snubber circuit was implemented.
The third year yielded an operation factor of 86.9% and a potential availability of 99.9%.
Factoring out scheduled maintenance, the operation factor rises to 95.2%. Most of the issues in
this year were related to the snubber circuit replacement performed late in year two. An
intermittent open wire in a snubber circuit caused occasional trips and a loose wire in another
snubber circuit delayed the unit from returning to service until it could be isolated and repaired.
There was a failure of the keypad used for operator interface and a single IGBT failure. An
improvement implemented during the third was a change in the cooling fan controls to avoid
overheating when the unit was energized but offline. During the last quarter of the third year, the
SSC demonstrated a potential availability of 99.99%.
Lessons Learned
During the three-year period, many failures related to operation and design were identified. The
resulting design and operation changes resulted in an improvement in the availability and
reliability of the SSC. Two annual maintenance inspections were scheduled to coincide with the
6-27
customers shutdowns. During these inspections, the primary tasks were cleaning the unit and
replacing air filters. The results of the second and third years indicated a need to increase the
number of maintenance tasks performed at these times to include cable and connection
inspection as well as an analysis of the event log.
The types of issues encountered with this installation can be expected with any first generation
medium voltage custom power device. It is important to have the vendor sufficiently engaged so
that the proper level of maintenance and engineering support can be obtained when working
through these events. Working together, the vendor and utility can greatly increase the chances
of a successful implementation of a custom power device.
Case Study Failure of SSC Due to Bypass Breaker Problem
Overview
A high tech company with a load of approximately 41 MVA was experiencing costly production
losses due to voltage sags. Discussions between the customer, the utility, and a static series
compensation device manufacturer led to the installation of 2 static series compensation devices,
one on each feeder supplying the customer. Each SSC was designed with the capacity to protect
26 MVA of load. The plants load was split between the two feeders.
Operation History
Both devices performed as expected during most of the first year, showing a combined
availability of just over 94%. During the first year of operation, 49 sags below 90% of nominal
were detected. The SSCs were able to protect the customer from all but 2 of these. The two
events that affected the customer were sags below 50%, which were outside the specification of
the SSC.
Late in the first year of operation, one of the SSCs experienced a catastrophic failure. The
failure was initiated by a bypass breaker which failed to open. The SSC detected a transmission
switching surge and initiated a shutdown. A close signal was sent to the bypass breaker as the
SSC began its shutdown process. In this process, the secondary of the series transformer is
shorted for 0.25 seconds while the gating of the IGBTs is halted. The breaker failed to open due
to a damaged closing coil. This resulted in the series injection transformer being left in the
circuit, and carrying load current, with its secondary open. This created a high voltage across the
secondary winding much the same as occurs when the secondary of a metering current
transformer is opened under load. The voltage across the secondary winding was rectified
through the inverter, causing the DC bus voltage to rise to a dangerous level. The DC bus
overvoltage protection overheated and failed. The DC bus began arcing, failing the SSC
inverters. The overvoltage event continued for approximately ten minutes until a control UPS
failed, causing a system reset. The reset forced the isolation breakers open. This interrupted
power to the plant from the affected feeder. The plant load switched to the other feeder,
overloading the other SSC. The now overloaded SSC successfully shutdown.
6-28
The failure was attributed to two factors: the failed closing coil in the bypass breaker, and the
lack of a protection system in the SSC to handle such an event. The bypass breaker was
modified and a breaker failure protection scheme, external to the SSC, was developed. The
rebuilding of the SSC took nearly 5 months. Tablexx illustrates the reliability and effectiveness
of the SSCs during two years of operation. Note that the much of the data excludes the repair
time of the damaged unit.
Table 6-10
SSC Operation Summary(Rose, Thomas, Custom Power Reduces Wafer Production
Losses: A Case Study, Power Quality 2000 Proceedings, October 2000
2
)
Operating Year 1
July 1, 1998
to
June 30, 1999
Operating Year 2
July 1, 1999
to
April 30, 2000
Availability, two SSCs, Total due to all causes. 94.5% 98.0%*
Forced Bypasses
Bypasses Due to Component Failures
Maintenance (planned)
Control Errors
34
5
3
26
6
0
0
6
Bypasses Caused by External Causes **
Bypass Time due to External Causes **
57
433.7 Hours
30
211.0 Hours
Total Bypasses
Mean Time between Bypasses (total) *
Mean Time to Repair/Restart for Internal Cause*
Number of Restarts in Less than 1 Hour
91
192.5 Hours
2.3 Hours
51
36
301 Hours
0.4 Hours
23
Sags (<90% retained voltage) observed 49 4
Sags not mitigated, resulting in plant production upset*** 2
1
1
2
* Does not include restoration time for the SSC which failed due to bypass breaker malfunction
** Out of spec operating conditions and/or customer requested bypasses or delayed restarts
*** Includes period while SSC repairs were made
1 Out of scope. Phase voltage less than .5 p.u.
2 Out of scope. Phase voltage less than .5 p.u. Through-fault.

2
Rose, Thomas, Custom Power Reduces Wafer Production Losses: A Case Study, Power Quality 2000
Proceedings, October 2000
7-1
7
BACKUP ENERGY SUPPLY DEVICES
Fundamentals
A backup stored energy supply (BSES) device disconnects a protected load from the
utility supply within milliseconds of the detection of a disturbance and supplies the entire load
using stored energy. Typical sources for the stored energy are batteries, superconducting
magnetic coils, and flywheels. A BSES unit (Figure 7-1) typically consists of a static source
transfer switch, stored energy module, converter module, voltage matching transformer, and
master control. It is not unusual for the controls of a BSES to be designed to start a diesel or gas
generator that is used to carry the protected load during longer interruptions.
Figure 7-1
Typical Medium Voltage Offline UPS
One of the main advantages to this BSES compared to a static series compensator or a static
voltage regulator is that it is able to carry a load through a voltage interruption. Because of this,
however, its storage requirements are higher. A design goal for a BSES is to have the energy
stored to carry a load at full power for up to 30 to 60 seconds. This allows time for a longer-term
supply to be brought online, such as a diesel generator. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
can be classified as a BSES system. There are two fundamental types of UPS systems: 1) online
systems, which are in series with a load, and 2) offline systems, which are shunt-connected and
only supply the load during a disturbance. All currently available medium voltage UPS systems
are of the offline type.
7-2
Battery UPS
One of the most often used devices to store energy for low-voltage UPS systems is the battery.
The vast majority of the low voltage UPS systems currently in service utilize batteries for their
energy storage medium. Therefore, it is not surprising to find out that the both currently available
medium-voltage UPS systems also employ batteries as their preferred means of energy storage.
One of the manufacturers can interface other storage devices to their UPS as long as the device
can output a DC voltage.
Batteries have the advantage of being a proven and mature technology for energy storage. Also,
batteries have high-energy storage densities when compared to other storage devices such as
capacitors. However, there are some drawbacks to using batteries. Batteries present an
environmental concern due to electrolyte leak containment and disposal. Also, the energy storage
capability of batteries decays as they are cycled. Medium-voltage manufacturers have attempted
to alleviate these concerns by designing leak containment into the unit and using complex battery
monitoring and charging systems.
SMES
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) makes use of the superconducting properties
of certain conductors at extremely low temperatures to store energy. During normal operation,
large amounts of current are circulating through a coil of niobium-titanium cooled to 4.2 degrees
Kelvin. Because of the superconducting properties of this coil, it offers almost no resistance to
the current flow. A sophisticated control system provides energy to the coil to maintain the
current at a certain level and make up for parasitic losses. During an event, the energy in the coil
is released through a power electronic inverter to supply a UPS or other device.
Currently, there are no manufacturers producing UPS systems utilizing SMES for energy
storage. There are units in the field that have successfully proven the technology. However, the
continued use of SMES for UPS storage has proven uneconomical. The currently available
SMES devices can supply 2 MW for two seconds. This has proven to be too little to handle the
duration of the typical outage event. Also, two seconds does not provide enough time to start a
backup source of energy such as a diesel generator.
Mechanical Energy
Another proven technology that has gained new life recently is mechanical storage.
Motor/generator sets utilizing a flywheel have long been used to offer a level of ride through for
a process or machine. These were known as low-speed flywheels. Currently, several vendors are
working on the development and/or refinement of high-speed flywheels. Devices are currently
available that can provide on the range of a few hundred kilowatts for 10 to 30 seconds.
Currently, no medium-voltage UPS manufacturer produces a device utilizing mechanical storage.
7-3
In the Application Matrix (Table 3-1), it is assumed that a Backup Energy Supply Device is at
least one of the possible Custom Power Solutions.
Purpose: The purpose of this section is to determine if the installation meets the general
requirements of a Backup Energy Supply Device and, thus, warrants additional study.
Power Quality Events
A BESD is often the most expensive custom power solution available. For this reason, it is
important to identify what types of events are to be mitigated. If the majority of the events are
voltage sags, a static series compensator or a static voltage regulator may be better solutions.
However, if the customer cannot accept an outage for any reason due to financial or safety
concerns, a BESD may be justified in such a case. Also, if a large percentage of the events are
momentary outages, and an alternate source for a high-speed source transfer switch is not
available, a BESD may be the only practical solution.
Absent monitoring data, the steps in Procedure 1 - Preliminary Assessment of Chapter 6 can be
used to estimate both the number of expected sag events and the number of expected momentary
outages at a customers location. This can be useful in determining expected performance of the
BESD.
Physical Space
A BESD, in the form of a medium-voltage UPS, requires a large amount of physical space. The
footprint for the storage, converter equipment, static switch, and matching transformer can be on
the order of 1000 to 2000 square feet. Of the two available systems, one can be installed outside
while the other requires an indoor installation. The indoor device also requires air conditioning
and cooling water.
Circuit Protection
If a BESD is to be utilized without a backup source of energy such as a diesel generator, the
energy storage of the unit needs to be able to successfully span the operation of the circuit
protection devices for the utility feed. At full load, there will likely be 15 to 60 seconds of
available ride through. If the reclosing scheme on the circuit is such that the device will be
exposed to successive events that exceed this capability, the load will be dropped. Currently
available medium-voltage UPS systems have recharge times on the order of one minute per
second of discharge and thus cannot recharge appreciably between successive operations of a
recloser cycle. Ideally, the reclose time for the source circuit protection devices will be as short
as possible.
This can even come into play when the UPS is combined with a generator. Long reclose times
may cause the UPS to trigger the generator to start unnecessarily. This will increase the duty on
7-4
the generator. Keeping the reclose time short gives the UPS more time to decide whether the
generator should be started.
customization of the control device. This data will be needed to by the manufacturer to determine
the proper specifications.
Capacity of the substation transformer supplying the circuit
Available fault current at the proposed location of the custom power device
Distribution circuit type: Delta, wye, impedance grounded. The circuits must be the same
type and voltage in order to apply any type of source transfer system.
Use the following table to record the information.
Table 7-1
Parameter Value
Substation Transformer Size (MVA) Preferred Source
Fault Impedance at the Proposed Location
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
th
to the 25
th
) at the point of common coupling.
Monitor through a complete plant/building production cycle to capture the worst-case
conditions.
model, and operational cycle.
Determine the total motor load and the share of this that is supplied via adjustable speed
drives.
7-5
Whatever the specific design basis, the purpose for the backup energy supply device is
improvement to the electrical characteristics of the voltage as seen by the connected equipment,
thereby increasing the productivity of plant operations. This prime consideration dictates the
following requirements:
plant operation.
internal conditions in order to facilitate post-event reconstruction.
Documentation
specified.
7-6
Wiring diagrams and grounding requirements;
General circuit diagram of the high-speed source transfer switch device;
Basic principle of operation;
Operation and/or service manual;
The location and magnitudes of input and output values used for device control.
Set Points
General Issues
1. What are the dimensions of the specified backup energy source device and its associated
equipment?
2. What are the placement options available: outside, containerized, inside the customers
facility?
etc.)?
8. What are the controls options? How far from the backup energy source device can the
control-pad/cabinet be located? Are modem or LAN connections available?
9. Are all parts of the backup energy source device accessible for repair and replacement?
7-7
Maintenance
The equipment vendor should provide detailed maintenance requirements specific to the device
being installed. The following is meant to give the engineer considering one of these devices a
good idea of the types of maintenance that will be required:
Clean yearly.
Units requiring air conditioning require the HVAC system be inspected yearly.
Regular battery maintenance may be required depending on the battery system employed.
Operation
As with any leading edge technology, equipment adjustments and modifications must be
expected when installing a first generation device. The following is a list of known concerns
regarding the operation of a medium voltage UPS. These are not meant to imply that the
available technology is not suited for installation. Rather, it is meant to provide the engineer with
valuable information when considering the installation of such a device:
Limitation on conduction of fault current for load side faults.
Unit may have trouble supplying magnetization inrush.
Unit may have trouble supplying load with a large percentage of direct connected motors due
to back emf issues.
Slewing to resynchronize with the utility grid after an event may require slight acceleration
of motors, requiring more energy storage.
The medium-voltage UPS systems currently available have internal self-diagnostic monitoring.
The user may elect to install additional monitoring to ensure the proper operation of the backup
energy supply device in the distribution circuit. This monitoring will provide valuable
information as to the performance of the device during power quality events on the circuit. It will
also provide some indication as to the health of the device.
Monitors should be located on the source and load sides of the device. Both current and voltage
should be monitored. The monitors should be capable of storing steady-state and waveform
measurements. The sampling rate for steady-state measurements should be at least 128
samples/cycle. The accuracy of voltage and current measurements should be such that power
calculations will have an accuracy better than 0.5%. The sampling rate for transient
measurements should be on the order of 1 MHz.
7-8
frequency response from a few hertz to 3 kHz are recommended. Capacitive coupled voltage
transformers (CCVT) are to be avoided. A CCVT is tuned to respond properly at 60 Hz,
therefore measurements of phenomena at any other frequency are suspect.
There are currently 2 medium voltage, battery based, UPS in service in North America. Both
units have provided saves for the protected load. The installed systems have ratings of 5,000
kVA at 4 kV and 12,500 kVA at 12.47 kV.
8-1
8
STATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Fundamentals
Most power disturbances at the plant service entrance of utility distribution systems come from
line-ground faults or switching operations. As a result, many disruptions of critical loads are
caused, not by complete power outages, but by temporary sags on the incoming voltage. The
need exists, therefore, for an affordable way to reduce temporary voltage sags on utility
distribution systems where there is no alternative source of power available.
The static voltage regulator (SVR) is an intermediate device. It cannot supply load during a
complete power outage, like a UPS or DSTATCOM device, but it is more affordable. In
addition, it can handle most power disturbances where there is no alternative source of power
available, unlike a solid-state transfer switch, which relies on a second independent power
source.
A traditional step-voltage regulator is a regulating transformer in which the voltage of the
regulated circuit is automatically controlled in steps by means of taps and without interrupting
the load. Such a transformer can boost or buck the voltage supplied to a load with a delay on the
order of 5-10 seconds or longer depending on the design and control system. One common
regulator changes voltage in steps of 5/8% for a total range of buck 10% (lower) to boost 10%
(raise the voltage) in 32 steps electromechanically. The traditional step-voltage regulator does
require regular maintenance and is designed for a certain number of step changes.
The static voltage regulator, on the other hand, provides voltage boost and some voltage buck
capability by using thyristor switches that rapidly change taps on three single-phase
transformers. The advantage of using three single-phase transformers is the same as using three
single-phase step-voltage regulators. The control system of each device can control each phase
independently. Therefore, in the case of a voltage unbalance, whether due to load or some other
issue, the output from the three regulators will be balanced. From an operational point of view, if
one of the regulators (step-type or static) malfunctions only the customers with three-phase
equipment and those customers on the malfunctioning regulator distribution line are affected.
Figure 8-1 shows a diagram of one of the static voltage regulators. The speed of operation is
limited by the sensing time of the control system and the switching time of the thyristors. For the
devices reviewed the times ranged from 10 to 12 milliseconds.
8-2
Figure 8-1
Typical Static Voltage Regulator
Not all static voltage regulators provide buck (or lowering) of the input voltage except back to
the neutral or start position. For instance the SVR shown in Figure 8-1 is a boost (voltage
raising) unit only.
The available compensation from the devices (at time of publication) were as shown in Table
8-1.
Table 8-1
Static Voltage Regulator Compensation Ranges
Device Maximum Compensation Minimum Voltage that can be
corrected to 100%
0.5 boost 0.5 per-unit A
0.1 buck 1.1 per-unit
B 0.35 boost 0.65 per-unit
8-3
Purpose. Verify the source of the power quality issue. Perform voltage sag estimation.
In the Application Matrix (Table 3-1), it is assumed that the SVR Devices were chosen as at least
one possibility for a Custom Power Solution. The distribution engineer should be reminded that
none of the SVR devices can ride through voltage interruptions.
Verify the source of the power quality issue
If voltage sags are the key issue and can be definitively tied to customer operational problems,
the investigator should keep the following points in mind (for any power quality investigation):
Characterize the issue
Using spot measurements, as the problem is manifesting itself, help identify characteristics
Identify the general range of solutions
wider range of solutions than just static series compensation devices.
For example, a problem with a large 2000 Hp motor may be traceable to a small relay, after
thorough investigation. Therefore, instead of looking for solutions for the entire motor it may be
found that applying a solution to the relay will solve the entire voltage sag vulnerability issue.
In summary, the power quality problem might indeed require static series compensation devices
to be installed, but other issues, like extreme equipment sensitivity, may be the culprit. These
other items must be investigated and the most economic solution must be found.
customization of the compensation device.
1. Perform Voltage Sag Estimation.
This procedure is also known by the phrase: area of vulnerability. Voltage sag estimation is a
procedure whereby the user calculates the voltage sags that would be expected for faults at
different points in the distribution and transmission system. This analysis is usually performed
with a short circuit program. The purpose of the procedure is to identify locations that cause
8-4
voltage sags below a certain threshold at key points within the system. The threshold is usually
defined by the most sensitive piece of customer process-equipment.
The user places faults on the system at the key locations and calculates what the expected voltage
will be at the end-user (customer) bus. Combining that with information regarding fault clearing
times, a time duration plot can also be made in addition to the typical area of vulnerability map.
c. Calculate the performance of the transmission system
q Build a transmission line fault performance table
This table includes the historical performance information or expected performance for
each line section in terms of number of faults expected per year for both single line-to-
ground and three phase faults. Usually, single line-to-ground faults will be the most
common. Table 6-1 from Chapter 6 can be used to collect the data.
q Calculate the area of vulnerability
Perform short circuit simulations to determine the voltage sag severity at a selected system
location for fault locations throughout the transmission system. This will identify the fault
locations that can cause a sag below a specified threshold. The total circuit miles of possible fault
locations that can cause a sag severe enough to cause miss-operation of end user equipment is
known as the area of vulnerability for that equipment.
Table 6-2 from Chapter 6 can be used to compile this data.
q Calculate the expected number of voltage sags that will cause equipment
misoperation
Convert the area of vulnerability data to actual expected events per month at the specified
location. This is done using the area of vulnerability and the expected performance for
three phase and single line-to-ground faults over that area. Summing up the expected
number of faults on each line section within the area of vulnerability will give the total
expected number of events that can cause equipment misoperation. The will usually be
expressed as events per month or events per year. Table 6-3 of Chapter 6 can be used to
compile this data.
q Calculate the expected number of momentary interruptions
The momentary interruption performance for a customer due to transmission system
faults should be calculated if the customer is supplied as a tap from a switched
transmission line (i.e., there are no transmission line breakers at the customer locations).
In this case, the expected number of momentary interruptions per year due to
transmission events is the expected number of (operations) on that line. This should be
calculated separately from the voltage sag performance.
8-5
q Evaluate the effect of end user transformer connections
Single line-to-ground faults on the transmission system will have different impacts at the
end user level, depending on the transformer connections. The following table (Table
8-2) can be used to estimate the voltages on a transformer secondary for a fault on the
primary as a function of the connection.
Table 8-2
Effect of Transformer Connections Given a Line to Ground Fault on Phase A of the
Primary
d. Calculate the performance of the distribution system
q Obtain data for distribution feeder circuit supplied from a common
substation bus
8-6
Table 8-3
Table for Collecting Data Concerning Distribution Feeder Circuits
q Calculate the expected interruption performance at the specified location
This is determined by the length of exposure that will cause a breaker or other protective
device in series with the customer to operate. For instance, if the protection is designed to
operate the substation breaker for any fault on the feeder, then this length is the total
feeder length.
Length of exposure that can cause interruptions, L
int
________________ miles
Expected Number of Interruptions
8-7
) ( *
3 1 int int p p
N N L N + _________________________ inter./ month
q Calculate the expected voltage magnitude at the substation as a function
of the fault location on the parallel feeders
This needs to be done for three-phase and single line-to-ground fault conditions. Convert
the substation voltage to the voltage at the specified location using necessary
transformations.
This calculation is made separately for single line-to-ground faults and multi-phase (e.g.,
three-phase) faults.
q Calculate the expected voltage sag magnitude at the specified location
(including transformations) as a function of fault location on the same
feeder.
This is for fault locations that will result in a sag but will not result in a momentary
interruption. Locations include faults beyond a downstream recloser or a branched fuse
that is coordinated to clear before the substation recloser. Again, this calculation needs to
be performed separately for single line-to-ground faults and three phase faults.
q Calculate the expected number of voltage sags per month below a
specified severity level.
Convert the data in the previous two steps to expected number of voltage sags per month
below the specified thresholds, using the expected performance data from the first step.
Present the data as a histogram of expected performance. The following worksheet can be
used to calculate the performance.
8-8
Table 8-4
Worksheet for Calculating Voltage Sag Performance for Distribution Faults
2. Identify the load characteristics
During this stage, the user will quantify the characteristics of the load or loads to be served
through the SVR device. Remember at this point that the device is a series device and must be
sized to provide full load handling capability.
8-9
Collect the following information:
Table 8-5
Load Characteristic Data
Minimum Average Maximum
Instantaneous MVA
MVA Demand
Mvar Demand
MW Demand
Define the Demand Interval Minutes
Instantaneous Load Current
Future load growth
expectations (instantaneous
MVA)
Emergency load contingencies
(instantaneous MVA)
When approaching the manufacturer of the SVR device the following additional information will
be required from a load-characteristic standpoint:
q At all metering points, recorded power factor data including daily trends in power
factor, highest and lowest expected power factor
q Voltage and current harmonic spectra, as both snapshots, and trended over a
complete production cycle
q For large motors, the maximum starting current, transient reactances, starting
times, starting methods (e.g., autotransformer, reactance, soft start, etc.) and speed
control
Capacity of the substation transformer supplying this circuit/load.
circuit/load
offending load
Use the following table (Table 8-6) to record the information.
8-10
Table 8-6
Parameter Value
Zero Sequence (pu)
Per-unit base
Short-circuit availability at point where SVR to be
installed
X/R ratio at point where SVR to be installed
Determine the acceptable voltage deviations required by the customer.
Determine the acceptable voltage deviations desired by other key customers in the area, if
there have been complaints or if the control device is being purchased solely by the
utility.
Establish the acceptable voltage deviations required by utility operations.
the solution to the power quality problem.
1. Determine the boost amount.
The amount of boost that the voltage requires must be determined first. This requires a judgment
call to determine the appropriate value. First, the user should determine the extent to which the
equipment will be protected. That is, how much, in the area of vulnerability calculations are the
voltage sags to be protected against?
Based upon frequency of occurrence, on voltage dip amount, and on equipment sensitivity, the
user must select a percentage of nominal voltage to be boosted. Voltage buck is usually not a
concern (voltage sags typically occur more often that voltage swells) except in cases where
capacitor controls fail and leave the capacitor bank on-line during low load or high power factor
situations.
8-11
Record that value here: ___________ V
corrected
(%)
2. Calculate the required size of the SVR Device.
The size of the SVR device is based upon full-load (or maximum) current. Therefore, the size is:
Record that value here: ____________________________________ Size (amps)
protects the regulator from the distribution system and vice-versa. Some of these devices come
with their own protection built-in, such as circuit breakers, current limiting fuses, etc. Defer to
the manufacturer on sizing and specifying protective equipment for these devices.
Whatever the specific design basis, the purpose for the static voltage regulator is improvement to
the voltage level as seen by the connected equipment, thereby increasing the productivity of the
plant operation. This consideration dictates the following requirements:
equipment used to delivery the supply to the site. This relates to BIL levels, withstand
voltages, MCOV, and other parameters traditionally associated with transformers, breakers,
insulators, surge arrestors, and traditional distribution equipment.
plant operation.
reconstruction.
8-12
below.
The rating of a static voltage regulator needs to be the same as the full rating of the load that
it will protect. This is because during sag or swell events, the SVR will carry the entire load.
If the regulator is overloaded it should switch into bypass mode.
During voltage sags in which the SVR switches to full 50% boost, the current drawn by the
unit can be twice as high as normal. Therefore, upstream protection devices need to be
coordinated with the SVR to not operate in response to the higher current levels.
The SVR does not compensate for the change in the voltage waveshape that occurs during a
voltage sag. If the load is sensitive to changes in waveshape, such as phase angle jump, then
it may still mis-operate during the event even though the magnitude of the voltage is within
design requirements.
The SVR may need to be equipped with metal-oxide arresters to limit the overvoltage that
may occur after the voltage disturbance is complete but before the SVR has switched back to
steady-state tap settings.
The SVR controls should be designed to sense downstream faults (i.e., faults within the
protected load area). During this condition, the SVR should not be allowed to boost voltage
into the fault.
The unit should either go into bybass or into the neutral voltage buck/boost position in case
of internal problems.
De-energize all live parts (including the distribution line, if in doubt) before attempting to
service this equipment. Only qualified personnel are to service this equipment.
Documentation
specified.
Wiring diagrams and grounding requirements;
General circuit diagram of the static series control device;
Basic principle of operation;
8-13
Operation and/or service manual;
The location and magnitudes of input and output values used for device control.
Set Points
General Issues
1. What are the dimensions of the specified SVR and its associated equipment?
3. Can the device be placed in accordance with the appropriate codes (NESC, NEC, OSHA, etc.)?
8. What are the controls options? How far from the SVR can the control-pad/cabinet be
located? Are modem or LAN connections available?
9. Are all parts of the SVR accessible for field repair and replacement?
Maintenance
Visual inspection yearly
Thermographic scan yearly
Component testing yearly
Cleaning as required (twice/year)
Check controls every two years
8-14
Operation
All SVR devices have internal self-diagnostic monitoring. Of additional importance is ongoing
monitoring should take place to ensure the proper operation of the SVR in the distribution
circuit. Given changes in source and load characteristics, as well as power quality problems
(voltage sags, swells, transients, etc.) it is desirable to record these and the devices response.
Monitors should be located on the line and load sides of the static voltage regulator. The
monitors should be capable of storing steady-state and waveform measurements. The sampling
rate for steady-state measurements should be at least 128 samples/cycle. The accuracy of voltage
and current measurements should be such that power calculations will have an accuracy better
than 0.5%. The sampling rate for transient measurements should be on the order of 1 MHz.
Finally, cross-triggering capability should be available so that one of the monitors can trigger the
other and vice-versa.
frequency response from a few hertz to 3 kHz is recommended. Capacitive coupled voltage
transformers (CCVT) are to be avoided. A CCVT is tuned to respond properly at 60 Hz,
therefore measurements of phenomena at any other frequency are suspect.
8-15
To date, there has not been a field installation of an SVR. One manufacturer has performed full
load testing at an independent lab.
9-1
9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. IEEE P1409 Guide for Application of Power Electronics for PQ Improvement on
Distribution Systems Rated 1kV through 38kV.
2. EPRI, Custom Power Primer: Power Quality Solutions for Energy Delivery Systems. Palo
Alto, California, 1999.
3. EPRI, StaticTransfer Switch Primer. Palo Alto, California, EPRI Report TR-111697, 1998.
4. EPRI, System Compatibility Test Protocol for Static Voltage Restoration Devices, Palo Alto,
California, 1999.
5. EPRI TE-113783 System Compatibility Test Protocol for Static Voltage Restoration
Devices.
6. EPRI TR- 112692, Waveform Characteristics of Voltage Sags: Statistical Analysis.
7. EPRI TR-113044 Waveform Characteristics of Voltage Sags: Definition and Algorithm
Development.
8. An Assessment of Distribution System Power Quality : Volumes 1-3; TR-106294-V1, TR-
106294-V2, TR106294-V3.
9. EPRI TR-114189-CD Custom Power Primer Version 1.0.
10. IEEE Std. 1159-1995, IEEE Recommended Practices on Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
11. M. H. J. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions,
IEEE Press, New York, 1999.
12. J. Arrillaga, D. A. Bradley, and P. S. Bodger, Power System Harmonics. New York, John
Wiley & Sons, Wiley Interscience, 1985.
13. Stevenson, William D., Elements of Power System Analysis. New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1982.
14. IEEE Std. 1159-1995, IEEE Recommended Practices on Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
15. G. T. Heydt, Electric Power Quality. Indianapolis, Stars in a Circle Publications, 1991.
Bibliography
9-2
16. A. Seidman, H. W. Beaty, H. Mahrous, Handbook of Electric Power Calculations. New
York, McGraw-Hill, 1996.
17. H. L. Willis, Power Distribution Planning Reference Book. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
1997.
18. IEEE Std. 1100-1992, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment (Emerald Book).
19. IEEE Std. 1250-1994, IEEE Guide for Service to Equipment Sensitive to Momentary
Voltage Disturbances.
20. IEEE Std. 1346-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Evaluating Electric Power System
Compatibility with Electronic Process Equipment.
21. Rose, Thomas, Custom Power Reduces Wafer Production Losses: A Case Study, Power
Quality 2000 Proceedings, October 2000.
22. Takeda, Masatoshi Dr., Yamamoto, Hiroshi, Reed, Gregory F. Dr., Advanced Solid-State
Switching Using a Novel Hybrid Switch Device, Power Quality 98 Proceedings, November
1998.
A-1
A
APPENDIX
Survey Data for
Utility Feedback on Custom Power
Demonstration Projects
Target 19: Distribution Systems
Integrated Custom Power Guidebook
This survey was designed to obtain feedback on the experience of utilities who have installed
custom power devices. Your input was vital for our understanding of the performance,
application concerns, and reliability of custom power devices.
There were a total of 13 respondents to this survey. Because not all of the respondents answered
every question, the number of respondents is shown in parenthesis following each question. The
results are shown as a percentage of respondents.
Appendix
A-2
Section 1. Type of Custom Power Technology
1.1 Which best fits the type of technology for which your are filling out this survey form? (13)
A. Switching Devices
B. Voltage Support Devices
C. Var Control devices
D. Untinterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
Devices
E. Other
A
8%
B
31%
C
15%
D
15%
E
31%
4 respondents chose Other:
A. Medium Voltage Harmonic Filter
B. Static Var Compensator
C. Harmonic Filter
D. SMES
Section 2. Purpose of Installation
2.1 Which best describes the primary purpose of the Custom Power Device? (13)
A. Technical Demonstrator with
Immediate Future Applications
B. Economically Viable Option to
Traditional Approach
C. Corporate Dedication to Evolving
Technology
D. Possible Future Marketable Offering
for Utility
A
23%
B
39%
C
15%
D
23%
Appendix
A-3
2.2 What were the determining factors for choosing this specific installation site? (26)
A. Very Typical Situation where
Demonstrator Viability Could Best be
Evaluated
B. Unique Situation that was Unresolvable
by Conventional Techniques
C. System Location Provided Most Severe
Test Condition for Device
D. Extremely Valuable Customer
(Collaborative Relationship)
E. To Improve Utility/Customer
Relationship
A
15%
B
15%
C
32%
D
23%
E
15%
Section 3. Customer Description
3.1 What were the customers significant power quality problems? (20)
A. Outages
B. Flicker
C. Sags
D. Harmonics
E. Long Term Regulation
F. Sensitivity to Capacitor Switching
A
20%
B
25%
C
40%
D
15%
E
0%
F
0%
3.2 What is the customers installed kVA? (13)
A. <500kVA
B. Over 500kVA, Less Than 1000kVA
C. Over 1MVA, Less Than 5MVA
D. Over 5MVA, Less Than 10MVA
E. Over 10MVA
A
8%
B
23%
C
61%
D
0%
E
8%
Appendix
A-4
3.3 What is the customers primary function? (13)
A. Manufacturing (Raw Material In,
Consumer Product Out)
B. Manufacturing (Raw Material In, OEM
Product Out)
C. External Customer Service Center
D. Internal Support Center
E. Medical Facility
F. Critical/Emergency Support
G. Others
A
62%
B
23%
G
15%
C
0%
D
0%
E
0%
F
0%
2 Respondents answered Other
A. Upscale Office Park
B. College
3.4 How would you rate the following customer concerns?
Average
Lost or damaged Tooling (6) 2.3
Lost Raw Material (6) 3.0
Unknown Product Quality after Event (6) 3.2
Lost Production Schedule Rather than Actual Product (8) 4.1
Restart Time/Effort (10) 3.7
Unavailability of Access for Internal or External Customers (6) 2.3
Lost Data (6) 2.2
Lost Process Control (5) 3.2
3.5 What device does the customer use to mitigate power quality problems?(13)
A. UPS for Critical Loads (Large Scale)
B. Stand-by Generation for Outages
C. Distributed Small-Scale UPS
D. Other Conditioning Equipment
A
15%
B
15%
C
31%
D
39%
Appendix
A-5
Section 4. Distribution System Description
4.1 What is the voltage level of the distribution system connected to the customer?(13)
A. Under 12kV (5kV Class)
B. 12kV-15kV (15kV Class)
C. 19kV-25kV (25kV Class)
D. 22kV-38kV (35kV Class)
E. Over 35kV
A
8%
B
69%
C
15%
D
0%
E
8%
4.2 What is the configuration of the customers service transformer? (13)
A. Delta/Wye
B. Wye/Wye
C. Delta/Delta
D. Wye/Delta
A
31%
B
54%
C
0%
D
15%
4.3 Did the transformer connection cause any installation concerns? (13)
A. No
B. Yes
A
100%
B
0%
Appendix
A-6
4.4 Does the customer have dual service? (13)
A. No
B. Dual Service Load Split
C. Dual Service Normal Alternate (full
capacity alternate)
D. Dual Service Normal Alternate
(limited capacity alternate)
E. Other
A
69%
B
15%
C
8%
D
8%
E
0%
4.5 Which best describes the Distribution System Environment? (13)
A. Urban, High-Density, Primary
Underground
B. Urban, High-Density, Primary Aerial
C. Rural, Medium-Length Lines, Strong
Source
D. Rural, Long Lines, Weak Source
A
0%
B
31%
C
23%
D
46%
Appendix
A-7
Section 5. Point-of-Service Monitoring
5.1 Was long-term monitoring at the service point performed? (13)
A. No
B. Yes (Number of Months?)
A
23%
B
77%
10 Respondents Answered Yes
A. 4 Months
B. 24 Months
C. 12 Months
D. Continuous
E. 3 Months
F. 24 Months
G. 6 to 12 Months
H. 1 Month
I. 6 Months
J. 24 Months
5.2 How would you rate the correlation between recorded power quality events and
reported upstets? (16)
A. Many More Reported Upsets than
Recorded Events
B. Time of Upsets and Recorded Events
Good Correlation
C. Severity of Upsets had Good
Correlation with Severity of System
Events
A
0%
B
50%
C
50%
Appendix
A-8
Section 6. Utility-Side Improvements
6.1 Which of the following improvements were implemented prior to the selection of a custom
power device? (20)
A. Tree Trimming
B. Line Arrestor Performance
C. Pole Repositioning
D. Added Sectionalizing
E. Upgraded Line Construction Standards
F. Reconfiguration to Minimize
Length/Exposure
G. Other
A
35%
B
0%
C
0% D
15%
E
10%
F
15%
G
25%
5 Respondents Answered Other
A. Removed Capacitors and Installed Voltage Regulators
B. Reconductored Line with Larger Conductor
C. Installed Dedicated Line
D. Added Voltage Regulators
E. Installed Harmonic Filter
6.2 What was the effectiveness of line
improvement schemes to reduce the impact of
voltage disturbances?
Ineffective
Somewhat
Effective
Very Effective
Tree Trimming 1 5 1
Line Arrestor Performance 0 0 0
Pole Repositioning 0 0 0
Added Sectionalizing 0 3 0
Upgraded Line Construction Standards 0 2 0
Reconfiguration to Minimize
Length/Exposure
0 3 0
Other:
A. Voltage Regulators
B. Insulated Overhead Conductor
C. Voltage Regulators
0 3 0
Appendix
A-9
Section 7. Selection of Specific Mitigation Technology
7.1 How would you rate the following in your
selection of the custom power device?
No
Importance
Fairly
Important
Very Important
Best Theoretical Solution 0 4 8
Experience with Manufacturer 4 7 1
Physical Location of Manufacturer for
Technical Support
6 5 0
EPRI Involvement with Technology 3 6 3
Cost of Custom Power Device 1 2 9
Section 8. Employed Mitigation Technology
8.1 How would you classify the custom power device employed to make up for energy
shortfalls? (12)
A. Static Tap Changing, No Energy Stored
B. Energy Derived from Unaffected
Phases
C. Self-Contained Energy Storage
A
17%
B
17%
C
66%
8 Respondents Answered C
A. Capacitors
B. Capacitor
C. Capacitor
D. Capacitor
E. VRLA Batteries
F. DC Capacitors
G. Batteries
H. SMES
Appendix
A-10
Section 9. Energy Storage Media (If Applicable)
9.1 The sizing of energy storage is based
upon:
Not a
Significant
Factor
Secondary
Consideration
Primary
Consideration
Transmission Faults Principally 3 1 3
Adjacent Circuits Same Origination Bus 4 2 1
Operation of Sectionalizing/Fuse Clearing
Same Circuit
3 2 2
9.2 The sizing of the energy storage is based upon: (8)
A. Faulty Study and Reliability Indices
B. Site PQ Monitoring Results
C. Both
D. None
A
13%
B
49%
C
25%
D
13%
9.3 If events exceed the energy storage of the custom power device: (8)
A. Unit is Bypassed and the Load is
Connected Directly
B. Load is Disconnected
C. Other
A
50%
B
25%
C
25%
A. N/A
B. Sized for Load
Appendix
A-11
9.4 Did the installation design require: (7)
A. Bypass for Facility Start-Up Following
Interruption
B. Bypass for Infrequent Starting of Large
Internal Loads Such as Motors
C. Bypass for Regular Starting of Large
D. Other
A
14%
B
0%
C
14%
D
72%
A. Bypass Only if Current Limit is Reached
B. Disconnect Breaker with Supervisory Control from DSTATCOM
C. None
D. Bypass for DVR Maintenance
E. No Bypass Required
9.5 Is the installation designed for successive events? (9)
A. Yes, with Original Reclosing Scheme
B. Yes, with Revised Reclosing Scheme
C. Bypass for Regular Starting of Large
D. Other
A
78%
D
11%
C
0%
B
11%
1 Respondent Answered Other
A. NA
Appendix
A-12
9.6 What is the time in seconds to completely recharge discharged energy storage? (4)
4 Respondents Answered with the Following Values:
A. 900 Seconds
B. 60 Seconds
C. 20 Minutes
D. 15 Seconds
9.7 What is the maximum depth of a correctable sag? (0)
There were no responses to this question.
9.8 What is the maximum duration of support for the worst three-phase sag? (5)
A. 1 Second
B. 15 Seconds
C. 1 Second
D. 15 Seconds
E. 1 Second
9.9 What is the maximum duration of support for the worst single-phase sag? (5)
A. 1 Second
B. 15 Seconds
C. .33 Second
D. 15 Seconds
E. 1 Second
Appendix
A-13
9.10 Does the unit have thermal limitations similar to motor starts per hour, or time between
successive start attempts? (8)
A. No
B. Yes, But Only Limited by Energy
Recharge Time
C. Yes, Based on Considerations other
than Energy Storage
D. Other
A
38%
B
49%
C
13%
D
0%
9.11 What is the energy storage in Mjoules provided in the installed custom power device? (4)
A. 15
B. 1.8
C. 15
D. 3
Section 10. Project Development
10.1 Did the customer share costs associated with the installation? (14)
A. No
B. Capital Costs, One Time Expense
C. Monthly Fixed Charge
D. Rate Adjustment
E. Extension of Contract Length
A
50%
B
29%
C
14%
D
0%
E
7%
Appendix
A-14
10.2 Was the installation of the custom power device proposed as a trial? (12)
A. No
B. Yes (Please Specify the Probably
Length in Months)
A
67%
B
33%
A. Unspecified Length
B. 12
C. 60
D. 12
Section 11. Changes Necessitated by the Installation
11.1 Were changes in substation reclosing practice required? (13)
A. No
B. Yes (Please Explain)
A
100%
B
0%
Appendix
A-15
11.2 Were changes in line reclosing/sectionalizing scheme required? (12)
A. No
A
75%
B
25%
A. There were some changes to make sure recharge time was compatible with the device
B. Voltage regulator control setting
C. Device is connected in parallel to distribution system and has its own recloser which is set
to coordinate with the upstream devices
11.3 Were changes in fuse clearing practice required? (11)
A. No
A
91%
B
9%
1 Respondent Answered Yes
A. This was done prior to the installation to get the system as good as possible before the
installation of the custom power device
Appendix
A-16
11.4 Were changes in line relay settings required? (12)
A. No
A
100%
B
0%
11.5 Were changes in bus or circuit mechanical voltage regulation required? (12)
A. No
A
92%
B
8%
1 Respondent Answered Yes with no explanation
Appendix
A-17
11.6 Were changes in bus or circuit capacitor bank size or operation required? (12)
A. No
A
83%
B
17%
A. Removed Line Capacitor Banks
B. Found that DVR may respond incorrectly to voltage swing if circuit resonant frequency was
between 4
th
and 6
th
harmonic. Power factor correction cap banks tuned the circuit resonance
point near 6
th
harmonic and voltage instability occurred.
Section 12. Project Installation
12.1 Did the customer have power-factor capacitors installed?(11)
A. No
B. Yes, and Remained in Service after
Installation
C. Yes, but Removed to Avoid Interaction
with Custom Power Device
A
55%
B
36%
C
9%
12.2 Has harmonic distortion at the PCC changed with the custom power device in service?
This question was removed due to changes
in the survey after the release of the
questionnaire.
Appendix
A-18
12.3 Was the custom power device used to raise the normal voltage level at the customers
site?(13)
A. No, Acts Transparently Unless Sag or
Other Power Quality Event Occurs
B. Normal Voltage was Raised Using
Existing Service Transformer as Part of
Project
C. Custom Power Device Provided
Increase in Nominal Voltage with
Passive Device (Transformer)
D. Custom Power Device Provided
Increase in Nominal Voltage
Continuous Active Intervention
A
85%
D
15%
C
0%
B
0%
Section 13. Project Commissioning
13.1 What were the start-up difficulties associated with the custom power device? (16)
A. None
B. Load Incompatibility Harmonic
Interaction with Custom Power Device
C. Load Incompatibility Inrush,
Momentary Conditions
D. Interaction with System Capacitor
Switching
E. Interaction During Utility Switching
other than Capacitor
F. Power Semiconductor Failures
G. Magnetics Failures
H. Others
A
31%
B
0%
C
0%
D
6%
E
6%
F
13%
G
13%
H
31%
5 respondents answered Others:
A. Premature semiconductor failures and ventilation problems
B. Upstream voltage regulator control
C. Control problems detecting certain utility failures
D. Sensing and Programming
E. Filter capacitor failures
Appendix
A-19
13.2 How would you rate the following device
implementation?
1 2 3 4 5
Construction Design Adequate for Installed Climate 0 1 0 4 5
Construction Design Adequate to be Considered a
Permanent Installation
0 0 2 2 7
Design Minimizes Time to Repair Failures 0 1 2 5 2
Design Contains Sufficient Redundancy to
Accommodate Single Failures
2 1 4 1 2
Bypass Scheme Adequately Addressed to Minimize
Load Disruption
0 1 2 1 6
Section 14. Project Performance
14.1 How many months has the device been in service? (11)
60
24
16
30
60
30
24
36
12
24
24
14.2 How many power quality events was the device subjected to during the above number of
months in service? (8)
Unknown
30
>100
Numerous
18
30
0
245
Appendix
A-20
14.3 How would you rate the successful mitigation of events within the design envelope? (11)
1. Low Success
2.
3.
4.
5. High Success
4
36%
5
64%
1
0%
2
0% 3
0%
14.4 How did the device perform during upstream faults? (11)
A. The Unit has not Exhibited any
Indication of Providing Upstream
Fault Current
B. During Certain Faults, the Unit has
Attempted to Provide Current Toward
Upstream Faults
C. Other
A
91%
B
0%
C
9%
1 respondent answered other:
Voltage rise on unfaulted phases during line to ground faults
Appendix
A-21
14.5 How did the device perform during downstream faults?(10)
A. The Unit has not Been Challenged by
any Downstream Faults
B. The Unit has Been Challenged by
Downstream Faults, but They Were
Within its Rating and no Bypass or
Paralleling was Required
C. The Unit has Been Challenged by
Downstream Faults Exceeding it Rating
and it Responded Properly by
Bypassing or Momentarily Paralleling
the Utility to Provide Fault Clearing
Current
D. The Unit did no Perform Correctly
(please explain)
A
70%
B
20%
C
10%
D
0%
14.6 If events occurred outside of the design envelope, how would you rate the response of the
device? (9)
1. Low
2.
3.
4.
5. High
3
11%
4
33%
5
56%
1
0%
2
0%
Appendix
A-22
14.7 Has the custom power device demonstrated high availability? (14)
A. Continuously from Original Installation
B. Yes, After Changes to Ancillary
Devices
C. Yes, After Substantial Revision to
Hardware
D. Yes, After Changes in Control
Algorithms
E. Device has not Shown Desired
Availability
A
36%
B
29%
C
14%
D
21%
E
0%
14.8 Has the device required any preventive maintenance? (10)
A. None
B. Effort Found to be as Anticipated
C. Effort Found to Exceed Expectations
A
20%
B
70%
C
10%
14.9 How would you rate the manufacturers performance? (14)
A. Complete Support Without Additional
Costs for Unforeseen Costs/Changes
B. Complete Support but only with
Additional Cost
C. Support Through Design,
Development, and Installation
D. Post-Installation Support, at their
Expense
E. Post-Installation Support, with
Additional Expense
A
14%
B
14%
C
37%
D
14%
E
21%
Appendix
A-23
14.10 How would you rate: Poor Fair Good
Very
Good
Excellent
Manufacturers Adherence to Schedule 0 6 2 2 0
Manufacturers Adherence to Budget 2 1 3 3 1
14.11 Has the unit been challenged by long-term balanced under or over-voltage conditions
(non-fault related)? (10)
A. No
B. Yes
2. Manufacturers Adherence to Budget
3
4
30%
5
10%
2
10%
1
20%
14.12 Has the unit been challenged by long term unbalanced system voltage conditions? (10)
A. No
B. Yes
A
100%
B
0%
Appendix
A-24
14.13 With the unit in operation, were any significant changes observed in ground or neutral
currents, either within the utility or the customer systems? (10)
A. No
B. Yes
A
90%
B
10%
1 respondent answered yes:
Neutral currents increased to the point that starting of wye connected emergency diesel
generators on 12kV bus was not possible. Generator neutral current relays were reset to higher
values to allow generator starting with DVR in service.
Section 15: Future Deployment of Future Units
15.1 How would you rate the following as deterrents to
the widespread deployment of this device at other
customer sites? (Higher number indicates a greater
disincentive)
1 2 3 4 5
Capital Expense 1 1 1 6 4
Engineering Effort Required Prior to Installation 2 4 4 3 0
Reconfiguration of Utility System to Support Installation 7 3 2 1 0
Concern Over Manufacturers Long-Term Support
Availability
6 3 1 3 0
Concern Over Availability of Replacement Components
Over Projected Life
6 2 2 2 1
Belief that Product is not Sufficiently Technologically
Mature for Widespread Deployment
5 1 4 2 1
Belief that Product will be Supplanted by Technological
Developments
4 2 3 4 0
Concern that Fluidity of Business Climate/Cycle
Discourages Long-Term, Special Solutions for any Single
Utility Customer
2 2 6 2 0
Belief that the Products Physical Embodiment Requires
Refinement to Meet Traditional Utility Standards
5 4 1 2 0
Unwillingness of Customers to Accept the Costs of
Utility-Side Solutions as Readily as Utilization-Side
Mitigation
1 0 3 2 6
B-1
B
MANUFACTURERS OF CUSTOM POWER DEVICES
Table B-1
Shunt Reactive Compensation Devices
Manufacturer Name Voltage
Rating
Device
Rating
Web-site
ABB VSC
Minicomp
5 kV
34.5 kV
0 to 4
MVAR
www.abb.com
TCR
Minicomp
5 kV
34.5 kV
4 to 20
MVAR
www.abb.com
SVC-Q 5 kV
34.5 kV
>20
MVAR
www.abb.com
SVC Light > 4
MVAR
www.abb.com
Mitsubishi D-STATCOM 5 kV
35 kV
4 to
>20
MVAR
http://www.meppi.com/html/distribution_statcom.
html
Power Quality
Systems
Intellivar 15 kV 650
kVAR
to 15
MVAR
http://www.pwrqualitysys.com/
Intelliswitch 15 kV 650
kVAR
to 15
MVAR
http://www.pwrqualitysys.com/
Siemens SIPCON-P 5 kV to
35 kV
2
MVAR
to 10
MVAR
http://www.siemens.com
Manufacturers of Custom Power Devices
B-2
Table B-2
Source Transfer Switch
Rating
Device
Rating
Transfer
Time
Web-site
InverPower STS-D 15 kV
44 kV
200-
600A
2-10 ms http://www.inverpower.com
Joslyn Hi-Voltage
Corporation
FasTran25 4 kV 27
kV
600A 25 ms http://www.joslynhv.com/
Mitsubishi LightSpeed
SSTS
4 kV 35
kV
200-
1200A
4 ms http://www.meppi.com
Silicon Power
Corporation
(SPCO)
PowerDigm
MVSTS
5 kV 38
kV
400-
1400A
4 ms 8
ms
http://www.siliconpower.com
S&C Electric
Corporation
PureWave
STS
4 kV to
35 kV
300-
1200A
2 ms 4
ms
http://www.sandc.com
Table B-3
Static Series Compensation
Rating
Device
Rating
Web-site
ABB DVR 5 kV
25 kV
3 to 50
MVA
www.abb.com
American
Superconductor
PQ VR 5 kV
15 kV
1.7 MVA to
10 MVA
http://www.amsuper.com/
GE SSVR 1 kV
35 kV
2 MVA to 8
MVA
(Converter
Rating)
http://www.ge.com
Siemens MVDVR 5 kV to
35 kV
2 MVA to
20 MVA
http://www.siemens.com
Manufacturers of Custom Power Devices
B-3
Table B-4
Rating
Device
Rating
Minimum
Ride-
through
Web-site
ABB Power
Systems
DUPS 5 kV
35 kV
2 50
MVA
1 minute,
full load
http://www.abb.com
S&C Electric
Corporation
PureWave
UPS
4 kV
35 kV
2.5 15
MVA
30
seconds,
full load
http://www.sandc.com
Table B-5
Rating
Device
Rating
Web-site
ABB Stepped
DVR
5 kV
15 kV
10 to 50
MVA
www.abb.com
Inverpower SVR 15 kV
44 kV
4.5 MVA
(converter
rating)
http://www.inverpower.com/.
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Distribution Systems
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Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research
consortium for the benefit of utility members, their
customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI,
the company provides a wide range of innovative
products and services to more than 1000 energy-
related organizations in 40 countries. EPRIs
multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers
draws on a worldwide network of technical and
business expertise to help solve todays toughest
energy and environmental problems.
EPRI. Electrify the World

Guide Book On Custom Power Devices

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Guide Book On Custom Power Devices

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Guidebook on Custom Power Devices

12) Percent drop.

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