Christian Ruiz

Professor Chanelle Vigue

SPCH121-009: MWF 10:00-10:50
17 February 2014

Summaries: Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, and 15

Chapter 6 deals with analyzing and dealing with the audience, especially by examining
the demographics and thinking styles of the audience. Stephen Lucas, the author, begins the
chapter by saying that good public speakers concentrate on the audience, aiming to illicit a
response from it. This is done by adapting the message of the speech to the goals, values, and
attitudes of the audience (which is primarily the students in the speech class at this point in time);
by identifying with the audiences values and experiences; and by finding ways to force the
audience to choose to pay attention, especially since the auditory senses are selective and since
people are essentially egocentric.
However, these methods must be accomplished by first analyzing the demographics in
terms of its age distributions; gender affiliations; religious associations; sexual orientations;
group memberships; and racial, ethnic, or cultural backgrounds. Each of demographics must then
be considered in terms of their importance or relevance to the situation. However, when
engaging in demographic analysis, stereotypes must be avoided. In addition, the size of the
audience, the physical setting, and the audiences disposition (with respect to its interest,
knowledge, and attitude) toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion must be considered,
which is termed situational audience analysis. This analysis of the audience can be done
through audience-analysis questionnaires containing fixed-alternative questions, scale questions,
open-ended questions, or combinations of those questions. In all, this analysis of the audience
must be put into practice by using this analysis to anticipate the audiences response when
preparing the speech and to adjust the speaking based on the situation and the audiences
feedback during the speech.
In the next chapter (Chapter 7), Lucas discusses methods to gather materials to prepare
for speeches. He begins by stating that prior knowledge and experience can be a good starting
point in developing a speech topic, especially if it has a personal touch added to it. However, to
more fully prepare for the speech, library research must be done, which can be aided by
librarians, the catalogue and call numbers, reference works (such as encyclopedias, yearbooks,
quotation books, and biographical aids), newspaper and periodical databases, and academic
databases (particularly by glancing at the abstracts). Researching the Internet is also a good
method for preparing the speech, particularly through search engines (where results can be
narrowed by using the + sign, for instance) and specialized research resources like virtual
libraries, government resources, and Wikipedia (but not always). However, it should be used to
supplement (not replace) library research because it may not have the same range and depth of
information as a library. In addition, Internet articles should be judged based on their authorship,
sponsorship, and recency to determine their suitability for the speech.
Another method to gather materials for the speech is to engage in the research interview.
Yet, before the interview, the interviewer must define the purpose of the interview, decide whom
to interview, arrange the interview, decide whether to record the interview, and prepare the
questions for the interview. During the interview, he/she should dress appropriately and be on
time, repeat the purpose of the interview, set up the recorder (if it is being used), keep the
interview on track, listen carefully, and avoid staying too long. After the interview, he/she should
review his/her notes as soon as possible to maintain accuracy, and he/she should transcribe the
notes. At the end of the chapter, Lucas gives a few tips to make research more productive. He
states that speechmakers should start early, make a preliminary bibliography, take notes
efficiently (by taking a copious amount of notes, recording notes in a consistent manner, making
a separate entry for each note, and distinguishing among direct quotations, paraphrases, and their
own ideas), and think about the material as research is done.
In Chapter 8, Lucas discusses ways (supporting materials) to support the ideas in the
speech in order to fully persuade the audience. He states that vivid, concrete examples (whether
they are brief, specific instances, extended examples/narratives/illustrations/anecdotes, or
hypothetical examples) are one way to persuade the audience. However, these examples must
clarify, reinforce, and/or personalize the ideas in the speech. These examples must also be vivid
and full of rich details and be rehearsed to achieve a full effect on the audience, especially
through tone and eye contact. Statistics are another way to persuade the audience. However,
statistics must be evaluated, especially since the audience is usually critical of statistics, in terms
of representation of the population, correct usage (particularly considering the mean, median,
and the mode of the data), and reliability of the source. Lucas then states that statistics must be
used to give numerical value to ideas, used sparingly, stated along with the sources of the
statistics, explained in the context of the speech, rounded off when they include a large string of
nonzero numbers, and clarified with visual aids (especially when trends are being considered).
Another method to persuade the audience is testimony, which can come in the form of either
expert testimony or peer testimony (or both). However, speakers must be careful to know the
difference between quoting and paraphrasing and must be careful to quote or paraphrase
accurately, use testimony from reliable and unbiased sources, quote a source within context, and
cite the source of the quotation or paraphrase.
Lucas then discusses the idea of citing sources orally, especially since careful audiences
are skeptical. These citations do not follow a formal format like written bibliographies. Although
these citations differ depending on the topic, the audience, the type of supporting material, and
the claim, the audience should be told enough so that they will know the source of the
information and the reason it should be considered reliable. Citing the qualifications of the
author and the Website, for example, can accomplish this.
Then, in Chapter 9, Lucas discusses ways to strategically organize the body of the
speech, which is helpful in keeping the listeners on track with the speech, in establishing
relationships among ideas, and in improving the delivery of the speech. In order to organize the
body of the speech, the main points must first be identified, phrased appropriately, and arranged
strategically (either chronologically, spatially, casually, problem-solution-wise, or topically).
However, speakers must be careful to avoid having too many main points as this can drown the
listeners in information. Rather, speakers should distill the main points into two or three main
points. Speakers must also be sure to keep the main points separate, use the same fashion of
wording for main points, and balance the amount of time allotted to each main point.
After dealing with the main points, speakers must work with the supporting materials to
enhance those main points and hence persuade the audience. These supporting materials must be
organized so that they are directly relevant to their corresponding main points. These supporting
materials (and main points) must also have connectives to establish connections between similar
and disparate ideas. Stock phrases, such as All right must be avoided. Instead, transitions,
internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts should be used to establish these
connections.
Finally, in Chapter 15, Lucas discusses types and guidelines for informative speaking,
which is an important part of any job, particularly in terms of accuracy, clarity, and
meaningfulness to the audience. He first discusses three types of informative speeches: speeches
about objects, speeches about processes (to inform the listeners so that they will either
understand or be able to perform the processes), speeches about events, and speeches about
concepts. The main points of these speeches can be organized chronologically, spatially, or
topically. These speeches must have specific purpose statements in order to give the audience an
appropriate amount of information within a given time limit and must be identified in terms of
relevance to the speech so that the speech will be organized and delivered effectively.
Lucas then provides guidelines for informative speaking. Speakers should not assume too
much about the knowledge of the audience (instead, they should explain technical terms,
processes, and events in an understandable way), should relate the subject directly to the
audience to maintain interest in the subject, should avoid speaking too technically (instead, they
should use straightforward language that the audience can understand), should avoid abstractions
(instead, they should be descriptive and compare and contrast ideas with concrete terms), should
personalize ideas to enliven a speech, and should be creative. Lucas then provides a sample
speech with commentary to the side of the speech pertaining to the successes of the speech.