4

FOREWORD
At no time during the last three or four decades have the
communication skills of individuals in the business world come
under closer scrutiny than today. And never before have those
who work in the business world needed better, more effective
communication skills.
The emerging technology appears to be increasing, rather
than decreasing, the need for effective communication skills. As
more individuals have ready access to desk-top equipment to
process written communication, fewer support personnel will be
readily available to provide editing assistance. Therefore, well-
developed communication skills among originators are more
important to success than ever before.
This book is suitable for several different audiences, including
undergraduate and graduate students.
The organization of this manual is a logic sequence of
chapters including both business communication and
correspondence.
The first part is dedicated to business communication and
the second to business correspondence.
The special features found in this edition are:
1. Examples of effective letter writing. Studies have shown
students studying written business communication can
learn as much, if not more, from ineffective examples of
written communication as they do from effective examples.
2. Varied application problems in the writing-oriented
chapters. The number of problems has been increased.
While the majority of problems require the writing of a
letter or report, some are designed to give students an
opportunity to develop the often overlooked skill of editing.
3. Many new application problems in the non-writing-
oriented chapters.
4. New topics, such as nonverbal communication
language, various types of speeches and presentations.

5


Part 1
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

1. The Business Letter
1.1. The Lay-Out of the Letter

Subordinated to the aim envisaged by the letter, the form of a
business letter contributes to obtaining a favourable atmosphere
and business environment. The business letter is most of the times
unique, but in the case of repeatable operations containing small
or series merchandise, for certain parts of a business transaction,
forms may be used. These include the enquiry, the offer, technical
specifications, the invoice, transportation instructions, etc.
In order to have an aesthetic aspect of the letter, certain
requirements must be fulfilled:
A balanced placement of the text on the paper
Alignment
Avoiding to split words into syllables
Text must be written in paragraphs
Text should be continued on a new page only if it contains
more than two lines.
The extra documents connected to the letter should be
placed in enclosures
Post scriptum should be avoided
In international business correspondence, there are two main
forms of arranging the text in a page: the indent style especially
used by UK and USA firms, and the bloc forma letter style. The
latest is considered to be a modern layout and used more and
more. As variants the semi-bloc form and the modified bloc form
can be used. Each one has distinctive features ()

.


6


1. The Indent Style

- the first line in each paragraph will
be placed few intervals from the left
border
the inside address, the ending formula
and the signature will be placed few
intervals to the inside compared to
the upper line




2. The Bloc Style

- all the elements of the letter are
aligned from the left border
- a double space is placed between
paragraphs







3. The Semi-Bloc Style
- the text of the body-letter can be
written in the indent form
- lines including the internal address
are placed to the left and the lines
containing the ending formula and the
signature are placed to the right in the
bloc form

7



4. The Modified Bloc Style

- the text is written completely in
the bloc style
- the date and the rows representing
the salutation formula, the ending
formula and the signature are placed
to the right






Writing business letters and memos differs in certain
important ways from writing reports. Keep the following advice in
mind when you write and especially when you revise your
business letters or memos.
State the main business, purpose, or subject matter
right away. Let the reader know from the very first sentence what
your letter is about. Remember that when business people open a
letter, their first concern is to know what the letter is about, what
its purpose is, and why they must spend their time reading it.
Therefore, avoid round-about beginnings. If you are writing to
apply for a job, begin with something like this: "I am writing to
apply for the position you currently have open...." If you have bad
news for someone, you need not spill all of it in the first sentence.
Here is an example of how to avoid negative phrasing: "I am
writing in response to your letter of July 24, 1997 in which you
discuss problems you have had with an electronic spreadsheet
purchased from our company."
If you are responding to a letter, identify that letter by
its subject and date in the first paragraph or sentence. Busy
recipients who write many letters themselves may not remember
8

their letters to you. To avoid problems, identify the date and
subject of the letter to which you respond:

Dear Mr. Stout:

I am writing in response to your September 1, 19XX
letter in which you describe problems that you've had
with one of our chainsaws. I regret that you've
suffered this inconvenience and expense and....


Dear Ms. Cohen:

I have just received your August 4, 19XX letter in
which you list names and other sources from which I
can get additional information on the manufacture and
use of plastic bottles in the soft-drink industry....


Keep the paragraphs of most business letters short. The
paragraphs of business letters tend to be short, some only a
sentence long. Business letters are not read the same way as
articles, reports, or books. Usually, they are read rapidly. Big,
thick, dense paragraphs over ten lines, which require much
concentration, may not be read carefully - or read at all. To enable
the recipient to read your letters more rapidly and to comprehend
and remember the important facts or ideas, create relatively short
paragraphs of between three and eight lines long. In business
letters, paragraphs that are made up of only a single sentence are
common and perfectly acceptable. Throughout this section, you'll
see examples of the shorter paragraphs commonly used by
business letters.
"Compartmentalize" the contents of your letter. When
you "compartmentalize" the contents of a business letter, you
place each different segment of the discussion - each different
topic of the letter - in its own paragraph. If you were writing a
complaint letter concerning problems with the system unit of your
personal computer, you might have these paragraphs:
A description of the problems you've had with it
9

The ineffective repair jobs you've had
The compensation you think you deserve and why
Study each paragraph of your letters for its purpose, content,
or function. When you locate a paragraph that does more than one
thing, consider splitting it into two paragraphs. If you discover
two short separate paragraphs that do the same thing, consider
joining them into one. Provide topic indicators at the beginning
of paragraphs. Analyze some of the letters you see in this section
in terms of the contents or purpose of their individual paragraphs.
In the first sentence of any body paragraph of a business letter, try
to locate a word or phrase that indicates the topic of that
paragraph. If a paragraph discusses your problems with a personal
computer, work the word "problems" or the phrase "problems
with my personal computer" into the first sentence. Doing this
gives recipients a clear sense of the content and purpose of each
paragraph. Here is an excerpt before and after topic indicators
have been incorporated:

Problem: I have worked as an electrician in the
Decatur, Illinois, area for about six years. Since
1980 I have been licensed by the city of Decatur as
an electrical contractor qualified to undertake
commercial and industrial work as well as residential
work.

Revision: As for my work experience, I have worked as
an electrician in the Decatur, Illinois, area for
about six years. Since 1980 I have been licensed by
the city of Decatur as an electrical contractor
qualified to undertake commercial and industrial work
as well as residential work.(Italics not in the
original.)

List or itemize whenever possible in a business letter.
Listing spreads out the text of the letter, making it easier to pick
up the important points rapidly. Lists can be handled in several
ways, as explained in the section on lists.
Place important information strategically in business
letters. Information in the first and last lines of paragraphs tends
10

to be read and remembered better. Information buried in the
middle of long paragraphs is easily overlooked or forgotten.
Therefore, place important information in high-visibility points.
For example, in application letters which must convince potential
employers that you are right for a job, locate information on
appealing qualities at the beginning or end of paragraphs for
greater emphasis. Place less positive or detrimental information in
less highly visible points in your business letters. If you have
some difficult things to say, a good (and honest) strategy is to de-
emphasize by placing them in areas of less emphasis. If a job
requires three years of experience and you only have one, bury
this fact in the middle or the lower half of a body paragraph of the
application letter. The resulting letter will be honest and complete;
it just won't emphasize weak points unnecessarily. Here are some
examples of these ideas:

Problem: In July I will graduate from the University
of Kansas with a Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and
Dietetics. Over the past four years in which I have
pursued this degree, I have worked as a lab assistant
for Dr. Alison Laszlo and have been active in two
related organizations, the Student Dietetic
Association and the American Home Economics
Association. In my nutritional biochemistry and food
science labs, I have written many technical
reports and scientific papers. I have also been
serving as a diet aide at St. David's Hospital in
Lawrence the past year and a half. (The job calls for
a technical writer; let's emphasize that first, then
mention the rest!)

Revision: In my education at the University of
Kansas, I have had substantial experience writing
technical reports and scientific papers. Most of
these reports and papers have been in the field of
nutrition and dietetics in which I will be receiving
my Bachelor of Science degree this July. During my
four years at the University I have also handled
plenty of paperwork as a lab assistant for Dr. Alison
Laszlo, as a member of two related
organizations, the Student Dietetic Association and
11

the American Home Economics Association, and as a
diet aide as St. David's Hospital in Lawrence in the
past year and a half.

Find positive ways to express bad news in your
business letters. Often, business letters must convey bad news: a
broken computer keyboard cannot be replaced, or an individual
cannot be hired. Such bad news can be conveyed in a tactful way.
Doing so reduces the chances that business relations with the
recipient of the bad news will end. To convey bad news
positively, avoid such words as "cannot," "forbid," "fail,"
"impossible," "refuse," "prohibit," "restrict," and "deny" as much
as possible. Focus on the recipient's needs, purposes, or
interests instead of your own. Avoid a self-centered focusing on
your own concerns rather than those of the recipient. Even if you
must talk about yourself in a business letter a great deal, do so in a
way that relates your concerns to those of the recipient. Avoid
pompous, inflated, legal-sounding phrasing. Watch out for
puffed-up, important-sounding language. This kind of language
may seem business-like at first; it's actually ridiculous. Of course,
such phrasing is apparently necessary in legal documents; but why
use it in other writing situations? When you write a business
letter, picture yourself as a plain-talking, common-sense, down-to-
earth person (but avoid slang). Give your business letter an
"action ending" whenever appropriate. An "action-ending"
makes clear what the writer of the letter expects the recipient to do
and when. Ineffective conclusions to business letters often end
with rather limp, noncommittal statements such as "Hope to hear
from you soon" or "Let me know if I can be of any further
assistance." Instead, or in addition, specify the action the recipient
should take and the schedule for that action. If, for example, you
are writing a query letter, ask the editor politely to let you know of
his decision if at all possible in a month. If you are writing an
application letter, subtlety try to set up a date and time for an
interview.

12

1.2. Business Letter Formatting Examples

The Indent Form
5 Hill Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53700
15 March 2005
Ms. Helen Jones
President Jones, Jones & Jones
123 International Lane
Boston, Massachusetts 01234

Dear Ms. Jones:

Ah, business letter format - there are block
formats, and indented formats, and modified block
formats . . . and who knows what others. To simplify
matters, we're demonstrating the indented format on
this page, one of the two most common formats. For
authoritative advice about all the variations, we
highly recommend The Gregg Reference Manual, 9th ed.
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), a great reference tool
for workplace communications. There seems to be no
consensus about such fine points as whether to skip a
line after your return address and before the date:
some guidelines suggest that you do; others do not.
Let's hope that your business letter succeeds no
matter which choice you make!

If you are using the indented form, place
your address at the top, with the left edge of the
address aligned with the center of the page. Skip a
line and type the date so that it lines up underneath
your address. Type the inside address and salutation
flush left; the salutation should be followed by a
colon. For formal letters, avoid abbreviations.

Indent the first line of each paragraph one-
half inch. Skip lines between paragraphs. Instead of
placing the closing and signature lines flush left,
type them in the center, even with the address and
date above, as illustrated here. Now doesn't that
look professional?
Sincerely,
13

John Doe
The Bloc Format
5 Hill Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53700

March 15, 2005

Ms. Helen Jones
President
Jones, Jones & Jones
123 International Lane
Boston, Massachusetts 01234

Dear Ms. Jones:

Ah, business letter format-there are block formats,
and indented formats, and modified block formats and
who knows what others. To simplify matters, we're
demonstrating the block format on this page, one of
the two most common formats. For authoritative
advice about all the variations, we highly recommend
The Gregg Reference Manual, 9th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2001), a great reference tool for
workplace communications. There seems to be no
consensus about such fine points as whether to skip a
line after your return address and before the date:
some guidelines suggest that you do; others do not.
Let's hope that your business letter succeeds no
matter which choice you make!

When you use the block form to write a business
letter, all the information is typed flush left, with
one-inch margins all around. First provide your own
address, then skip a line and provide the date, then
skip one more line and provide the inside address of
the party to whom the letter is addressed. If you are
using letterhead that already provides your address,
do not
retype that information; just begin with the date.
For formal letters, avoid abbreviations where
possible.

Skip another line before the salutation, which should
be followed by a colon. Then write the body of your
14

letter as illustrated here, with no indentation at
the beginnings of paragraphs. Skip lines between
paragraphs.

After writing the body of the letter, type the
closing, followed by a comma, leave 3 blank lines,
then type your name and title (if applicable), all
flush left. Sign the letter in the blank space above
your typed name. Now doesn't that look professional?

Sincerely,

John Doe
Administrative Assistant
15

The Semi-bloc Letter Format

3303 West Valley Cove
Round Rock, Texas 78664
August 5, 1990

Personnel Assistant
JD Employee Credit Bank of Texas
P.O. Box 32345
Austin, Texas 78745

Dear Personnel Assistant:

I am writing about your newspaper ad in the August 1
Austin-American Statesman concerning your need for an
experienced programmer in the database environment.
I believe that I have the qualifications and
experience that you are looking for.

As for my experience with database programming, I
have worked for the past year as a programmer/analyst
in the Query database environment for Advanced
Software Design. In that capacity, I have converted
a large database that was originally written in a
customized C language database into the Query
database environment. I am currently working on a
contract with Texas Parks and Wildlife to make major
modifications to its existing Query database
application. On both of these assignments, I have
also served as customer contact person.

Related to this database-programming experience is
the work I have been doing to write and market an
automated documentation utility for Query database
applications. This product was written using a
combination of C, Pascal, and Query programming
languages. I was responsible for the authorship of
the Pascal and Query programs. The Pascal programs
are completely responsible for the user interface and
system integration management.

Enclosed you will find a resume, which will give you
additional information on my background and
qualifications.
16


I would welcome a chance to talk further with you
about the position you are seeking to fill. I can be
reached by phone between 9:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. at
(512) 545-0098.

Sincerely,
Virginia Rementeria
Encl.: resume

17

The Alternative Bloc Format
Green Tree Freight Co., Inc.
Columbus, Ohio 45453, (315) 565-6789
March 29, 19XX

Complete Table, Inc.
P.O. Box 3132,Austin, TX 78703

Subj.: March 24 letter about damaged freight

Dear Mrs. Hughes:

I have just received your March 24 letter about the
damaged shipment you received through Green Tree
Freight and regret the inconvenience that it has
caused you.

From your account of the problem, I am quite sure
that your request for the $240 adjustment on the
damage to the 2 crates of Valjean Cristal stemware
will be granted. A certain amount of breakage of
this sort does unavoidably occur in cross-country
shipping; I am sorry that it was your company that
had to be the one to suffer the delay.

I must remind you to keep the damaged crates in the
same condition in which you received them until one
of our representatives can inspect them. That
inspection should take place within 2 weeks.

If all is in order, as it sounds to be in your
letter, you can expect the full reimbursement within
2 weeks after our representative's inspection. I
hope this unfortunate accident will keep you from
having merchandise shipped by Green Tree Freight in
the future.

Sincerely,
David F. Morgan, Customer Relations
Green Tree Freight Co., Inc.
Columbus, Ohio 45453

(315) 565-6789

18

"#$# %&'()'(* &+ (,) -)(().


International theory and practice have established a certain
set of elements as being the essential components of a business
letter:
Heading. The heading contains the writer's address and
the date of the letter. The writer's name is not included and only a
date is needed in headings on letterhead stationery.
Inside address. The inside address shows the name and
address of the recipient of the letter. This information helps
prevent confusion. Also, if the recipient has moved, the inside
address helps to determine what to do with the letter. In the inside
address, include the appropriate title of respect of the recipient;
and copy the name of the company exactly as that company writes
it. When you do have the names of individuals, remember to
address them appropriately: Mrs., Ms., Mr., Dr., and so on. If you
are not sure what is correct for an individual, try to find out how
that individual signs letters or consult the forms-of-address section
in a dictionary.
Salutation. The salutation, the "Dear Sir" of the letter, is
followed by a colon (except when a friendly, familiar, sociable
tone is intended, in which case a comma is used). Notice that in
the simplified letter format, the salutation line is eliminated
altogether. If you do not know whether the recipient is a man or
woman, traditionally you write "Dear Sir" or "Dear Sirs" and just
not worry about it. More recently, however, salutations such as
"Dear Sir or Madame," "Dear Ladies and Gentlemen," "Dear
Friends," or "Dear People" have been recommended. Deleting the
salutation line altogether or inserting "To Whom It May Concern"
in its place, however, is not always a good solution; it's quite
impersonal. Try to get a person's name within the organization;
make a quick, anonymous phone call to get a name. Or, address
the salutation to a department name, committee name, or a
position name: "Dear Customer Relations Department," "Dear
19

Recruitment Committee," "Dear Chairperson," "Dear Director of
Financial Aid," for example.
Subject or reference line. As shown in the order letter,
the subject line replaces the salutation or is included with it. The
subject line announces the main business of the letter.
Body of the letter. The actual message of course is
contained in the body of the letter, the paragraphs between the
salutation and the complimentary close. Strategies for writing the
body of the letter are discussed in the section on business-
correspondence style.
Complimentary close. The "Sincerely yours" element of
the business letter is called the complimentary close. Other
common ones are "Sincerely yours," "Cordially," "Respectfully,"
or "Respectfully yours." You can design your own, but be careful
not to create florid or wordy ones. Notice that only the first letter
is capitalized, and it is always followed by a comma.
Signature block. Usually, you type your name four lines
below the complimentary close, and sign your name in between. If
you are a woman and want to make your marital status clear, use
Miss, Ms., or Mrs. in parentheses before the typed version of your
first name. Whenever possible, include your title or the name of
the position you hold just below your name. For example,
"Technical writing student," "Sophomore data processing major,"
or "Tarrant County Community College Student" are perfectly
acceptable.
End notations. Just below the signature block are often
several abbreviations or phrases that have important functions.
Initials. The initials in all capital letters are those of the
writer of the letter, and the ones in lower case letters just after the
colon are those of the typist.
Enclosures. To make sure that the recipient knows that
items accompany the letter in the same envelope, use such
indications as "Enclosure," "Encl.," "Enclosures (2)." For
example, if you send a resume and writing sample with your
application letter, you'd do this: "Encl.: Resume and Writing
Sample." If the enclosure is lost, the recipient will know.
20

Copies. If you send copies of a letter to others, indicate
this fact among the end notations also. If, for example, you were
upset by a local merchant's handling of your repair problems and
were sending a copy of your letter to the Better Business Bureau,
you'd write this: "cc: Better Business Bureau." If you plan to send
a copy to your lawyer, write something like this: "cc: Mr.
Raymond Mason, Attorney."
Following pages. If your letter is longer than one page, the
heading at the top of subsequent pages can be handled in one of
the following ways:
If you use letterhead stationery, remember not to use it for
subsequent pages. However, you must use blank paper of the
same quality, weight, and texture as the letterhead paper (usually,
letterhead stationery comes with matching blank paper).

"#$#"# /,) -)(().0,)123'4

The heading of a business letter should contain the return
address (usually two or three lines) followed by a line with the
date. The heading is indented to the middle of the page in the
modified block and semi-block styles. It begins at the left margin
in the block style. If the stationery is imprinted with the return
address, then the return address may be omitted.
Sometimes a line after the address and before the date may
include a phone number, a fax number, an E-mail address, or the
like. Particularly if the address uses three or more lines, it is good
to skip a line before the date. When using the block style, always
skip a line before the date. Always include the date.
In the contemporary commercial correspondence, the form
and the graphics of the letter heading is extremely variated, but
generally extremely simple, good looking, without useless
ornamental elements. It usually fulfils an identification,
informative and advertising function.

Eg.:
Acme Explosives, Inc.
100-B Dry Gulch Alley
21

Lonesome Coyote AZ 85789
(602) 555-5555
July 14, 1997

"#$#5# /,) 6)+).)'7) -3')

References are usually placed to the left of the paper, under
the date in the case of the bloc format, or on the same line with the
date to the right in the case of the indent format.
References are included in the letter in order to easier
identify the department, the bureau or the employee dealing with the
matter, but also in order to facilitate the correspondence distribution.
References are introduced using the abbreviation "Ref."
(reference) and include the name of the employee or the secretary
(separated by slash or : for American firms) and also the different
reference numbers released by the secretariat or registration, file
number or contract number, etc.

Eg.:(EB) Ref: NBI Oc 545 LP (EA)
Ref: -YS: MS - 7050 XMD

It is common to also introduce the references of the
sending firm using the abbreviation "Our Ref.", and the ones of
the receiving firm using the abbreviation "Your Ref." in order to
easier identify this one in previous correspondence.

Eg.: Our Ref: NSI Mo 393 P - 0 Your Ref: IRI YB 39 M
45


1.3.3. The Inside Address

The inside address is placed to the left of the paper, under
the reference line, its purpose being the correct identification of
the letter by the postal services especially for the envelopes
having a transparent band. This address includes the name of the
addressee, its quality, the headquarters of the institution we are
addressing, including the country. The way we address the
22

addressee differs according to the type of letter, that may be
formal, official, social or personal. We shall now present as
following, the different addressing possibilities that have
generalized in commercial correspondence.
To a certain person from a firm or institution, we address
using the full or complete name, as used by this one,
with no abbreviations
(Eg: Mary Brown; Robert F.G. Gibson).
The name will be accompanied by the politeness formula or
the honorific or official functions of the person. In
English, the according formulas are: - Mr.
(Abbreviation from "Mister", used for a man); - Mrs.
(Abbreviation from "Mistress", used for a woman); -
Miss ( the word used for an unmarried woman ); - Ms.
(abbreviation used when the civil status of a woman is
unknown).
The following formulas precede a persons name:
- Esq. (abbreviation of the word "esquire" old nobles title,
only used in UK for men and placed after the persons
name
(Eg: John Smith, Esq.)
- Dr. (abbreviation for "doctor") the title of doctor (Eg: Dr.
John Brown)
- Prof. (for the title of professor)
Other abbreviations are placed after the persons names: Jr.,
Jun., Jur., (for "junior"), Bros. for "brothers". Eg.: Dan
White Jr.; Daniel White Jun., Esq; Gibson, Bros. In UK,
the addresses function is indicated before the name,
preceded by the politeness formula
(Eg.: Mr./ Mrs./ Miss W.Browing, General
Manager).
In the case of persons having official positions, the addressing
formula is "His Excellency", followed by the specific
formula
(Eg.: His Excellency the Trade Minister).
To a clerk whose name we do not know or to a department
in a institution, or firm that we address, we name the
function or the department. (Eg.:The Managing
23

Director, The Secretary, The Customs Officer,
The Export Department). This indication can also be
placed at the end of the interior address, preceded by
"Attention"... or "For the attention of..." . This can be under
lined. (Eg. For the attention of the Secretary
Attention the Managing Director Attention:
The Export Department). After the name of the person
to whom the letter is addressed, we have to indicate the
name of the firm, the institution, the bank etc. and the
organization form. (Ltd., Co., Corp., Inc.).
A firm, institution, bank, we can address by mentioning its
name (Eg.: Ed. White & Bob Green, Ltd.;
National Iran Oils, Ltd.). Underneath the firms
name, we must state the address street name, number,
city, postal code and the country. For the business
correspondence sent to the English language countries,
the house number will go first, then the street. As far as
the destination country is concerned, we have to
remember that the official name of the British Isles is
Great Britain, comprising England, Scotland and Wales.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland abbreviated UK also includes Northern Ireland.
For the correspondence having as destination the US, the
name of the state must be stated after the city name, as
cities having the same name may be encountered in
different states.
Eg.: New York, N.Y., U.S.A. New York City,
U.S.A.

"#$#8# /,) 91:;(1(3&'

The salutation formula is placed appreciatively three lines
under the addressees address. The manner in which we present
this depends on the addressing formula used. In case, the
addressee is a person, to whom we have addressed using the
his/her position, the salutation formulas will be:
- Dear Sir, for a man
24

- Dear Madam, for a woman.
If personal names have been used, they will also be used in
salutation formulas, but mentioning at the same time titles or
functions, or even only one of them.


"#$#<# /,) 9;=>)7( :3')

The formulation constituting the subject of the letter is
placed to the middle of the page, one line underneath the
salutation formula and it should be underlined. Its role is to briefly
present the problem the specific letter deals with. Customary, the
letter subject was preceded by abbreviations Re: (from Latin "res"
= thing, matter) or Ref: ( "referring") when the writer wishes to
draw attention on a previous letter concerning the matter, but
these are more and more rare in modern correspondence.
Eg:1. Dear Sirs,
Re: Letter of Credit No...
2. Dear Sirs,
Ref: Our letters MCl 3 MCl f of...
3. Dear Sirs, Wool Contract No...

Apart from the other elements of the letter, the inclusion of
subject of the letter is not compulsory and may be omitted, in case
the treated matter is briefly presented in the first paragraph of the
letter. If we address an institution or a firm in general, the formula
will be
- Dear Sirs,
- Dear Madames.
The formulas Sir and Sirs are only rarely encountered, due to the
fact that they create a distanced atmosphere between partners. In
the correspondence written in American institutions or firms, the
formula is :
Dear Mr. Brown, Dear President Brown,
Dear Miss Brown, Dear Mr. Vice-President
Dear Mrs. Brown, Dear Sir John,... etc,
Dear Professor Brown,

25



"#$#?# /,) @&2A &+ (,) -)(().

The content of letter represents the essential element of the
business correspondence, and thus, it should be written carefully.
Usually, it contains:
- the introductory paragraph,
- the message of the letter,
- the ending.
1. The introductory paragraph is connected to the subject of
the letter and it contains this subject as it is: the confirmation
of correspondence, merchandise or documents delivery,
formulation of an answer to previous correspondence etc.
2. The message of the letter comprises the point of view of the
sender concerning the treated matters; thus, ideas should be
stated clearly, in a logic concatenation, using adequate
vocabulary and a corresponding tone. It is advisable to use
short, direct phrases for each and every treated matter in a
separate paragraph.
3. The ending must present the logic conclusion of the point of
view comprised in the message. This may be achieved and
materialized in expressing a promise, a will to continue or
strengthen the collaboration relations with partners, thanks,
recommendations or apologies for certain errors.

1.3.7. The Complimentary Close
The ending formula and salutation is usually placed 2 or 3
rows underneath the text of the letter, to the middle of the page.
Most common formulas are:
- Yours faithfully,; Faithfully yours, (we a firm or an
institution is addressed.)
- Yours sincerely,; Sincerely yours, (when the sender
addresses a well-known person, even if they can also
be used for the previous situation)
26

- Yours (very) truly; (Very) truly yours, (especially
used in the US).
It is to be remembered the fact that all these formulas are
followed by comma. The salutation presented above may be
preceded by some formulas that give it a more formal character,
such as:
- We/I hope to hear from you soon,
- We are/ I am
- With our/my best wishes/ Kind regards.


1.3.8. The Signature
The signature is placed underneath the complementary close
and the salutation formula, preceded by the name of the firm. The
complete name of the person signing the correspondence should
also be placed under this line, the position (Managing Director,
Deputy Director, Manager etc.)and eventually the title (doctor,
professor, civil engineer etc.).
This requirement is a legal consequence that derive from the
engagement of the firm or institution through that signature.
For female addressees, the civil status will be mentioned
using the abbreviations "Mrs" or "Miss" in order to know the
addressing manner for the answering correspondence.
Sometimes, correspondence may be signed for and in the
name of the firms management. In this case, the correspondence
has a special annotation referring to the quality of the person
signing:
- per procurationem per prof p. p
- for and on behalf of

Eg.: 1. Yours faithfully,
THE MODERN TOOL CORPORATION
William Brian Vice-president

2. Yours sincerely,
A.JOHNSON & Co, Ltd.
(Mrs) Dr. DIANA PINK Managing Director
27



Table no1
Scheme of salutation and addressing formulas according to the
addressee

Addressee Salutation
Complementary
clause
The Woolen Mills,
Ltd (E.B.)

Dear Sirs, Dear Mesdames Yours faithfully,
Faithfully yours,
Roger Brothers Co,
Inc.(E.A.)
Gentlemen: Yours truly,
Very truly yours,
Robert Gibson, Esq.
Mr. Robert Gibson

Dear Sir,
Dear Mr. Gibson,
Yours sincerely,
Yours very
sincerely
Mrs. Vivian Grant
Miss Ann Porter


Dear Madam, Dear Mrs.
Grant.
Dear Miss Porter
Sincerely yours,
Yours sincerely,
Yours truly

1.3.9. Initials and Postscript
In certain institutions or firms, the custom of indicating the
initials of the person writing the letter in the left bottom corner
has been established, instead of stating these elements in the
reference line. The number of copies should also be mentioned
here, the destination of the letter, the firm or the person it is sent
to.
As far as the post scriptum is concerned is concerned, it is
advisable that it is avoided, because its use may be interpreted by
the addressee as an omission from the content of the letter and
thus as a proof of negligence from the sender.
Even though, sometimes, the post-scriptum is used aiming
to draw attention on a very important or most recent element.
28




1.3.10. Enclosures

When the letter is accompanied by enclosures, this is
mentioned in the end of the letter in the bottom corner of the
paper.
Eg.: 1. - Enclosure/ Enclosures- Enc./ Encl/ Encs
2. -Enclosures: 3
- Invoice
- B/ L
- Certificate of origin


1.3.11. The Envelope

As it is the case for the letter, the paper used should be of
good quality and resistant. The text written on envelope should
contain the following elements:
1. The addressees address, the same as the interior one as
form and content, five rows at most. In case we use a
transparent envelope, the inside address becomes
2. Mailing specifications (referring either to the postal
category or tariff, or to the sending status):
- Registered mail
- By air mail
- Registered air mail
- By express mail
- Printed matter
- Printed paper - reduced rate
- Books only
- Season's card
- Unsolicited gifts
- Sample without value
- Return if not delivered
29

- Please do not bend
- Special delivery
- To be called for
3. Special indications (referring to the correspondence
features):
- Personal/ Private
- Confidential
4. Indications for correspondence mailing to a certain
department or person.
E.g.:
For the attention of: Selling Department
Attention: Managing Director
Mr. Smith, Deputy Director

In case the sender does not know the address of the person he
wants to contact, but considers that an other person/institution
could hand it over, the letter will be addressed to the latter and in
order to draw attention the it will contain the abbreviation C/ 0
(care of). All such directions are present both in the letter and
under the inside address.

E.g.: Dr.Samuel Horn
c/ 0 London University
London
Great Britain

5 the space reserved for stamps or mail markings S (postage/
stamps).
As far as the senders address is concerned, this will be written
(printed) on the back of the envelope or an envelope printed with
the firms heading should be used.






Forma bloc
TEHNOFOREST 4 Piata Rosetti
Bucharest - Romania
stamp
Mr.John Brown
c/ 0 The Furniture Co.Jnc.
12 W.Thirty-Second St.
New York 43, N.Y. U.S.A.
BY AIR MAIL

30


31

1.4. Essential Letter Types

Business correspondence theory and practice have isolated
several types of business letters in connection to different
economic activities or requirements of the business activity.
Business Letters have a variety of uses. Organizations use them to
contact outside parties. They are also used to respond to requests,
motivate some kind of action, request or provide information, and
to sell goods and services. A good business letter is brief, to the
point, straightforward and polite. If possible, it should be limited
to one typewritten page. Because they are so brief, such letters are
often judged on very small, but important, things: grammar,
punctuation, openings, closings and formats. A business letter is
not the place to try out fancy fonts or experimental writing styles.
A direct, conservative style works best. Listed here are the
elements of standard business letters and their functions.
Most commonly used types of letters can be synthesized as
following:
Enquiries
Offers
Orders
Appointments
Reservations
Complaints
Adjustments
Acknowledgments
Agreements
Announcements
Confirmations etc.
Business letters can be also be classified by following the
criteria of the addressing entity a partner firm (supplier, client
etc) , an employee/employer, a bank or even an official body.


32

1.4.1. The Enquiry Letter

An enquiry is a short and simple business letter,
sometimes pre-printed, form of business correspondence through
which the firm ask a potential partner for:
Catalogues, price lists, presentation brochures or
prospectuses
Samples and demonstrations
Terms and methods of payment
Discounts
Goods on approval, sale or return
Estimate or tender.
Enquires can be made by telephone, telex, fax, e-mail or mail.
A first enquiry (sent to a supplier with whom you have not
previously done business) should include:
As short mention of the source of information of the
suppliers name and contact address (embassy,
chamber of commerce, exhibition or trade fair,
recommendation from a business associate,
advertisement in the mass-media etc.)
The demand in the area for the products that the
suppliers deals
Details concerning the required information
(catalogues, methods of payment, delivery terms,
delivery times, discounts, price lists, samples, etc.)
A closing sentence.
The enquiry letter is useful when you need information,
advice, names, or directions. Be careful, however, not to ask for
too much information or for information that you could easily
obtain in some other way, for example, by a quick trip to the
library.
There are two types of enquiry letters: solicited and
unsolicited.
A solicited letter of enquiry is written when a business or
agency advertises its products or services. For example, if a
33

software manufacturer advertises some new package it has
developed and you can't inspect it locally, write a solicited letter
to that manufacturer asking specific questions. If there are no
information on a technical subject, an enquiry letter to a company
involved in that subject may represent a solution. In fact, that
company may supply much more help than expected.
The letter of enquiry is unsolicited if the recipient has done
nothing to prompt the enquiry. For example, as a consequence to
an article by an expert, there may come up further questions or
more information may be needed.
As the steps and guidelines for both types of enquiry
letters show, the unsolicited type must be constructed more
carefully, because recipients of unsolicited letters of enquiry are
not ordinarily prepared to handle such inquiries.
Enquiry Letters have the following organization:
1. Early in the letter, the purpose-to obtain help or
information must be identified (if it's a solicited letter,
information about an advertised product, service, or
program).
2. In an unsolicited letter, the sender, the working activity
and the reason generating the need for the requested
information must be identified, and also the source of the
primary information that determined the enquiry. In an
unsolicited letter, the source that prompted the enquiry
must also be identified, for example, a magazine
advertisement.
3. In the letter, list questions or information needed in a clear,
specific, and easy-to-read format. If many question have to
be included, the person writing the enquiry letter must
consider making a questionnaire and including a stamped,
self-addressed envelope.
4. In an unsolicited letter, the writer must try to find some
way to compensate the recipient for the trouble, for
example, by offering to pay copying and mailing costs, to
accept a collect call, to acknowledge the recipient in your
report, or to send him or her a copy of your report. In a
34

solicited letter, suggest that the recipient send brochures or
catalogues.
5. In closing an unsolicited letter, the writer must express
gratitude for any help that the recipient can provide you,
acknowledge the inconvenience of your request, but do not
thank the recipient "in advance." In an unsolicited letter,
tactfully suggest to the recipient will benefit by helping
you (for example, through future purchases from the
recipient's company).
Sample Enquiry Letter

1102 West 30th
Lawrence, KS 66321
August 4, 19XX

Dr. Maria Gomez-Salinas
Director of the Diabetes Clinic
St. David's Hospital
1000 Greenberg Lane
Wichita, KS 66780


Dear Dr. Gomez-Salinas:

I am writing you in hopes of finding out more about
how the new Glucoscan II blood glucose monitoring
system, which a representative at Lifescan informed
me that your clinic is currently using.

Originally, I saw Lifescan's advertisement of this
new device in the January 19XX issue of Diabetes
Forecast and became very interested in it. I wrote
the company and got much useful information, but was
recommended to write several current users of the
system as well.

For a technical report that I am writing for a
technical writing class at Johnson County Junior
College, I need some help with the following
questions:
35

1. How often does the Glucoscan II need to be
calibrated in practical, everyday use
conditions?
2. How accurate is the Glucoscan II compared to
other similar systems that your patients have
used?
3. What problems do your patients experience with
this new device?
The Lifescan representative indicated that your
clinic is one the leaders in implementing new
technology for
diabetics, and therefore I am eager to hear from you.
In the report I will acknowledge your contributions,
and I will send you a copy of the completed report
if you wish.

Thank you for your time, and I hope to hear from you
soon.

Sincerely,
Anita Teller
Student, Medical Technology
Johnson County Junior College
1.4.2. The Offer
The offer is the second element in the chain of the pre-
contractual correspondence, and sometimes it is written as
response to the previous enquiry. Through the offer, the
seller/exporter declares the availability to sell goods or offer
services under certain conditions.
The offer can be solicited, when it is preceded by an
enquiry, or unsolicited when it is sent on the sellers initiative. The
offer may also be transmitted as a consequence of an invitation of
publicitary announcements.
Apart from the enquiry, which is always legally
unengaged, the offer can be ferm or informative. Also, it can be
conditioned or under the reserve of annulment.
Despite the existence of several types of offers, this
36

document can be structured according to certain elements. The
introductory paragraph should make reference to the
circumstances that determined the contact and it should also
express the satisfaction of establishing/continuing business
relations. For the case of un unsolicited offer, the introductory
paragraph includes the motivation for the offer.
Basic compositional element includes:
a. product name
b. quality
c. price
d. delivery terms
e. delivery date
f. payment conditions
g. guarantee .
h. type of offer ands its validity.
The new compositional element is represented by the
publicitary paragraph. It can not be found in all offers, but where
it is present, it generates higher quality and raises interest. This
one includes supplementary information referring to
products/services, suppliers etc. in order to create a positive image
for the products and the firm.

1.4.3. The Order

As a consequence of the offer analysis, the buyer/importer
transmits the seller an order for goods or services, usually using:
- an order form
- a registered letter of order
- both, in case the letter aims to stress some details
- the return of the offer or of the pro-forma invoice signed
by the buyer
- a fax letter.
Rarely, the order is transmitted by phone or verbally (with
a written confirmation). Besides the order we can also encounter:
- the (trial order) in order to test the goods ; the buyer has
the right to return the goods on his own expense if it is not
37

satisfactory,
- the (repeat order) for goods and services identical to the
ones from the original order ; specifying only the number of the
order.
In English the term used for the external order is indent.
The order is compulsory from the legal point of view, thats why,
attention should be granted to clarity and precision in formulation.
If the order replaces the contract (for goods and services with low
value), it will comprise all the elements of a contract.

1.4.4. Acknowledgement of Orders

The acknowledgement of orders is transmitted using the
same types of documents to the ones mentioned above for the
order. Rarely, this can also be sent by phone with a written
confirmation. The acknowledgement must:
- transmit at once with the receival of the order;
- express gratitude for the order;
- specify the date and/or the number of the order;
- repeat the essential elements of the indent in order to
avoid any misunderstanding;
- ensure to respect all indications regarding the order, and
specify the expedition date.

1.4.5. The Complaint Letter

Complaint letter requests some sort of compensation for
defective or damaged merchandise or for inadequate or delayed
services. While many complaints can be made in person, some
circumstances require formal business letters. The complaint may
be so complex that a phone call may not effectively resolve the
problem; or the writer may prefer the permanence, formality, and
seriousness of a business letter. The essential rule in writing a
complaint letter is to maintain your poise and diplomacy, no
matter how justified your gripe is. Avoid making the recipient an
adversary.
38

1. In the letter, identify early the reason the person is writing
for - to register a complaint and to ask for some kind of
compensation. Avoid leaping into the details of the
problem in the first sentence.
2. State exactly what compensation is desired, either before
or after the discussion of the problem or the reasons for
granting the compensation. (It may be more tactful and
less antagonizing to delay this statement in some cases).
3. Provide a fully detailed narrative or description of the
problem. This is the "evidence."
4. Explain why your request should be granted. Presenting
the evidence is not enough: state the reasons why this
evidence indicates the request should be granted.
5. Suggest why it is in the recipient's best interest to grant the
request: appeal to the recipient's sense of fairness, desire
for continued business, but do not threaten. Find some
way to view the problem as an honest mistake. Do not
imply that the recipient deliberately committed the error or
that the company has no concern for the customer. Toward
the end of the letter, express confidence that the recipient
will grant the request.
Sample Complaint Letter
206C Park Lane
Austin, Texas 78705
11 February 19XX
Director of Consumer Relations
American Airways Mail Drop 4F13
P.O. Box 56989 DFW Airport
Dallas, Texas 75441-4545

Dear Director:

I am writing you concerning a round-trip flight from
Austin, Texas, to Detroit, Michigan, I made on
December 10, 19XX. Travel demands have made me a
consistent patron of American for the past six years.
In that time, service on your airlines has always
been good to excellent. But an interruption in
39

service on the flight mentioned above has prompted
my request for a 50 percent reduction in airfare on
my next flight.

Here is what happened on December 10. While changing
planes during the return trip at DFW Airport, I was
informed that our flight would be delayed. After two
hours' delay, we boarded the plane we had just left
in order to meet our Chicago connection in Dallas.
After take-off from DFW, our pilot casually informed
us that we should be impressed by the fact that the
Dallas Cowboys football team had just left our seats.
This was the only explanation of our inconvenience.

I believe that this re-routing was done purely for
promotional gain and was in no way mechanically or
technically necessary. As a loyal patron of American
Airlines, at least until this point, I have every
confidence that the compensation I request above will
be provided, considering the high standard of service
and consideration your company has demonstrated
toward its customers in the past.

Sincerely,
Scott Woodrow encl.: copy of ticket

1.4.6. The Adjustment Letter

The adjustment letter replies to complaint letters, often
called letters of "adjustment," must be handled carefully when the
requested compensation cannot be granted. Refusal of
compensation tests a persons diplomacy and tact as a writer. Here
are some suggestions that may help you write either type of
adjustment letter:
1. Begin with a reference to the date of the original letter of
complaint and to the purpose of your letter. If the request
is denied, do not state the refusal right away unless the is
no way do that tactfully.
2. Express concern over the writer's troubles and appreciation
that he has written.
40

3. If the request is denied, the reasons why the request cannot
be granted must be explained in as cordial and non-
combative manner as possible. If the request is granted, it
must not sound as if it is done so in a resent way.
4. If the request is denied, try to offer some partial or
substitute compensation or offer some friendly advice (to
take the sting out of the denial).
5. Conclude the letter cordially, perhaps expressing
confidence that the writer will continue doing business.
Sample Adjustment Letter
Green Tree Freight Co., Inc.
Columbus, Ohio 45453 (315) 565-6789
March 29, 19XX

Complete Table, Inc.
P.O. Box 3132 Austin, TX 78703
Subj.: March 24 letter about damaged freight

Dear Mrs. Hughes:

I have just received your March 24 letter about the
damaged shipment you received through Green Tree
Freight and regret the inconvenience that it has
caused you.

From your account of the problem, I am quite sure
that your request for the $240 adjustment on the
damage to the 2 crates of Valjean Cristal stemware
will be granted. A certain amount of breakage of this
sort does unavoidably occur in cross-country
shipping; I am sorry that it was your company that
had to be the one to suffer the delay.

I must remind you to keep the damaged crates in the
same condition in which you received them until one
of our representatives can inspect them. That
inspection should take place within 2 weeks.

If all is in order, as it sounds to be in your
letter, you can expect the full reimbursement within
2 weeks after our representative's inspection. I hope
this unfortunate accident will keep you from having
41

merchandise shipped by Green Tree Freight in the
future.

Sincerely,

David F. Morgan, Customer Relations
Green Tree Freight Co., Inc.
Columbus, Ohio 45453
(315) 565-6789
42

1.4.7. The Business Memo

A memorandum (memo) is used to make announcements,
to confirm what transpired during conversations or meetings, and
to request or exchange information.
It can be directed to a few specific people but often
addresses a group, entire team or department. It is often written in
the first person (I or we) and ranges from very informal to
extremely formal, depending on the writer and the intended
recipients. Its topic is narrow and should be apparent immediately.
Since it is a business document, it is important that the writing be
up-front and concise. A good memo summarizes facts, analyzes
pertinent issues, makes a recommendation, and supports it. It is
easy to get overly technical and use unnecessary words to describe
a situation; attention to clarity eliminates any need for the writer
to go into lengthy explanations. Remember, too, that a memo
becomes the property of its recipients and is not private. Dont
say anything in a memo that you wouldnt say in person.
Business memos are not that much different from the
letters, for a long time they have been the second type of business
correspondence after business letters. Nowadays email has
probably ousted them from this position, but still nothing can
replace the good old memos and you continue to see them
everywhere in the business world.
Business memos are a piece of interoffice correspondence
sent between employees in a company or between company
subsidiaries to transmit ideas, decisions, requests or
announcements. They are more private and more formal than
emails but less formal than letters. They can also be compared to
reports, but very short ones.
Business memos appeared in the later nineteenth century
along with the increased need for internal communication across
distances and between levels of management of the corporate
enterprises. Initially the term 'memorandum' was used but by the
1920s when the internal documents were already widely spread it
was shortened to 'memo'.
43

Business memos can always be distinguished from any
other piece of business correspondence because of their own
specific format which excludes salutation, complimentary closing
and formal signature.
Though the format for a memo may vary from one
organization to another, the standard heading consists of a series
of clearly labeled lines that convey key information about the
memos contents and its distribution. The following are standard
elements of a memo header:
Date: The date on which the memo is distributed
To: The person(s) to whom it is primarily addressed (sometimes
with job title)
cc: Name(s) of anyone else who receives a copy (sometimes with
job title)
From: Name of the writer, usually followed by his/her
handwritten initials (sometimes with job title)
Subject: or Re: Concise statement of the memos topic
Things to remember when writing memos:
Identify your audience before you begin to write.
Ask yourself, should this be persuasive, directive, or
technical?
Be concise and come straight to the point.
Maintain a business-like tone.
Use headings, bullets, and/or numbered lists so key points
stand out and the document is easy to read.
As when writing anything, each paragraph should contain
one main idea. Also, try to keep each paragraph short.
Always proofread very carefully. Check all of your facts.
Dont forget to identify any attachments. If not, a
recipient would not realize anything was missing.
Never include a closing. The From line eliminates the
need.



44


Sample Business Memo
Memorandum
To: Stephen Powers
From: Dan Smith
Date: July 26, 1999
Re: Computer problems
We are still having problems with the five
new computers we have purchased from Bryan
Hansen at the Hometown Computer Company. The
problems we have been having include:
Two notebook computers wont boot up.
Hometowns technicians think it may be a
problem with the motherboards, but they cant
solve the problem.
One monitor continues to make a high-pitched
whining sound.
Two desktop computers came infected with
viruses.
I feel that we should check into sending
these computers back and get new ones from
another supplier. I dont feel confident with
any equipment from this supplier.

The body of a business memo is very similar to the body
of a letter, most of the principles of letter writing can be applied in
writing this part of the memo. In most cases the first paragraph in
a memo is a purpose or a topic statement, and it foes not need too
much of an introduction. Further in your memo provide the reader
with any necessary background information including dates,
briefly describe the current situation and the related problems -
this is sometimes called the discussion segment of a business
memo. Close the memo with a courteous ending that states your
request or the action you want your reader to take. The tone used
in the body of the memo depends on who the memo is addressed
to. Memos should not be too informal as they are usually
considered to be internal documents as well as pieces of business
correspondence.
45

Some companies may have very strict format for business
memos that each employee is supposed to follow, they even have
it stated in their internal manuals. Others pay less attention to the
format as long as the memo resembles a memo. Some memos
could have just one sentence in the body, the others about 3 pages.
Some business memos are initiated by the author near his or her
name in the header, others are signed as regular letters would be.
Memos could be blocked or indented. In most cases (but not
always) a line was drawn under the memo header.

46

1.4.8. The Business Report

Business reports are required in disciplines such as
accounting, finance, management, marketing and commerce.
Often the type of assignment set is a practical learning task
requiring you to apply the theories you have been studying to real
world (or realistic) situations; for example, accounting and finance
students may be asked to analyse a companys financial data and
to write a report detailing their findings, marketing students may
be asked to research and develop a marketing campaign for a
product and to write a report presenting the proposal to the
company, management students may be asked to report on the
management structure of a company and make recommendations
for its improvement. Learning how to report on financial
information, marketing and management strategies and issues to
others is an important component of business studies.
Thus business reports can include issues from accounting
and finance, marketing or commerce. In these examples there are
separate, yet related tasks, and this will be reflected in the
structure of the report: information will be divided into sections
with headings (for example, Recommendations), and the sections
will follow a logical progression.
Business reports will obviously differ according to the
specific question and task they seek to answer. It is important,
however, to be clear what the overall purpose of your report is: is
it to inform, to make a proposal, or to solve a problem?
In business, the information provided in reports needs to
be easy to find, and written in such a way that the client can
understand it. This is one reason why reports are divided into
sections clearly labelled with headings and sub-headings.
Technical information which would clutter the body of the report
is placed in the appendix.
The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of
each section is shown below.

47

TITLE PAGE report title
your name
submission date
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY overview of subject matter
methods of analysis
findings
recommendations
TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections in
report and their page numbers
INTRODUCTION terms of reference
outline of reports structure
BODY headings and sub-headings
which reflect the contents of
each section. Includes
information on method of data
collection (if applicable), the
findings of the report and
discussion of findings in light of
theory
CONCLUSION states the major inferences that
can be drawn from the
discussion
makes recommendations
REFERENCE LIST list of reference material
consulted during research for
report
APPENDIX information that supports your
analysis but is not essential to its
explanation
48

The executive summary provides the reader with an
overview of the reports essential information. It is designed to be
read by people who will not have time to read the whole report or
are deciding if this is necessary; therefore, in your executive
summary you need to say as much as possible in the fewest words
(Weaver & Weaver, 1977). The executive summary should briefly
outline the subject matter, the background problem, the scope of
the investigation, the method(s) of analysis, the important findings
arguments and important issues raised in the discussion, the
conclusion and recommendations. The executive summary should
not just be an outline of the points to be covered in the report with
no detail of the analysis that has taken place or conclusions that
have been reached.
The executive summary stands as an overview at the front
of the report but it is also designed to be read alone without the
accompanying report (this would often occur in the workplace);
therefore, you need to make sure it is self sufficient and can be
understood in isolation. It is usually written last (so that it
accurately reflects the content of the report) and is usually about
two hundred to three hundred words long (i.e. not more than a
page).
In a report longer than several pages a table of contents
should be included as it assists the reader to locate information
quickly. It also gives the reader a schematic overview of the
structure and contents of the report.
A table of contents should include all section headings and
subheadings:
worded exactly as they appear in the report
numbered exactly as they appear in the report
with their page numbers.
The table of contents should be on its own page. As well
as a table of contents, you may wish to include:
List of Figures (optional, separate page)
This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous
figures. It includes the figure number, caption and page
number, ordered as they appear in the text.
49

List of Tables (optional, separate page). This list is used
mainly for reports containing numerous tables. It includes
the table number, caption and page number, ordered as
they appear in the text.
List of appendices (optional, separate page)
This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous
appendices. It includes the appendix letter (each separate
appendix should be lettered i.e. Appendix A, Appendix B,
etc.), its title and page number, ordered as they appear at
the end of the report.
Nomenclature (optional) - Where symbols are used extensively, a
list of symbols and definitions should appear at the beginning of
the report. If there is no list, symbols should be defined in the text
when first used.
The introduction presents:
the background to the issue (i.e. why was the report
commissioned),
the objective or purpose of the report
a definition of the research problem/topic
a definition of the reports terms of reference (the what,
where, and when of the research problem/ topic)
an outline of the reports structure
an overview of the reports sections and their
relationship to the research problem
an outline and justification of the scope of the report (the
boundaries the report is working within)
a description of the range of sources used (i.e. personal
investigation, interviews, statistics and questionnaires)
acknowledgment of any valuable assistance received in
the preparation of the report
While there will be some duplication in the contents of the
executive summary and the introduction, the purpose of the
executive summary is to provide a summary of the findings of
each section of the report. The purpose of the introduction,
50

however, is to outline what the report will cover and how these
issues address the research problem.
The body section expands and develops the material in a
logical and coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in
the Introduction. It contains a description of the findings and a
discussion of them. It should also relate the findings to any theory
of relevance. The following questions are examples of some of the
types of questions the body of your report should seek to answer:
What were the most significant findings or factors
involved in the topic/ problem?
Did the findings support the theory?
Have you found some disagreement with the theory?
Did you uncover any unexpected or new issues that
need to be considered?
This section is usually the longest part of the report. The
material must be presented logically. The type of headings you
use to organise the information in the body of your report will
depend on the purpose of the report you are preparing. Make sure
the headings and sub-headings you choose are informative. The
following general structures are just examples of ways it may be
appropriate to structure your report.

Type 1: Findings/ Discussion
Sub-heading 1
Statement of issue
findings
discussion of whether it supports or
contrasts with theory
discussion of significance to theory/
practice
Sub-heading 2
Statement of issue 2
findings
discussion of whether it supports or
contrasts with theory
discussion of significance to theory/
practice
51


Type 2: Findings
Sub-heading 1
Statement of issue 1
findings
Sub-heading 2
statement of issue 2
findings


Discussion
Issue 1
discussion of whether it supports or
contrasts with theory
discussion of significance to theory/
practice
Issue 2
discussion of whether it supports or
contrasts with theory
discussion of significance to theory/
practice

If the report requires any collection or analysis of data, it
would generally contain a method section in the body of the report
briefly describing how the data was collected: literature search,
web pages, interviews (details of the questions and the subject
pool), financial and other business reports, etc. Details of types of
calculations or analysis undertaken would also be detailed. The
body of a report will also probably contain supporting evidence
such as tables, graphs or figures. Only include those that are
essential for reader understanding, the rest can be placed in an
appendix that is referred to in the text; for example - Appendix C
contains the YoY predicted growth in shareholder accounts for the
company.
The conclusion summarises the major inferences that can be
drawn from the information presented in the report. It answers the
questions raised by the original research problem or stated
purpose of the report (Blake & Bly, 1993) and states the
conclusions reached. Finally, the conclusion of your report should
52

also attempt to show what it all means: the significance of the
findings reported and their impact (Weaver & Weaver, 1977).
The conclusion/s presented in a report must be related to,
resulting from and justified by the material which appears in the
report. The conclusion must not introduce any new material. It
should report on all the conclusions that the evidence dictates as it
is NOT the job of a conclusion to gloss over conclusions that are
puzzling, unpleasant, incomplete or dont seem to fit into your
scheme (Weaver & Weaver, 1977: 98). Doing this would
indicate writer bias and mean your conclusion may mislead the
reader.
In the workplace, conclusions are quite often read by
managers before the main text of the report and hence, should
summarise the main points clearly. This section also may include:
reference to original aim(s) and objective(s) of report,
application(s) of results,
limitations and advantages of the findings,
objective opinion, evaluation or judgement of the
evidence
Quite often the present tense is used in the conclusion; for
example, The healthy lifestyles concept analysed in this report is
a good candidate for next phase of the marketing campaign for
Choice chocolate.
The conclusions may be ordered in several ways (Weaver
& Weaver, 1977). The main conclusion may be stated first and
then any other conclusions in decreasing order of importance.
Alternatively, it may be better to organise the conclusions in the
same order as the body section was organised. Another strategy
would be to present the positive conclusions together and then the
negative conclusions. The organisational strategy you use may
vary; the important thing is that the organisation of your
conclusion is logical.
The conclusion must arise from the evidence discussed in
the body of the report. It should not, therefore, subjectively tell the
reader what to do (Blicq, 1992; Weaver & Weaver, 1977): this job
is performed by the recommendations section.
53

(NOTE: Sometimes the conclusion and recommendations can be
presented together in one section but they should be presented in
separately labeled subsections).
It is essential to include a reference list or bibliography of
the reference material you consulted during your research for the
report. A bibliography is a list of all the reference material you
consulted during your research for the report while a reference
list is a list of all the references cited in the text of your report,
listed in alphabetical order at the end of the report. Each reference
in the reference list needs to contain all of the bibliographic
information from a source. You should also check with your
lecturer or tutor for any Faculty guidelines on referencing formats.
Throughout the text of your report you will also need to
provide references when you have included an idea in your report
which is not your own original idea. You don't need to reference
an idea, however, if it is common knowledge (i.e. enzymes are
proteins) or if it has been established by you in your experiment
(i.e. in scientific reports reporting on an experiment). A reference
is the bracketed or footnoted piece of information within the text
of your writing that provides an acknowledgment that you are
using someone else's ideas. There are several systems of
referencing such as the Harvard or author-date system, footnotes
or endnotes. Different faculties, departments and even lecturers
will generally have preferences about how you should reference
and you should seek these out before submitting your assignment.
Information that is not essential to explain your findings,
but that supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy
information), validates your conclusions or pursues a related point
should be placed in an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes
excerpts from this supporting information (i.e. part of the data set)
will be placed in the body of the report but the complete set of
information ( i.e. all of the data set) will be included in the
appendix. Examples of information that could be included in an
appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics,
questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy
54

derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or
data sheets, computer program information.
There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix
providing it is relevant and reference is made to it in the report.
The appendix is not a catch net for all the semi-interesting or
related information you have gathered through your research for
your report: the information included in the appendix must bear
directly relate to the research problem or the report's purpose. It
must be a useful tool for the reader (Weaver & Weaver, 1977).
Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A,
Appendix B, Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The
order they are presented in is dictated by the order they are
mentioned in the text of the report. It is essential to refer to each
appendix within the text of the report; for example,
For the manufacturer's specification, see
Appendix B
or
Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account
growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing
growth rate of accounts will significantly
affect the valuation of the company.
55

1.5. Commercial Documents in International
Business

1.5.1. The Invoice

An invoice is a commercial document issued by a seller to
a buyer. It indicates products, quantities and agreed prices for
products or services which the Seller has provided to the Buyer. It
also indicates that unless paid in advance, payment is due by the
Buyer to the Seller according to agreed terms. Invoices contain a
serial number and date of issue. Invoices are often called bills.
A typical invoice contains:
a purchase order, invoice and internal order numbers
a business name and address
a customer's name and address
supply and invoice dates
a VAT registration number (where applicable)
a description of the goods or services
terms of payment including date the amount is due
an itemised list of products, quantities and prices,
excluding VAT
the total amount due, with and without VAT
the shipping method and cost.

56

Sample Invoice
57

1.5.2. The International Sales Contract

Amongst the various types of commercial contracts used in
international trade, here are the most widely used:
Sale-Purchase Contract
Fungible Contract
Non-fungible Contract
Cash-Payment Contract
Credit-Payment Contract
Commercial Banking Contract
Factoring Contract
Forfeiting Contract
Leasing Contract
Lease-back Contract
Licence Contract
Know-how Contract
Agent Contract
Commission Contract
Consignment Contract
Agency Contract
The sales contract, a particular case of the general contract,
is the most used type of contract in international trade, especially
for buying and selling high or average value goods, large
quantities of goods etc.
As far as the shape is concerned, this represents a sequence
of clauses (articles) in an order upon which the signing parts have
agreed; it is desirable that this sequence follows the practical
evolution of the involved operations beginning with the definition
of the obligations and ending with the fulfilment of these
obligations.
Next, we will briefly present the main clauses of a sales
contract, which modified and adapted may represent a starting
base for different practical situations.


58


1.5.2.1. The Preamble to Contract

Usually, the preamble to contract contains:
- the number of the contract,
- the date and the place of the signing
- contracting parts and their identification information
in practice, the contracting parts will be called according to their
economic relationship and/or the object of the contract, as
following
- Seller-Buyer for the contracting parts of the sales contract
- Exporter-Importer for the contracting parts of a high tonnage
contract
- Constructor-Beneficiary for the contracting parts of a
construction contract semnatare ale contractelor pentru constructii industriale !i civile, cai ferate, !osele, instalatii portuare, lucrari !i amenajari funciare, conducte etc.
- Licensor-Licensee for the contracting parts of a license
contract and which may include payments for granting
licences or fees, royalties, know-how, engineering and design,
technical assistance, service etc.
- Consultant-Beneficiary for contracting parts of contracts in
the field of consulting and technical assistance
- Owner-Leaseholder for contracting parts in renting contracts
for terrain, construction, industrial equipment, facilities, etc.
- Landlord-Tenant for the contracting parts of contracts
dealing with renting premises/ sites, terrain, building, deposits,
offices, etc.
- Employer-Employee for the contracting parts of the
employment contract.

1.5.2.2. The Object of the Contract

The object of the sales contract usually includes:
- parties' obligations
- description of the goods
- quality
- specifications
59

- quantity
- packing, marking etc.


1.5.2.3. The Quality Clause

The quality clause agreed upon by the contracting parts
and appearing in the contract, includes all the physical, chemical,
organic etc. properties that define the object of the contract. They
must be according to the usual commercial practice as there are
lost of possibilities to formulate a quality clause according to the
object of the contract (raw materials, natural products,
manufactured goods, etc.)
Amongst these, here are the most significant:
- by catalogue sent by the firm making the offer
- by specification made by the buyer or the seller.

1.5.2.4. The Quantity Clause

The quantity clause in a sales contract is formulated
according to the characteristics of the object of the contract using:
A. number of pieces
B. weight units grams, kilograms, tons, long tons, short tons,
metric tons, ounces oz., pounds Ib., - long hundredweights
cwt or short hundredweight sh.cwt.
C. units of length: - millimetres, centimetres, meters, inches - in.,
feet - ft., yards - yd. etc.
D.- units of area surface:- square centimetres - sq.cm., -
square meters - sq.m, square inches - sq. in., square feet -
sq. ft., square yards - sq.yd.,
D. units of volume: - cubic meters cu.m., cubic inches - cu. in.,
cubic feet - cu. ft., cubic yards - cu. yd.,
E. standards
F. units of capacity: - gallons - gal., quarts - qt., pints - pt.
etc.
60

G. the inferior or the superior limit when the total quality is not
defined, in the case of bulk merchandise.
H. some traditional measurement units, still used, such as: the
bale, the sack, the bag, the drum, the demijohn, the barrel, the
bushel etc.

1.5.2.5. The Packing Clause

The contract clause referring to the packing contains
specifications meant to ensure the qualitative, quantitative,
commercial and technical integrity of the merchandise that
represents the object of the contract and that will be transported
from the production site to the place of reception. The clause may
also state the right of the buyer to an additional delivery or a
replacement of goods in case the merchandise has been damaged
due to inadequate packing.
Packing is done according to the nature of the goods and to
the transportation type involved, and its main function is to protect
the goods. In formulating this clause we may use the following
formulas: - seaworthy packing; moisture proof packing, water-
proof packing, rust-proof packing, pilfer-proof packing, fire-proof
packing etc..
This clause may state a sort of packing such as - strong
packing to resist rough handling.
An other requirement is to maintain a low cost, to save
freight or to keep freight low and that involves the choice of an
adequate packing that would avoid dead freight and broken
stowage. The packing material should thus be as light as possible,
without jeopardising the goods security.
When formulating this clause, the writer should also take
into account the dependency of the packing type on the loading
and unloading possibilities in destination ports. Thus, the packing
should have carrying handles made of rope, ears, in order to
facilitate handling or loading/ discharging. The customs
specification from the importing country should also be
considered.
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If the customs taxes are calculated based on the
merchandise value - ad valorem duty, the nature of the packing is
not essential. But, if the duties are calculated according to the
weight or the volume, the nature of the packing is essential to the
costs of the transaction.
In the case of weight taxes, this weight can be - gross
weight and net weight. According to the nature of the contracted
merchandise and to the transportation type, the type of packing
and the packing material will be established.
The bag or sack is made of jute, textile material, canvas
burlap, rubber or ply-paper.
The bale is covered or is wrapped in waterproof kraft paper.
The barrel, cask, keg or firkin is wooden. Barrels are
usually sift-proof and lined with chemicals or waterproof paper.
The box or chest is made of wood, cardboard, corrugated
cardboard, plywood.
The tin, can is made of metal.
The carboy or demijohns made of glass and protected by a
basketwork.
The carton box is made of cardboard, corrugated cardboard,
or strawboard.
The case is made out of wood, strengthened with metal
straps.
The crate consists of a bottom and a frame with diagonals.
The cylindrical drum is made of steel and iron.
The pail is made out of metal, it has a spout and a handle.
The jar is made of glass.


1.5.2.6. The Marking Clause

The visible marking of the packing is very important for the
merchandise handling of goods during loading, transhipment,
unloading. For marking, stencils, burning the marks into the
wood, paint, or indelible ink are used. It is advisable to use
marking on at least two sides of each packing or, when it is not
62

possible, the marking should be fixed on linen tags. Marking
envisages both shipper's own distinctive marks and the
consignee's distinctive marks. Marking should contain the official
marks required by authorities, such as the weight and dimensions.
It may also consist in figures, letters or drawings. This clause may
also include special directions and warnings.
Here are few examples of special warnings: Do not drop; do
not store in damp places; fragile; handle with care; keep in cold
place; liquids, do not tilt; machinery, handle with care; open here;
(sling here; stowaway from boilers; this side up; top; use no
hooks.

1.5.2.7. The Price Clause

In international sales contract, the price is settled both for
piece - unit price, but also total price in the agreed currency. It
may appear separated or on categories of deliveries.
The price may be specified either directly in exact figures,
or by reference. In this second case, the price is determinable, in
the respect that only the elements serving for the price calculation
are present in formulating the price clause.
The price may be fixed price or sliding price.
The price of the contract is mentioned both in figures and
letters in order to avoid confusions. It can be expressed either in
the Buyer's currency, in the Seller's currency, or in a third
currency.
This price can be calculated both for the net weight, and the
gross weight. In order to appreciate the parts contractual
obligations, to the authorities or to third parties, the price may be
associated to the following formulas:
duty paid .
duty unpaid
package included
package excluded
non return(able) package
package returnable within... days
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freight. charges and expenses prepaid
free/ franco domicile
carriage paid
delivered free to...
free consignee's door
free of charges
delivered at...

1.5.2.8. The Delivery Clause

This contract clause offers the contracting parts - the Seller
and the Buyer the opportunity to establish the obligations residing
from the contract in connection to the delivery terms, usually
referring to the INCOTERMS.
They agree upon the delivery time/ date, according to which the
delivery can be:
- prompt delivery
- ex stock
- ex warehouse
- ex works etc.
- delivery on call
- fixed time delivery
- delivery on...
- by...; within...
By reporting to the effective delivery date, this may be:
- delivery in time
- advance delivery/ delivery in advance
- late/ postponed delivery
In the contract, the parts usually make official the conditions
under which they accept - to modify/integral, complete delivery,
one lot shipment/ delivery or delivery by instalments, part/ partial
The delivery clause may referee to:
- place of delivery
- transfer of property and risks from the Seller to the Buyer
- evidence of delivery
- other elements concerning delivery and documents
64

connected to the INCOTERMS.
The international set of rules for the interpretation of the
trade terms, also known as INCOTERMS, that the delivery clause
makes reference to, has been elaborated by the International
Chamber of Commerce in Paris and first published in 1936 an
later with modifications in 1953, 1967, 1976, 1980, 1990 and
2000, in order to reflect changes in international trade rules, in
transportation and communications.
The last version of the INCOTERMS contains the following
grouping:
Group E Group F Group C Group D
(Ex works)
EXW
(Free carrier)
FCA
(Cost and
freight) CFR
(Delivered At
Frontier)
DAF

(Free along side
ship) FAS
(Cost, Insurance
and Freight)
CIF
(Delivered Ex
Ship)
DES

(Free on board)
FOB
(Carriage paid
to)
CPT
(Delivered Ex
Quay)
DEQ

(Carriage and
Insurance Paid
to) CIP
(Delivered Duty
Unpaid)
DDU

(Delivered Duty
Paid)
DDP

Inside each delivery term the buyers and sellers obligations
are presented considering ten essential aspects:
1. Provision of goods in conformity with the contract;
Payment
2. Licences, authorisations and formalities
3. Contract of carriage and insurance
4. Delivery
5. Transfer of risks
6. Division of costs
7. Notice to the Buyer/ Seller;
65

8. Proof of delivery, transport document or equivalent
electronic message;
9. Checking, Packaging, Marking. Inspection of goods
10. Other obligations.

1.5.2.9. The Transportation Clause

This clause specifies the parts obligations referring to
transportation means of transport, (according to the
INCOTERMS term agreed upon ), for example the complete or
partial chartering of a ship, or of renting a different transportation
means, or the space of a railway wagon, truck, plane, etc.
-loading and unloading of goods;
-loading, forwarding and unloading
- written communication of the departure of the transport
form the loading port/ station and the arrival to the
unloading port/ station.
The establishment of the transport condition is done
accordingly to certain factors such as:
- the type o product
- the quantity to be delivered
- the existing transportation routes
- the partners preferences, etc.
For example, in the case of petroleum products, for maritime
transport, there are the following options:
1. delivery FOB Constanta, in bulk
2. CFR named port of destination,
3. FOB Constanta, drums, stowed
4. CFR named port of destination, drums: liner term, free out
5. FOB Constanta drums containers
6. CFR named port of destination containers
7. tanks, bulk, free on Romanian border
As resulting form this, the transporting conditions are
closely connected to the delivery ones, to packing and to the
product cost (the cost increases for the drum packing and stewing
in containers, for example). The seller is interested in delivering
66

the products using his own transportation means, as the income is
higher. For these reasons, the transportation clause is negotiated in
close connection to the delivery, pecking and price, and also
taking into account all the factors that could determine a profitable
contract.

1.5.2.10. The Terms of Payment Clause

The clause ruling the payment conditions - terms of payment
will settle the price and the currency the payment will be made in,
and also the payment methods - methods of settlement, the
payment instruments, the place and time of payment but also the
documents necessary for the payment. The sales can be made
using payment in advance, payment on delivery, credit payment.
The payment in advance may also be cash payment in
advance, or cash down-payment. The payment on delivery can be
- cash payment, cash on delivery and it may also be done as
payment against documents.
The most largely used payment methods are the
documentary credit; documentary letter of credit and the
documentary collection; payment upon receipt of documents.
Amongst the payment instruments, the most commonly used are
the draft or bill of exchange, the cheque and the promissory note.

1.5.2.11. The Penalties and Other Sanctions Clause

This clause makes reference to:
- penalties applicable for the un-fulfilment by either of the
parts of one/some contractual obligations
- criteria and ways in applying penalties, calculating
penalties and damage amount that must be paid to the
injured party by the part generating the damage
- the term of payment for the penalties or damages.
Penalties can be fixed penalties, fixed feel percentage per unit
of time or measurement of quality, variable progressive/
regressive sum/ percentage.
67


1.5.2. 12. The Force Majeure/ Contincency Clause

This clause includes:
- exoneration from total or partial obligations achievement
by the party affected by those events/circumstances that
represent cases of force majeure/ contingency
- procedural aspects of the claiming of force majeure such
as: written notification of the parties concerning the case,
the means of probation of the force majeure case, the
notification term
- admissible terms for the duration of the force majeure and
for the extension of the contract execution. The cases and
the terms when the party to whom the force majeure has
been claimed has the right to solicit contract cancellation,
and when saving the contract becomes impossible.

1.5.2.13. The Arbitration Clause

This clause includes:
- the circumstances settled by arbitration, disputes that
came up between parties and could not be settled amicably,
procedures submitting a dispute for settlement by arbitration, such
as: the question at issue, the arbitrator appointed
- parties obligations that convene such a ruling; their a
priori commitment to willingly obey the Arbitration Courts
decision that is definitive/ final and binding.

1.5.2.14.The Cancellation Clause

The cancellation clause present in the contract is meant to
discourage parts in meant to discourage parts in seriously breaking
contractual engagements.
Even though, being in nature an extreme measure, its
application is rare, only for really severe cases and only after all
the other amiable solutions in solving disputes have been
68

unsatisfactory for the affected part.
The following represent limit situations that may lead to the
application of the cancellation clause:
- the seller does not respect the delivery dates
- the seller can not prove partially or completely the
quality features, performance, etc.,
- the seller/buyer invokes the force majeure clause
beyond the deadline mentioned in the contract
- the seller/buyer proves bad faith, is not solvable, is
bankrupt
- the buyer does not put at the sellers disposal the
material means needed for delivery under the
contractual rules.

69

1.5.3. Personal correspondence

Personal correspondence covers a variety of written materials
either sent or received by a particular individual. Here we make
reference to the letters sent by a person to a company/organization
in connection to business activities, employment, studies. This
type of letter writing may be especially important because it
usually involves evaluation from specific professionals and may
significantly contribute to the judgment of the writer. This
includes writing a CV or a letter of intent and applying for a
scholarship or a job.
The CV (resume in American English) is a document meant
to introduce a certain individual to a potential employer or to an
academic authority. It should be clear, concise and well
structured. It represents the record of the most important events in
someones professional life.
Even if most of the times the two terms CV and Resume are
considered similar, differences still exist. The resume: emphasizes
information on the experience, abilities and studies relevant for
the objectives that must be fulfilled in a certain position for which
you are applying, or in which selection process you are taking
part.
The CV is a compilation of all the academic data and
experience of a person throughout their life (as vitae indicates the
Latin term life), unrelated to the position you are applying for or
in which selection process you are taking part. The structure
usually is personal data, academic, experience, languages,
computer science and other data, all in chronological order.
The information given in the CV is structured according to the
following chapters:
Personal details
Education
Work history
Interests
References.
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Certain specific types of CV (e.g. the academic CV) may
include some particular chapters such as publications, scientific
titles or prizes etc. Even though some differences may exist, and
even if specialized literature may differ in presenting the layout of
the CV, this does not affect the main function of the document or
the type of information it gives.
Before personal computers, people used one resume for
varied kinds of employment searches. However, with less
expensive desktop publishing and high-quality printing, people
sometimes rewrite their resumes for every new job they go after.
For example, a person who seeks employment both with a
community college and with a software-development company
would use two different resumes. The contents of the two might
be roughly the same, but the organization, format, and emphases
would be quite different.
There also exist resume-writing software: the data is
introduced and they produce a resume.
There is no one right way to write a resume. Every
person's background, employment needs, and career objectives are
different, thus necessitating unique resume designs. Every detail,
every aspect of your resume must start with who you are, what
your background is, what the potential employer is looking for,
and what your employment goals are - not with from some pre-
fabricated design.
Sections in Resumes
Resumes can be divided into three sections: the heading, the
body, and the conclusion. Each of these sections has fairly
common contents.
Heading. The top third of the resume is the heading. It
contains your name, phone numbers, address, and other details
such as your occupation, titles, and so on. Some resume writers
include the name of their profession, occupation, or field. In some
examples, writers put things like "CERTIFIED PHYSICAL
THERAPIST" very prominently in the heading. Headings can also
71

contain a goals and objectives subsection and a highlights
subsection.
Body. In a one-page resume, the body is the middle portion,
taking up a half or more of the total space of the resume. In this
section, you present the details of your work, education, and
military experience. This information is arranged in reverse
chronological order. In the body section, you also include your
accomplishments, for example, publications, certifications,
equipment you are familiar with, and so on. There are many ways
to present this information:
functionally - into separate sections for work experience
and education.
thematically - into separate sections for the different areas
of your experience and education.
Conclusion. In the final third or quarter of the resume, other
related information and background can be presented. For
example, activities, professional associations, memberships,
hobbies, and interests can be listed. At the bottom of the resume,
people often put "REFERENCES AVAILABLE ON REQUEST"
and the date of preparation of the resume. At first glance, listing
non-work and personal information would seem totally irrelevant
and inappropriate. Actually, it can come in handy - it personalizes
the writer to potential employers and gives something to chat
while you're waiting for the coffee machine or the elevator. For
example, if the person mentions in the resume other activities, that
gives the interviewer something to chat with you about during
those moments of otherwise uncomfortable silence.
Resumes: Types and Design
To begin planning the resume, the person should decide which
type of resume is needed. This decision is in part based on
requirements that prospective employers may have, and in part
based on what your background and employment needs are.
Type of organization. Resumes can be defined according to
how information on work and educational experience is handled.
There are several basic, commonly used plans or designs you can
consider using.
72

Functional design: it starts with a heading; then presents
either education or work experience, whichever is stronger
or more relevant; then presents the other of these two
sections; then ends with a section on skills and
certifications and one on personal information. Students
who have not yet begun their careers often find this design
the best for their purposes. People with military experience
either work the detail in to the education and work-
experience sections as appropriate; or they create separate
section at the same level as education and work
experience.
Thematic design: It divides your experience and education
into categories such as project management, budgetary
planning, financial tracking, personnel management,
customer sales, technical support, publications - whichever
areas describe your experience. Often, these categories are
based directly on typical or specific employment
advertisements. If the job advertisement says that
Company ABC wants a person with experience in training,
customer service, and sales, then it might be a smart move
to design thematic headings around those three
requirements. If the thematic approach is used in the
resume, take a look at your employment and educational
experience - what are the common threads? Project
management, program development, troubleshooting,
supervision, maintenance, inventory control? Take a look
at the job announcement the person is responding to - what
are the three, four, or five key requirements it mentions?
Use these themes to design the body section of the resume.
These themes become the headings in the body of the
resume. Under these headings, the person must list the
employment or educational experience that applies. For
example, under a heading like "FINANCIAL RECORDS,"
someone might list the accounting and bookkeeping
courses you took in college, the seminars on Word or
73

EXCEL you took, and the jobs where you actually used
these skills.
Type of information. Types of resumes can be defined according
to the amount and kind of information they present:
Objective resumes: This type just gives dates, names,
titles, no qualitative salesmanship information. These are
very lean, terse resumes. In our technical-writing course,
you are asked not to write solely this type. The objective-
resume style is useful in resumes that use the thematic
approach or that emphasize the summary/highlights
section. By its very nature, the thematic approach is
unclear about the actual history of employment. It's harder
to tell where the person was, what she was doing, year by
year.
Detailed resumes: This type provides not only dates, titles,
and names, but also details about your responsibilities and
statements about the quality and effectiveness of the work.
This is the type most people write, and the type that is the
focus of this technical-writing course.
General Layout and Detail Formats in Resumes
At some point in planning a resume, the person writing it must
think schematically about the layout and design of the thing.
General layout has to do with the design and location of the
heading, the headings for the individual sections, and the
orientation of the detailed text in relation to those headings. Detail
formats are the way to arrange and present the details of the
education and work experience.
Detail formats. A fundamental decision about the
presentation of the details of the working and education
experience must be made in order to support the application. The
elements to work with include:
Occupation, position, job title
Company or organization name
Time period you were there
Key details about your accomplishments and
responsibilities while there.
74

There are many different ways to format this information. It
all depends on what the person writing the resume wishes to
emphasize and how much or how little information there is.
Special Sections in Resumes
Highlights, summary section. "Highlights" section that occurs
just below the heading (the section for name, address, phone
number, etc.) and just above the main experience and education
sections. This is an increasingly popular section in resumes.
Resume specialists believe that the eye makes first contact
with a page somewhere one-fourth to one-third of the way down
the page - not at the very top. If you believe that, then it makes
sense to put your very best stuff at that point. Therefore, some
people list their most important qualifications, their key skills,
their key work experience in that space on the page. Actually, this
section is useful more for people who have been in their careers
for a while. It's a good way to create one common spot on the
resume to list those key qualifications that may be spread
throughout the resume. Otherwise, these key details are scattered
across various employment and educational experience - in fact,
buried in them.
Objectives, goals. Also found on some resumes is a
section just under the heading in which the person describes the
key goals or objectives and key qualifications. Some resume
writers shy away from including a section like this because they
fear it may cause certain employers to stop reading, in other
words, that it limits their possibilities. A key-qualifications section
is similar to a highlights section, but shorter and in paragraph
rather than list form.
Amplifications page. Some people have a lot of detail that
they want to convey about their qualifications but that does not fit
well in any of the typical resume designs. For example, certain
computer specialists can list dozens of hardware and software
products they have experience with - and they feel they must list
all this in the resume. To keep the main part of the resume from
becoming unbalanced and less readable, they shift all of this detail
to an amplifications page. There, the computer specialist can
75

categorize and list all that extensive experience in many different
operating systems, hardware configurations, and software
applications. Similarly, some resume writers want to show lots
more detail about the responsibilities and duties they have
managed in past employment. The standard formats for resume
design just do not accommodate this sort of detail; and this is
where the amplifications page can be useful.
Resume design and format must be focused on:
Readability: are there any dense paragraphs over 6 lines?
White space. Picture a resume crammed with detail, using
only half-inch margins all the way around, a small type
size, and only a small amount of space between parts of
the resume. Our prospective employer might be less
inclined to pore through that also. Find ways to
incorporate more white space in the margins and between
sections of the resume. Again, the "hanging-head" design
is also useful.
Special format. Make sure to use special format
consistently throughout the resume.
Consistent margins. Most resumes have several margins:
the outermost, left margin and at least one internal left
margin. Typically, paragraphs in a resume use an internal
margin, not the far-left margin. Make sure to align all
appropriate text to these margins as well.
Terse writing style. The challenge in most resumes is to
get it all on one page (or two if you have a lot of
information to present).
Special typography. Use special typography, but keep it
under control.
Page fill. Avoid spilling over by 4 or 5 lines to a second
page. If you need a two-page resume, see that the second
page is full or nearly full.
Clarity of boundary lines between major sections. Design
and format the resume so that whatever the main sections
are, they are very noticeable. Use well-defined headings
and white space to achieve this. Similarly, design your
76

resume so that the individual segments of work experience
or education are distinct and separate from each other.
Reverse chronological order. Remember to list education
and work-experience items starting with the current or
most recent and working backwards in time.
Consistency of bold, italics, different type size, caps, other
typographical special effects. Also, whatever special
typography is used, be consistent with it throughout the
resume.
Consistency of phrasing. Use the same style of phrasing
for similar information in a resume - for example, past
tense verbs for all work descriptions.
Consistency of punctuation style. For similar sections of
information use the same kind of punctuation - for
example, periods, commas, colons, or nothing.
Translations for "inside" information. Do not assume
readers will know what certain abbreviations, acronyms, or
symbols mean - yes, even to the extent of "GPA" or the
construction "3.2/4.00." Take time to describe special
organizations you may be a member of.
Grammar, spelling, usage.
77

Sample Resume (CV)

Amanda Wittig
2345 W. Randolph Lane #112
Seguin, TX 78876

Home: (513) 456-0987
Work: (513) 654-9876

WORK EXPERIENCE

Receptionist. Lincoln & Browne, Law Firm.
Responsibilities: Answering phone (21 lines); typing
business correspondence and legal documents;
maintaining logbooks on runners, law clerks and
paralegals; calculating deposits and overflow work.
November 1987 - present.

Receptionist. Seguin Regional Clinic.
Responsibilities: Answering phone (5 lines);
calculating fee tickets; scheduling appointments.
August - November 1987.

Receptionist. Louis & Maitre.
Responsibilities: Answering phone (5 lines); running
errands; calculating deposits; filing; typing letters
and memoranda. June - August 1987



Secretary. Downe-Burgues, Oil and Gas Specialists.
Responsibilities: Typing of legal documents and
title opinions; preparing worksheets for abstracts of
title; handling of client billing and accounts
payable; maintaining oil and gas drilling maps;
maintaining firm library; ordering supplies. 1985 -
1987.


EDUCATION

Business Management Science, Associate of Arts
(expected May 1991), Austin Community College.
78

Courses: Introduction to Business Management,
Technical Writing, Basic College Accounting. January
1989 - present.

Concordia Lutheran. Austin, TX. Courses:
Introduction to Computer Science, Business
Communications, Macroeconomics. January 1987 - May
1988.

Goliad High School, 1986 graduate. Office Education
Program.

NALS Legal Secretary Institute, June 1986.

Professional Legal Secretary Course, April 1986.

OFFICE EQUIPMENT

Experienced with Lanier (Qume) Word Processor, IBM
personal Computer, Hewlett-Packard (vectra
Computer), Displaywriter, Apple Computer, Macintosh
Plus, Dictaphone, and IBM and XEROX memorywriters.

79

The cover letter (the letter of intent) is a document of
equal importance to the resume.
The resume cover letter is the first impression the
selector will have of the candidate and its negative or positive
impact is going to influence his or her further reading (or not ) the
CV or resume.
A Cover Letter must be very professional, well written,
without misspellings. The content directly explains the candidate
meets the requirements for the position, emphasizing and directing
the attention of the selector towards the abilities, skills and
knowledge the candidate has proved, with concrete examples
based on previous experience or non-work experience (if you have
never worked or have been outside the job market for a while).
The essential features of the cover letter are:
It highlights the difference with the rest of candidates.
It has to convince the selector to select a certain candidate.
It shows motivation.
It reflects skills in written communication.
The cover letter should be structured as following:
Paragraph 1: present and explain the aim of the cover
letter.
Paragraph 2: explains the interest in the company, in the
very industry and in the particular position.
Paragraph 3: presents contribution (achievements,
experience); abilities and capacities that will be used by
the individual in order to carry out the positions functions.
Paragraph 4: invitation to the interview. Creativity is
very important when finishing the letter, this should not be
mentioned directly.

Sample cover letter
Dear Mr. Watson,
Having broken sales records and exceeded sales
quotas in all my previous positions and recently
completed my MBA in marketing from the School of
Managerial Leadership at California State University,
80

I am an ideal candidate for the regional sales
manager position at Hilton Resorts in US and Mexico
As the leading sales representative for Disney
Vacation Club, I developed key sales material,
trained new sales reps, and reinvented the way club
memberships are sold. My team's revenue was more than
double the average for the entire operation.
The vacation club industry is a dynamic and
growing industry, and I am convinced I can help
Hilton grow its reputation and dominant position in
the industry.
We should meet to discuss the position. I will
contact you in the next 10 days to arrange an
interview. Should you have any questions before that
time, please feel free to call me at 901-111-2233 or
email me. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Cordially,
John Smith

The application letter tend to be more and more rare as
firms have development electronic application forms for different
jobs or positions inside a firm. The classic application letter is a
short one (200-250 words) and it has a clear structure. Its goal is
to bring to attention aspects of the applicants activity that can
support the request and can help the recruiter to make the correct
choice. The layout is that of a formal business letter. Anyway,
there are some small differences as, for instance, the letter head,
which indicates the address of the sender, but without the writers
name. Any document sent with this letter should be mentioned
under the heading Enclosure.
The role of the application letter is to draw a clear
connection between the job you are seeking and your
qualifications listed in the resume. To put it another way, the letter
matches the requirements of the job with your qualifications,
emphasizing how you are right for that job. The application letter
is not a lengthy summary of the resume. It selectively mentions
information in the resume, as appropriate.
The types of application letters can be defined according to
amount and kind of information:
81

Objective letters - One type of letter says very little: it
identifies the position being sought, indicates an interest in
having an interview, and calls attention to the fact that the
resume is attached. It also mentions any other special
matters that are not included on the resume, such as dates
and times when you are available to come in for an
interview. This letter does no salesmanship and is very
brief. (It may represent the true meaning of "cover" letter.)
Highlight letters - Another type of application letter, the
type you'll be doing, tries to summarize the key
information from the resume, the key information that will
emphasize that the writer is a good candidate for the job.
In other words, it selects the best information from the
resume and summarizes it in the letter - this type of letter
is specially designed to make the connection with the
specific job.
As for the actual content and organization of the paragraphs
within the application letter, consider the following comon
approaches.
Introductory paragraph. That first paragraph of the
application letter is the most important; it sets everything up - the
tone, focus, your most important qualification. A typical problem
in the introductory paragraph involves diving directly into work
and educational experience. A better idea is to do something like
the following:
State the purpose of the letter - to inquire about an
employment opportunity.
Indicate the source of your information about the job -
newspaper advertisement, a personal contact, or other.
State one eye-catching, attention-getting thing about
yourself in relation to the job or to the employer that will
cause the reader to want to continue.
Main body paragraphs. In the main parts of the application
letter, the person writing the letter should present his/her work
experience, education, training - whatever makes that connection
between that person and the job. Remember that this is the most
82

important job to do in this letter - to enable the reader see the
match between the qualifications and the requirements for the job.
There are two common ways to present this information:
Functional approach - This one presents education in one
section, and work experience in the other. If there were
military experience, that might go in another section.
Whichever of these section has your best stuff should
come first, after the introduction.
Thematic approach - This one divides experience and
education into groups such as "management," "technical,"
"financial," and so on and then discusses your work and
education related to them in separate paragraphs.
Another section worth considering for the main body of the
application letter is one in which you discuss your goals,
objectives -the focus of the persons career. A paragraph like this
is particularly good for people just starting their careers, when
there is not much to put in the letter.
Closing paragraph. In the last paragraph of the application
letter, the person writing the letter can indicate how the
prospective employer can get in touch with applicant and when
are the best times for an interview. This is the place to urge that
prospective employer to make a contact and arrange an interview.
Common Problems in Application Letters
Readability and white space - Are there any dense
paragraphs over 8 lines? Are there comfortable margins all
the way around the letter? Is there adequate spacing
between paragraph and between the components of the
letter?
Page fill - Is the letter placed on the page nicely: not
crammed at the top one-half of the page; not spilling over
to a second page by only three or four lines?
General neatness, professional-looking quality - Is the
letter on good quality paper, and is the copy clean and free
of smudges and erasures?
83

Proper use of the business-letter format - Have you set up
the letter in one of the standard business-letter formats?
(See the references earlier in this chapter.)
Overt, direct indication of the connection between your
background and the requirements of the job - Do you
emphasize this connection?
A good upbeat, positive tone - Is the tone of the letter
bright and positive? Does it avoid sounding overly
aggressive, brash, over-confident (unless that is really the
tone you want)? Does the letter avoid the opposite problem
of sounding stiff, overly reserved, stand-offish, blase,
indifferent?
A good introduction - Does the introduction establish the
purpose of the letter? Does it avoid diving directly into the
details of your work and educational experience? Does the
person writing letter present one little compelling detail
about him/her that will cause the reader to want to keep
reading?
A good balance between brevity and details - Does the
letter avoid becoming too detailed (making readers less
inclined to read thoroughly)? Does the letter avoid the
opposite extreme of being so general that it could refer to
practically anybody?
Lots of specifics (dates, numbers, names, etc.) - Does the
letter present plenty of specific detail but without making
the letter too densely detailed? Is there hard factual detail
(numbers, dates, proper names) that make you stand out as
an individual?
A minimum of information that is simply your opinion of
yourself Does it avoid over-reliance on information that
is simply your opinions about yourself.
Grammar, spelling, usage - And of course, does the letter
use correct grammar, usage, and spelling?
84

Sample Application Letter

1225 Hampton Street
Yonkers, NY 10407
March 15, 2003

Ms. Dianne C. Strand
Manager of Human Resources
ABC Industries
2000 Smith Street
White Plains, NY 10592

Dear Ms. Strand:
I am applying for the position of systems analyst,
which was advertised on March 12 with the career
services office at Manhattan College. The position
seems to fit very well with my education, experience,
and career interests.

Your position requires experience in computer
systems, financial applications software, and end-
user consulting. With a major in computer information
systems, I have training on mainframes,
minicomputers, and microcomputers as well as with a
variety of software programs and applications. My
practical experience in my colleges computer center
as a programmer and as a student consultant for
system users gave me valuable exposure to complex
computer operations. Additionally, I worked as an
intern in computing operations for a large bank where
I gained knowledge of financial systems. My enclosed
resume provides more details on my qualifications.

My background and career goals seem to match your job
requirements well. I am confident that I can perform
the job effectively. Furthermore, I am genuinely
interested in the position and in working for ABC
Industries. Your firm has an excellent reputation and
[comes highly recommended to me.

Would you please consider my request for a personal
interview to discuss further my qualifications and to
learn more about this opportunity? I will call you
next week to see if a meeting can be arranged. Should
85

you need to reach me, please feel free to call me at
914-779-2050. If I am not in, please leave a message
on my answering machine and I will return your call
within a day.

Thank you for your consideration. I look forward to
talking to you.

Sincerely,
(Written signature)
Lisa Watson
Enclosure Curriculum Vitae


86


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