Sports Engineering Report FINAL

Improving the world through engineering
SPORTS
ENGINEERING:
AN UNFAIR
ADVANTAGE?
This report examines the inuence and
use of engineering in sport, focusing on
those featuring in the Olympic Games.
It investigates the UKs role as a world-
leading sports engineering research centre
and looks at the future technologies which
are set to revolutionise sport.
This report has been produced in the
context of the Institutions strategic
themes of Education, Energy, Environment,
Transport and Manufacturing and
its vision of Improving the world
through engineering.
Published July 2012.
Design: teamkaroshi.com
FROM DELIVERING
MEDAL WINS TO
SHAPING THE SPORTS
KIT WE BUY ON THE
HIGH STREET, THE
ENGINEERS INFLUENCE
IS WIDESPREAD
AND PROFOUND.
03
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
14
UNFAIR
ADVANTAGE?
06
ENGINEERED
IN BRITAIN
10
SPORTS
ENGINEERING
A HISTORY
21
TECHNOLOGY
IN ACTION
26
REFERENCES

CONTENTS
02 Sports Engineering: An Unfair Advantage?
TECHNOLOGY IS AS
MUCH A PART OF AN
ATHLETES ARMOURY AS
NUTRITION, TRAINING
AND COACHING.
03 www.imeche.org/manufacturing
In October 1996 the Union Cycliste Internationale
(UCI), cyclings governing body, had had enough.
Over the past decade and a half technologically
advanced superbikes had come to dominate
their sport. Advances made in the aerospace
and defence industries were ltering into the
sport at a rapid pace, from futuristic carbon bre
wheels at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics to Chris
Boardmans ultra-aerodynamic, Lotus-engineered
superbike at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics.
For the UCI, this drift in technical incompliance,
as Technical Adviser Jean Wauthier labelled it
[1]
,
came to a head at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. The
velodrome was lled with carbon bre-monocoque
superbikes worth tens of thousands of pounds,
their riders contorted into a superman position to
minimise drag.
The UCIs response was the Lugano Charter, an
extraordinary document that aimed to reassert
the primacy of tradition over technology. The
Charter said that the line had been crossed
beyond which technology takes hold of the
system and seeks to impose its own logic. The
bicycle was distancing itself from a reality which
can be grasped and understood
[2]
.
The next four years saw the clock turned back.
Many of the technological advances of the past
20 years were banned. The landmark one-hour
cycling record could be ofcially attempted only
on bicycles using the same technology as Eddy
Merckxs record-breaker from 1972.
The Lugano Charter represents one of the more
extreme attempts by traditionalists to stem the
tide of technology entering sport. Yet engineering
has gone hand in hand with sporting success since
the ancient Greeks rst turned a lump of stone into
a smooth, aerodynamic discus. Technology is as
much a part of an athletes armoury as nutrition,
training and coaching.
The sports industry is becoming ever more
adept at adapting and exploiting leading-edge
technologies from industry to create faster, lighter
and more efcient equipment. Precision analysis
tools are allowing coaches to ne-tune athletes
performance better than ever before.
This means that in the 2012 Olympic Games
technology usually associated with Formula
One will be making cyclists faster, composite
materials will help pole-vaulters leap higher
and 3D mapping will make swimmers suits
more hydrodynamic.
The UK is at the forefront of this technological
revolution. World-class sports engineering research
is pouring out of British universities, such as
Shefeld Hallam, Loughborough and Southampton,
while our high-tech manufacturers are turning
these ideas into medal-winning equipment. The
International Sports Engineering Association
(ISEA) the worlds leading sports engineering
industry body was founded and has its base
in Shefeld
[3]
.
The speed of technological progress means that
we are heading towards a crossroads. For decades
sports regulators have co-opted new technologies
into sport without taking away from the dedication
and effort of the individual athlete or the spirit
of the sport. This delicate task will be made all
the more difcult as sports technology becomes
ever more powerful. The legal wrangling over
Oscar Pistorius move from the Paralympics to the
Olympics is a sign of things to come.
Modern sports engineering can be split into two
distinct categories embedded and enabling
technology. Embedded technology covers the
behind-the-scenes systems that allow coaches and
training programmes to analyse movement and
ne-tune performance. Enabling technology covers
the equipment that athletes use to compete.
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
ENGINEERING
& SPORT

In a 2009 paper, Professor Steve Haake, one
of the worlds leading sports engineers based
at the Centre for Sports Engineering Research
(CSER) at Shefeld Hallam University, asked the
question, Is there evidence from the performance
of athletes in the modern Olympic Games that
technology does actually improve performance
and what is the magnitude of the technological
effect on sport?
[4]
Professor Haakes analysis found the following
improvements in overall performance:
100m sprint: 24% improvement over 108 years
Pole vault: 86% improvement over 94 years
Javelin: 95% improvement over 76 years
1hr cycling record: 221% improvement over
111 years
Haake then measured the effect technology
had on these improvements and found a large
discrepancy between each sport. While just 4%
of the 24% improvement in the 100m sprint could
be attributed to changes in equipment (improved
clothing design), technological developments in
the pole vault and javelin affected the index by
about 30%. Cycling has seen the most impressive
technological contribution. Haake calculated that
100% of the 221% improvement in the one hour
cycling record could be attributed to developments
in bicycle aerodynamics.
The introduction of new, more advanced equipment
can also have effects that manufacturers may not
have expected. The introduction of the breglass
pole to the pole vault revolutionised the sport, not
because it enabled longer poles, but because the
new, more exible pole enabled athletes to change
their technique they rotated upside down and
went feet rst over the bar
[5]
. After George Davies
became the rst to break the world record with a
breglass pole in 1961 the world record was broken
19 times in a single decade, rising from 4.80 metres
with the old metal pole to 5.49 metres with the
new breglass alternative.
[6]
According to Dr David James a world-leading
specialist in ethical sports engineering at Shefeld
Hallams CSER although sports engineerings
inuence on performance varies by discipline, it is
a signicant contributing factor in a general trend
of improving athletic performance, and its impact
can be transformative. From delivering medal
wins to shaping the sports kit we buy on the high
street, the engineers inuence is widespread
and profound.
[7]
In recent years technological improvements in sport
have accelerated in number and impact. Over the coming
decades the speed of change is likely to multiply further
as sports engineers exploit developments in new elds
such as nanotechnology, additive manufacturing (known
as 3D printing) and biomedical engineering.
Biomedical engineering poses serious challenges for
those regulating Human Enhancement Technologies
(HETs) in sport. This relatively young eld has already
caused sporting controversy with the case of Oscar
Pistorius, the South African Paralympian who applied to
compete in the 2008 Olympics. His successful application
caused some to claim that Pistorius Flex-Foot Cheetah
leg prostheses gave him an advantage over able-bodied
athletes claims that were swiftly rejected by the
International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF).
While current biomedical devices are focused on
restoring function, rapid development in this eld means
we are only years away from devices and prosthetics that
can give athletes a competitive advantage over those
who do not use them.
Sports engineers are undoubtedly pro-technology in
sport, but they are also passionate about sport they
do not want to see a technology intervention that
undermines the value system of a sport, diminishes the
sporting challenge and hinders the growth of the sport.
While regulators in some sporting disciplines are well
prepared for technological change, employing horizon-
scanning engineers to ensure they are not taken by
surprise, others can nd themselves easily caught
out. In 2008 the Fdration Internationale de Natation
(FINA), approved Speedos LZR Racer swimsuit for the
Beijing Olympic Games. After 94% of medals were won
by swimmers using the suit, with 15 long-course world
records broken, FINA was forced to reverse the decision
amid accusations of technological doping.
Engineers need to be embedded in the regulatory
process to help predict the consequences of the
introduction of a new technology into a sport. They
need to be able to defend the use of new technologies
in sport, to argue their case based on robust evidence,
and to horizon-scan for new emerging technologies that
may benet performance without harming the spirit of
the sport.
DOES ENGINEERING
DETERMINE WHO WINS?

THE FUTURE OF
SPORTS ENGINEERING

Sports Engineering: The research, design
and development of sports equipment, aids
and measurement systems.
Sports Science: The analysis of the athlete
in terms of motion, physiology, biomechanics
and psychology.
[4]
Engineering has been used throughout history
to develop and modernise almost every sport,
bringing benets that many sportsmen and
women might take for granted. Yet the rapid
advance of technology means that engineers
also have a valuable role to play in ensuring that
these advances do not lead to accusations that
technology doping is threatening the spirit or
challenge of any individual sport.
The UK now boasts a vibrant, world-leading sports
engineering industry, creating technological
advances which are feeding through into
commercial and public health applications. This
position as a global sports research hub is partly
due to strong investment from organisations such
as UK Sport as well as wider industry, which must
be vigorously protected.
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
therefore recommends that:
Engineers are embedded in each individual
sports regulatory process. Here, they can
horizon-scan, looking for new technological
developments that can enhance the sport
and also help predict the consequences of a
technological intervention. These engineers
will advise on the use or misuse of a
technology based on robust evidence.
Organisations such as UK Sport, as well as
government and industry, continue to invest
in sports engineering research after the
London 2012 Olympics to maintain the UKs
position as a world-leading sports engineering
research hub.
Sporting regulators, as well as governments,
start preparing policies and positions
now to prepare for the advance of Human
Enhancement Technologies (HETs) in sports.
The UKs engineering prowess was one of the
key catalysts of the revolution that turned sport
into a global phenomenon in the late 19
th
Century.
New manufacturing techniques developed during
the Industrial Revolution delivered bouncing
rubber balls, cheaper standardised sporting
equipment and even the lawnmower, which could
maintain playing elds on which to use them.
More importantly, the social and cultural changes
brought about by the Industrial Revolution gave
workers more leisure time to spend playing with
the new equipment.
Today the UK remains at the forefront of
technological progress in sport. British universities
work with global sports brands including
Adidas, Prince, Nike and Speedo on advanced
research programmes.
For the 2012 Olympics, UK Sports Innovation
Programme is enlisting British engineering
rms to help UK athletes deliver medal-winning
performances. As part of this programme P2i
is helping Olympic sailors repel water using
nanotechnology, McLaren is enabling coaches
to track wheelchair basketball players using
radio signals and BAE Systems is timing cyclists
to within a millionth of a second using laser
technology originally developed for the battleeld.
Sports engineering research is beginning to foster
real economic benets, as university departments
become business units. Three spin-out companies
from Loughboroughs Sports Technology Institute
have generated a cumulated turnover in excess of
1.5 million.
[8]
Looking towards the future, a 0.9 million
government investment in additive manufacturing
techniques specically for use in sport will help
entrepreneurial sports engineers to develop,
manufacture and market their own products. The
demand for personalised kit, using technology
such as additive layer manufacturing, is set to
rise dramatically in the coming decade, making
this a targeted investment that is likely to bring
substantial returns to the UK.
British sports engineers are also realising the
potential for their innovations to help solve some
of the challenging health and well-being issues
of developed economies. Technology developed
by sports engineers is inspiring young children to
get active, reducing falls amongst the elderly and
helping in the rehabilitation of accident patients.

RECOMMENDATIONS

ENGINEERED
IN BRITAIN

UK Sport is the organisation that nurtures
performance sport in the UK, investing about 100
million a year in over 1,200 of the countrys best
athletes
[11]
. Established in 1997, the organisations
core funding comes from the National Lottery and
the UK government.
Its No Compromise strategy sees investment
directly targeted at those likely to deliver medal-
winning performances at the Olympic Games. UK
Sport is often credited as a driving force in Team
GBs vastly improved performance over the past
15 years, in which time Great Britain rose from 36
th

in the medal table at the 1996 Atlanta Olympic
Games to 4
th
at Beijing in 2008.
Research and innovation (R&I) is one of the
key support services offered to athletes. 7.5
million of National Lottery and government
funding has been invested in UK Sports R&I
programme during the London cycle (20092013),
and an additional 15 million has been secured
in match funding or value-in-kind. Working
with over 100 companies and 25 academic
groups to develop cutting-edge competition
and training technologies in the run-up to the
London 2012 Olympic Games, UK Sport has
invested in 140 projects covering 25 Olympic
and Paralympic sports with an impact on 95% of
potential medallists.
One of the programmes key challenges is the
exponential growth in the level of research data.
Although a relatively young academic discipline,
there has been a huge increase in the amount of
published sports science and engineering research
over the past ten years. One of UK Sports key
roles is to help manage and lter information
through a network of experts, to ensure athletes
get the right evidence and guidance to exploit this
information to improve performance.
In the late 18
th
Century, the UK became the rst
industrial and manufacturing power. The cultural,
social and technological changes of the Industrial
Revolution throughout the next century shaped
many of the sports we play today.
In the 1840s, Thomas Hancock in the UK and
Charles Goodyear in the USA independently
patented the vulcanisation of rubber. Goodyear
then won a Council Medal at the Great Exhibition
of 1851 for his innovations in rubber technology
[9]

and William Gilbert, a Rugby School bootmaker,
won medals for his new rugby balls
[10]
. Rubber
cores rapidly replaced animal bladders in the
design of balls, while new manufacturing
techniques meant that balls could be made
relatively uniformly and cheaply.
The earlier invention of the lawnmower gave the
new bouncing rubber balls an ideal at, uniform
surface, and by the late 19
th
Century football and
rugby pitches, cricket ovals and lawn tennis courts
could be found in almost every town in Britain.
With this explosion in the popularity of sports
came tournaments, governing bodies and, most
importantly, standard rules that were quickly
exported across the world.
ENGINEERED
IN BRITAIN
THE ROLE OF BRITISH
ENGINEERING IN
SPORTS HISTORY

ELITE SUPPORT
FOR ELITE SPORT

P2i: Nano-coating technology
P2i is a world leader in liquid repellent nano-
coating technology headquartered in Abingdon,
Oxfordshire. The company was established in
2004 to commercialise liquid-repellent treatments
developed by the UKs Ministry of Defence.
The nano-coating dramatically reduces the
surface energy of a product, so that when
liquids come into contact with it, they form
beads and simply run-off.
By repelling the uptake of liquids, the nano-
coating will ensure that sporting equipment
accessories in particular mountain bike
equipment and sailing harnesses that will be
used in the London 2012 Olympics dont gain
any extra weight during the competitions,
remaining lightweight and dry.
Value-in-kind commercial partnerships have
secured resources from some of the worlds
leading engineering rms. For example, UK Sport
has a ve-year partnership with BAE Systems to
deliver expertise to a range of sports in structural
and mechanical engineering, aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics, mathematical modelling and
simulation, and materials science.
In addition, UK Sports R&I team has a number
of non-commercial partnerships with companies
such as Frazer-Nash Consultancy and McLaren
Applied Technologies to assist in the development
of world-class sporting equipment.
Other notable engineering-led partners include:
epm:technology group; Sports Technology
Institute, Loughborough University; Centre for
Sports Engineering Research, Shefeld Hallam
University; TotalSim and the Performance
Sports Engineering Laboratory, University
of Southampton.
McLaren Applied Technologies:
Indoor Tracking
The accurate electronic tracking of athletes
movements is now an essential part of
performance analysis and is used in many
sports to ne-tune training regimes. Currently,
however, most tracking systems use GPS so will
not work indoors.
McLaren Applied Technologies has therefore
developed a system that uses radio signals
to track movement, generating real-time data
that can be fed back to coaches. Originally
developed for Formula One, McLaren has been
piloting this technology at Loughboroughs
Peter Harrison Centre for Disability Sport.
One important use is for wheelchair basketball
users, for whom the system creates a snail
trail showing how fast they are going,
when they are resting and rapid changes in
acceleration. This enables coaches to tailor
training programmes more closely to the
demands of the event and analyse if the
improvement needs to be made in the training
of the athlete or the development of the chair.
BAE Systems: UK Sport
Technology Partnership
BAE Systems has a ve year partnership
with UK Sport, launched in January 2008, to
provide expertise in structural and mechanical
engineering, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics,
mathematical modelling and simulation
and materials science to some of Britains
elite athletes.
For example, BAE Systems installed a
sophisticated performance monitoring system
at the Manchester Velodrome. The laser-
timing technology, derived from a battleeld
identication system, represents an entirely
new approach to monitoring performance in
cycling, improving on previous break-beam
systems which are unable to differentiate
between individual athletes. Up to 30
cyclists can now train simultaneously with
the new system which uses a laser to read a
personalised code from a retro reective tag
attached to each bicycle. Installed at multiple
points around the track, the system gives
individual recordings for each cyclist with
millisecond accuracy.
While consumer spending on sports equipment,
clothing and footwear has increased in recent
years
[12]
, major sports brands tend not to
manufacture in their country of origin. The high
costs of marketing and retailing in a highly
competitive market has seen manufacturers ship
production abroad to take advantage of lower
labour costs, and British brands have not been
immune to this pressure.
The UKs core strength remains in innovation, in
sports engineering as elsewhere. Collaborative
research projects remain the bedrock of sports
engineering research and evidence has shown
that projects initiated by a company have greater
success levels.
Funded by the UK Government in 1999, the
SET Network programme provided nancial
assistance to promote collaborative R&D with UK
sports engineering researchers; 42 companies
were involved and the project established 57
collaborative R&D projects. 40% of the companies
used the projects to develop new products, 39%
delivered new intellectual property and only 21%
were considered unsuccessful. There was a 90%
success rate for projects initiated by the company
that were relevant to its core business
[13]
.
Elite to high street
A multi-disciplinary team of researchers at
Loughborough University, working at the
cutting edge of sports technology, additive
manufacturing, industrial design and
ergonomics, is breaking new ground to develop
high-performance sports footwear optimised
for the individual athlete. The technologies
being developed will contribute to the UKs
medal-winning prospects in the London 2012
Olympics, with a long-term goal to bring these
customised sports shoes to the high street.
The project team are also working closely
with New Balance and UK Sport, which have
invested 1 million in the project, to develop
next-generation sprint spikes using pioneering
additive manufacturing technologies.
Inspired Bicycles
After graduating with a degree in Sports
Technology from Loughborough University in
2004, Dave Cleaver went on to identify a gap
in the market and launch his own venture
Inspired Bicycles. Dave has developed
a new generation of bicycles for the niche
extreme sport of trials biking, an offshoot
of mountain biking that involves stunts and
jumps over obstacles, as well as bicycles for
street mountain biking, where riders pit their
skills against urban steps, ramps and walls.
Innovative marketing campaigns, including
the most-watched YouTube sports video
of all time, featuring Trials Biker Danny
MacAskill, have helped boost demand
for Inspired Bicycles.
THE UK SPORTS
ENGINEERING INDUSTRY

UK sports engineers are realising the potential for
their innovations to help solve some of the most
important health and well-being issues facing
developed economies. Technology originally
developed for sport is being used to inspire
children to get active in order to prevent obesity,
reduce falls amongst the elderly and help in the
rehabilitation of accident victims.
Sport is also an excellent medium to attract the
attention of young people to science, technology,
engineering and maths (STEM) subjects. The
Institution of Mechanical Engineers is working
with Portia Ltd, an EU-funded NGO, on Science,
Engineering and Technology (SET) for Sport, a
programme of one-day events aimed at 13/14 year
old pupils prior to their selection of subjects to be
taken at GCSE. The aim of SET for Sport is to raise
awareness and excite young people about the role
of engineering, its impact on individuals, society
and environment, and to highlight the range of
educational and career pathways that the study of
STEM subjects can open up for young people.
Smart Floor Field Lab
Originally developed to track the biomechanics
of gymnasts in training, the Smart Floor
is an interactive oor connected to a large
visual display. Engineers at Shefeld Hallam
University are now using the technology to help
improve mobility, tness and learning among
schoolchildren. Movement sensors track the
users motion, which then interacts with several
game options Dynamic Balance, Smart Dance
and Pong.
ADDED
VALUE

1896
The rst modern Olympic Games
take place in Athens, Greece
1916
1/100 of a second mechanical
stopwatch. TAG Heuer
develops the Mikrograph
and Microsplit (can measure
two events simultaneously)
and becomes the ofcial
stopwatch supplier to
the 1920, 1924 and 1928
Olympic Games
1936
Jesse Owens uses spiked running
shoes, custom-built by Adi Dassler
(who would later found Adidas),
to win four gold medals at the
Berlin Olympics, which is also
the rst to be televised live
1962
John Uelses uses a new breglass
pole to break the symbolic 16-foot
barrier in the pole vault. The
world record would be broken
nine times in the next two
years with the new pole
1980
Dunlop use research from their
aerospace wing to develop the Max
200G, one of the rst graphite (carbon-
bre) tennis rackets. John McEnroe
would use a custom-built version to
win Wimbledon three years later
1992
Chris Boardman wins
gold and breaks the
mens individual
pursuit world record
at the Barcelona
Olympic Games with
an ultra-lightweight
full carbon-bre
superbike designed
by Lotus
2008
94% of swimming gold
medals won at the
Beijing Olympics are
won by swimmers using
Speedos LZR Racer 100%
polyurethane swimsuit.
After polyurethane suits
are used to break 29
world records at the
following years World
Championships,
the Fdration
Internationale de
Natation (FINA)
introduce an
outright ban on non-
textile materials
WWI WWII
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1890
1942
Ray Greene builds the rst composite
sailing boat, using breglass and
polyester resin to produce a daysailer
1936
Fibreglass invented by the
Owens-Illinois Glass Co
Polyester resin patented by DuPont
1948
The rst International Wheelchair
Games take place alongside
the London Olympic Games,
with 16 British ex-servicemen
competing in wheelchair archery
at Stoke Mandeville Hospital
1958
Carbon bre is invented in a
Union Carbide laboratory. Carbon
bres are soon embedded in
plastics to create lightweight
and strong composite materials,
which nd their way into sport
1960
The rst ofcial Paralympic Games
take place in Rome, attracting
400 athletes from 23 countries
1967
OMEGA introduces electronic touch
pads placed at each end of the pool
for timekeeping at swimming events
1968
The Mexico City Olympics are
the rst to use an all-weather
Tartan running track, made of
polyurethane, for athletics events
1972
At the Munich Olympic Games,
21 of the 22 swimming world
records broken are by swimmers
wearing Speedos new nylon/
elastane swimwear still
the most popular commercial
swimwear material today
1996
After ultra-aerodynamic bicycles
sweep the board at the Atlanta
Olympics, the Union Cycliste
Internationale (UCI) cyclings
governing body writes the
Lugano Charter, arguing that the
bicycle is distancing itself from
a reality which can be grasped
and understood. A new technical
adviser introduces strict regulations
for the 2000 Sydney Olympics,
banning several innovations
from the previous decade
1898
Coburn Haskell revolutionises golf by
inventing the rubber golf ball using a solid
rubber core wrapped in rubber thread
1901
Frank Bryan, a London manufacturer,
creates the rubber-faced table tennis bat.
Players can now spin the ball easily and
at pace, turning table tennis from a minor
pastime into a genuine athletic sport
1933
Tullio Campagnolo creates the
derailleur bicycle gear. Before
this invention, cyclists wanting
to change gears would have to
stop and remove the back wheel
1981
Peter Dreissigacker nails his old
bike to the oor of a barn and
pulls on the free end of the chain,
inventing the Concept2 indoor
rower. These rowing machines
soon become standard equipment
in gyms across the globe
1988
The Seoul Summer Olympics
and Calgary Winter Olympics
become the rst to use
computerised time-keeping
2006
The US Open becomes the rst grand slam
tennis tournament to allow players to
use Hawk-Eye, an advanced ball-tracking
system, to challenge the umpires decisions
1998
The International
Sports Engineering
Association (ISEA) is
formed in Shefeld
2000
The Union Cycliste
Internationale (UCI) rules
that the cycling one-hour
record will now be valid only
if the cyclist uses technology
available in 1972, when the
celebrated Belgian cyclist
Eddy Merckx set the record
2011
Mark Cavendish uses the McLaren
S-Works Venge bicycle, built from
a single piece of carbon bre and
using advanced computational
uid dynamics and wind tunnel
in its design, to win the Tour
de France Green Jersey
This timeline shows the dynamic relationship
between engineering and sport. Since 1896
and the staging of the rst modern Olympic
Games, engineers have sought to improve almost
every facet of the sporting experience, from the
materials used to the surfaces sprinters run on.
SPORTS ENGINEERING
A HISTORY
1896
1916
the 1920, 1924 and 1928
Olympic Games
1936
1962
1980
1992
Chris Boardman wins
gold and breaks the
mens individual
at the Barcelona
Olympic Games with
full carbon-bre
superbike designed
by Lotus
2008
medals won at the
Championships,
the Fdration
Internationale de
Natation (FINA)
introduce an
textile materials
WWI WWII
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1890
1942
1936
1948
1958
1960
1967
1968
1972
1996
1898
1901
1933
1981
1988
2006
1998
The International
Sports Engineering
formed in Shefeld
2000
The Union Cycliste
2011
www.imeche.org/transport
1896
1916
the 1920, 1924 and 1928
Olympic Games
1936
1962
1980
1992
Chris Boardman wins
gold and breaks the
mens individual
at the Barcelona
Olympic Games with
full carbon-bre
superbike designed
by Lotus
2008
medals won at the
Championships,
the Fdration
Internationale de
Natation (FINA)
introduce an
textile materials
WWI WWII
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1890
1942
1936
1948
1958
1960
1967
1968
1972
1996
1898
1901
1933
1981
1988
2006
1998
The International
Sports Engineering
formed in Shefeld
2000
The Union Cycliste
2011
1896
1916
the 1920, 1924 and 1928
Olympic Games
1936
1962
1980
1992
Chris Boardman wins
gold and breaks the
mens individual
at the Barcelona
Olympic Games with
full carbon-bre
superbike designed
by Lotus
2008
medals won at the
Championships,
the Fdration
Internationale de
Natation (FINA)
introduce an
textile materials
WWI WWII
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1890
1942
1936
1948
1958
1960
1967
1968
1972
1996
1898
1901
1933
1981
1988
2006
1998
The International
Sports Engineering
formed in Shefeld
2000
The Union Cycliste
2011
THE UK IS HOST TO
A WORLD-LEADING
SPORTS ENGINEERING
INDUSTRY AND HAS
CEMENTED ITS PLACE
AS A GLOBAL SPORTS
RESEARCH HUB.
Dr David James from Shefeld Hallam Universitys
Centre for Sports Engineering Research (CSER) has
performed extensive work with the public on the
ethical concerns surrounding sports engineering
[7]
.
In a series of meetings with more than 20,000
members of the public he was able to summarise a
common set of concerns that applied to most of
he groups:
Sports engineering is against the spirit of the
sport, meaning that winning performances
might be due less to hard work and more due to
skilled engineering.
Sports engineering may mean that the best
athlete might not necessarily win.
Sports engineering gives the rich an unfair
advantage over the poor.
Sports engineering makes sport easier.
These are issues which can all apply in varying
degrees to each individual sport. Yet, despite
these concerns, James noted that a pro-technology
majority (between 5070%) tended to form at each
group, with equally powerful arguments in favour
of sports engineering:
Excessive regulation curtails the development
of new equipment. Without the advances we
see today peoples enjoyment of sport would
be diminished.
As a society we expect to see progress, so
a sport that stagnates can quickly become
less popular. The technological evolution of a
sport can also lead to the birth of new sports
mountain biking emerged from road cycling and
snowboarding from skiing.
We quickly get used to new technology today
the idea of playing tennis with a wooden racket
is laughable, yet 35 years ago graphite rackets
were hugely controversial.
Sports engineering is only a problem for elite,
competitive athletes. For the vast majority
of amateur sportsmen and women, new
technologies, from a titanium golf club to a more
advanced running shoe, allow them to enjoy
sports more.
One of the best ways to accentuate the positive
attributes of sports engineering and mitigate
against the concerns people may have is to
ensure sports regulators are well positioned
to judge whether a new technology gives an
athlete an advantage over the sport. This means
sports engineers need to be embedded in the
regulatory process.
Engineering has been a fundamental part of
sport throughout history, yet the use of new
technologies and engineering advances can still
cause controversy. Many regulatory bodies, such
as the International Tennis Federation, work with
engineers to ensure their sports make best use of
advances made outside the sporting world without
harming the spirit of the sport. Others, such as the
Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) with its 1996
Lugano Charter, attempt to build a wall around
their sport to stop new technologies coming in.
This approach is one way to keep the traditions
of the sport intact, reducing the potential for new
technologies to become detrimental to the sport.
However walls built around a sport often spring
a leak. Despite the introduction of several new
regulations in the late-1990s, modern cycling
remains host to a technological arms race that
rivals Formula One. The McLaren S-Works Venge
bicycle, which has already been used to win the
Tour de France and Milan-San Remo, is a hugely
advanced piece of engineering that still complies
with the UCIs stringent regulations.
The cycling one hour record, meanwhile, was
attempted just six times in the decade following
the UCIs decision to award the ofcial record only
to riders using technology used by Eddy Merckx
in 1972. As Michael Hutchinson, a racing cyclist
who has made two unsuccessful hour record
attempts, said in his book The Hour: The hour
record used to be a showcase for the most cutting-
edge technology. When Merckx set his record, the
magazines and newspapers devoted pages to the
technological marvel that he was riding. [Now] its
as though the athletics authorities decreed that
the mile [track] record had to be set on a cinder
track with leather running shoes.
[14]
A sport that does not keep up with technology
developments taking place outside of arenas and
stadia risks becoming an irrelevance to spectators.
Yet the debate surrounding the introduction
of new technologies in sport has been raging
for decades, and this is just one of the many
arguments for and against sports engineering.
UNFAIR
ADVANTAGE?
TECHNOLOGY
VS TRADITION

The International Tennis Federation (ITF)
Throughout its history tennis has successfully
embraced the technology of the day, from carbon
bre to hawk-eye line technology. The ITF uses
engineers to help it keep pace with technological
developments. The establishment of the ITFs
Technical Centre in 1997 has cemented its
approach. Considered the worlds most advanced
tennis-specic research facility, the Centre
undertakes research into tennis balls, rackets
and court surfaces and provides support to
the Technical Commission, a panel of experts
responsible for protecting the nature of the
game by monitoring developments in
equipment manufacture.
[15]
Fdration Internationale de Natation (FINA)
Speedo launched the LZR Racer polyurethane
enhanced suit in 2008. The technology was said
to improve oxygen ow to the muscles and hold
the body in a more hydrodynamic position, and
was immediately approved by FINA. At the Beijing
Olympics swimmers wearing the suit broke 15
long-course world records and won 94% of the gold
medals, surprising the FINA regulators who had
not expected such an impact. Other manufacturers
followed with the X-Glide from Adidas and the
Jaked 01. As record after record was broken,
disquiet grew in the swimming community and
the media about technology-doping. FINA
eventually banned the full-body suits in January
2010 but let the records stand. How long a pause
this creates before records are broken again
remains to be seen.
[16]
In elite sport, when you spend every minute of
every day focused on improving performance,
from what and when you eat to how you train,
we should not be surprised that athletes are
keen to adopt any advances that might deliver a
competitive edge.
Arguably it is not the technology itself that people
are objecting to but the potential it has to diminish
the sporting test. If the sporting test is to see
how quickly an athlete can, for example, run 100
metres, and this is what inspires and excites us as
spectators, then the introduction of jet-propelled
trainers would alter that test. We are no longer
watching an athlete run the 100m race.
Sporting regulators have to balance the benets
of new technology with the traditions of the sport
and often-ambiguous notions of fairness.
The decision to allow or ban a new technology,
specically relating to sports equipment, is the
responsibility of each sports own governing body.
Each federation has its own set of rules, guidelines
and approval procedures.
If an athlete uses a piece of equipment or
technology that has been prohibited by the rule
makers, they can be deemed to have an unfair
advantage. But the decision-making process for
allowing or banning new technology can appear
arbitrary and reactive.
New technologies that drastically push boundaries
can quickly become controversial. While some
sports have improved on their capabilities
to challenge or incorporate transformative
technology, other sports have been caught
short. The varying degrees of engineering
expertise within sports regulatory bodies can be
highlighted by comparing tennis International
Tennis Federation with swimmings Fdration
Internationale de Natation.
But more signicantly, as Dr David James
noted, the hypoxic chamber episode created
a fundamental shift in the way that HETs are
viewed. From this point on, physical apparatus
created by sports engineering would be subject to
the same scrutiny as biological & chemical HETs.
Technology doping was now ofcially recognised
as a threat.
The UK Government has yet to fully engage with
the range of potential issues the use of HETs will
bring to sport. The Science and Technology Select
Committees 2007 report, Human Enhancement
Technologies in Sport, restricted itself to chemical
and biological HET techniques, explicitly omitting
the use of equipment
[19]
.
The push and pull between tradition and
technology in sport has been going on for over
a century. However we are approaching a major
crossroads in which the pace of change threatens
to cause a new wave of ethical difculties for
sports regulators.
Human Enhancement Technologies (HETs)
cover the broad range of methods that can be
used to temporarily or permanently overcome
the limitations of the human body, and is
one emerging eld that could dramatically
change sport.
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA),
established in 1999, has the remit to promote,
coordinate and monitor the ght against doping
in sport in all its forms
[17]
. For a technology to be
considered for prohibition from sport, WADA sets
three conditions
[18]
:
1. Is the technology harmful to health?
2. Is it performance-enhancing?
3. Is it against the spirit of the sport?
Historically, WADA has focused on chemical and
biological doping rather than technology doping,
and its primary responsibility is to stop drug
misuse across all sport.
But in 2006, WADA initiated a consultation on
the use of a HET hypoxic chambers (also known
as altitude chambers). By simply sitting in the
chambers for an extended period, athletes can
stimulate the production of red blood cells and
enzymes that can improve their performance.
While the nal outcome of the review upheld that
the chambers should remain legal, the review had
two interesting outcomes.
Professor Andy Miah, Chair of Ethics and
Emerging Technologies at the University of West
Scotland, highlights that the hypoxic chamber
case was the rst for WADA where the ethical
perspective was seen as being potentially decisive
to the overall outcome, since the health risks
surrounding hypoxia were unproven
[18]
. Chambers
were considered a passive accumulation of skill
in that the athelete did not have to work to benet
from them one of the key objections to sports
engineering interventions often cited by the public.
SPORTS ENGINEERING
AND HUMAN ENHANCEMENT
TECHNOLOGY

There is already some evidence that sports
professionals are undertaking surgery that
is allowed by the governing bodies. In 1999,
Tiger Woods had LASIK eye surgery to improve
his vision. A large number of baseball players
have undergone rehabilitative shoulder surgery
nicknamed Tommy John surgery, which
anecdotal evidence suggests makes the athlete
stronger after recovery.
The issues that elds such as HETs and
biomedical engineering will bring to sport mean
that engineers need to be embedded within the
regulatory process. As well as horizon-scanning
for new technologies, engineers can defend their
advocacy of technology in sport based on robust
evidence. Sports engineers are undoubtedly pro-
technology, but they are also passionate about
sport. They do not want to see a technology
intervention that subsequently undermines the
value system of a sport, diminishes the challenge,
and hinders the sports growth.
In May 2008, Paralympian sprinter Oscar Pistorius
took his case to race against able-bodied athletes
to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). He had
previously been banned from competing by the
International Association of Athletics Federations
(IAAF), based on research conducted in 2007 by
Professor Peter Bruggeman at the University of
Cologne. Bruggeman concluded that the carbon-
bre blades created a signicant performance
advantage for Pistorius because he used 25% less
energy than able-bodied athletes.
But the ban was overturned by IAAF after
CAS accepted the conclusion of new research
conducted by Peter Weyand from Rice University
in Houston and Hugh Herr from MIT, that the
amount of energy Pistorius uses was comparable
to able-bodied sprinters and therefore his
prostheses gave him no net advantage
[20/21]
.
The debate continues to rage over whether
Pistorius should be permitted to participate in
the Olympics. This controversy is only the rst
of many that are set to hit the sporting world as
human prosthetics become more advanced.
A group of biomedical engineers from UCL has
been working on technology intraosseous
transcutaneous amputation prosthesis (ITAP)
that enables articial limbs to be directly
attached to a human skeleton, pioneering the way
for bionic limbs that could be controlled by the
central nervous system. Using deer antlers as their
inspiration the antlers grow through the animals
skin without causing infection the researchers
have been looking at securing a titanium rod
directly into the bone
[22]
.
This technology, which has the potential to allow
paraplegics to walk again, is likely to quickly move
from the medical to the sports engineering eld.
As improvements are made, and more Paralympian
athletes adopt better prosthetics, many more may
wish to compete with their able-bodied peers.
There will be a point at which engineers are able
to advance from restoring normal body functions
to enhancing them. This creates the possibility
that able-bodied athletes, fearing they are at a
technological disadvantage, might argue that they
should be able to enhance their body parts.
THE BIONIC ATHLETE:
FACT OR FICTION?

There are some key emerging technologies in
development which will have a revolutionary
impact on sports engineering, and society as a
whole. Here we look at what an Olympic road
cyclist could be wearing and using in 1020
years time.
CYCLIST OF
THE FUTURE

1. Spray-on clothing
Developments in nanotechnology mean spray
on clothing could become a reality within
a matter of years. A liquid-repellent coating
would keep the rider dry, and thus lighter,
while a protective coating could make helmets
tougher without adding weight. Triathletes
could use spray chambers to change clothing
instantaneously between the swimming,
cycling and running events, tailoring their
outt for each event.
2. Performance analysis sensors
Sensors are already being built into running
shoes to measure speed, distance and energy
expended. Military engineers have even
developed sensors to monitor physiological and
environmental changes that can be swallowed
and monitored from inside the body. In the
future these sensors could be positioned all
over the body during a race, measuring every
physiological change and sending the data back
to a coach who can then advise the athlete on
strategy using an augmented reality headset.
The speed and depth of data analysis will have
a major inuence on the medals table.
3. Phase change tyres
UK engineers are beginning to develop
materials that, using nanotechnology, are
able to change shape depending on certain
conditions. This could have a transformative
impact on sports equipment. Oars could
bend as they hit the water to improve their
hydrodynamism, ship hulls could naturally bend
into corners or bicycle tyres could vary their
tread depending on terrain.
1
3
6
5. Composite material frame
Carbon bre is becoming increasingly
popular among bicycle engineers,
particularly those working on triathlon
or time-trial bicycles. US rms Zyvex
Technologies and Enve Composites
have partnered to develop a bicycle rim
using a carbon nanotube and graphene
engineered composite material. Tough,
lightweight and easily moulded into
highly aerodynamic shapes, composite
materials will become an ever more
integral part of racing bicycles over
the coming decade.
4. Augmented reality headset
Googles Project Glass headset, which
could launch as early as 2013, will kick
off an augmented reality revolution
which is likely to quickly lter into the
sports world. Headsets could give instant
performance analysis, track competitors
and even offer cyclists a rear view mirror.
Spectators using the same hardware
could get instant statistics on each rider
or see the race as the athletes do.
6. Printed shoes
Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, is
set to revolutionise manufacturing in the
coming decades. Sport will be no exception.
Engineers could produce virtually any piece
of equipment, including shoes, minutes
before the event to suit the exact weather
conditions or even the athletes physical
condition, compensating for any injuries they
may have.
2
4
5
THE OSCAR PISTORIUS
CONTROVERSY IS
ONLY THE FIRST OF
MANY THAT ARE SET
TO HIT THE SPORTING
WORLD AS HUMAN
PROSTHETICS BECOME
MORE ADVANCED.
Equipment
One of the most important tasks for any sports
engineer is to minimise the energy lost during the
transfer from athlete to equipment. As a cyclist
pedals, all the energy that is being supplied
through the athletes legs needs to be transferred
to the pedals which the convert this energy to the
wheels that move the bicycle. Bicycle engineers
have spent over a century making these transfers
as efcient as possible.
There has also been a major shift in the materials
used in competitive cycling. The original wooden
bicycles of the 18
th
Century evolved into the
steel safety bicycles of the late 19
th
Century
and aluminium racing bicycles. Today, many
competitive bicycles are highly aerodynamic
machines shaped from a single piece of carbon
bre. These modern superbikes are designed using
computational uid dynamics and nite element
analysis, as well as wind tunnels to ne-tune
the aerodynamics.
Cycling helmets, however, are an example of how
sports engineers must always deal with the trade
off between engineering efciency and comfort.
While helmet materials and design have evolved
over the years, engineers have been constricted
by the fact that the more aerodynamic the design,
the less space available for air vents. During long
endurance events the seconds shaved off by a
more aerodynamic helmet could easily be lost
as the rider suffers from heat exhaustion during
the race.
[23]
Additive manufacturing (sometimes referred to as
3D printing) is becoming an ever more important
part of the manufacturing process. Using a range
of laser-based techniques to build objects layer by
layer, additive manufacturing enables pieces of
equipment that are geometrically complex to be
built from scratch without incurring prohibitive
tooling costs.
This method of manufacturing is beginning to
prove very popular with sports engineers, as it
enables the development of personalised kit. At
Loughborough University, one PhD project has
investigated how athletes run, looking at both the
forces they apply to the surfaces through contact
with their feet as well as the style and gait with
which they run. Using additive manufacturing
techniques, the stiffness and design of the
spikes in running shoes have been tailored to
improve performance.
Modern sports engineering can be split into two
distinct categories embedded and enabling
technology. Embedded technology covers the
behind-the-scenes systems that allow coaches
and training programmes to analyse movement
and ne-tune performance. Enabling technology
covers the equipment that athletes use
to compete.
As with all other sectors, engineers who work
within the eld of sports engineering have
preferred tools that aid them in developing a
solution for the athlete, coach or team.
The toolkit is split into equipment, prototyping,
experimentation, analysis and simulation.
TECHNOLOGY
IN ACTION
ENABLING
TECHNOLOGIES

Speedos FASTSKIN3 cap, swimsuit and goggles,
which will be used by swimmers at the London
2012 Olympics, have been designed and engineered
to incorporate many world rsts in swimming
technology. The equipment has been designed
using 3D mapping data to create a 3D avatar of the
athlete. This means that hundreds of prototypes
can be made to t the head and face contours
exactly, delivering optimum comfort and improved
hydrodynamic performance. The development of
the FASTSKIN3 has taken more than four years and
55,000 hours of research, prototyping and testing.
Prototypes are an engineers best guide to what
the future of sports equipment might look like.
Sports regulators need to work alongside sports
engineers to get access to the latest prototypes so
they have an opportunity to get that same view of
where their sport is heading.
Experimentation
Experimentation is an important tool that is used
by sports engineers to allow athletes to see the
benets of their work and better understand
improvements made to their equipment. Rowing,
which has only recently been subject to sports
engineering analysis, demonstrates how engineers
can use experimentation to get to grips with a
new sport.
By studying in detail every movement of the four
phases of rowing the catch, the drive, the nish
and the recovery engineers have built a complete
picture of the sports dynamics and have begun to
identify the areas which can be improved
[27]
. The
timing of the nish, for example, is crucial to an
efcient stroke. Pulling the oar out of the water
too late results in water striking the back of the
blade, slowing the boat down, while if the blade
is extracted too early then the efciency of the
stroke is reduced.
With the analysis work done, engineers can begin
to optimise the design of rowing equipment.
Although rowing equipment is tightly regulated,
if engineers are given the opportunity to develop
the sport we could see the shape of oars and
boats change to become quicker, lighter and more
efcient over the next decade. Signicant changes
in the rowing boats shape could even lead to the
establishment of new sports, just as engineering
developments in sailing have given us the Laser,
Star and Finn classes.
One eld of sports engineering that has become
more important in recent years is surface
coatings used on materials. Their use has led to
performance gains across the sporting world
[24]
,
with coatings helping with friction control
and protecting equipment from wear. The
implications of these technologies can already
be seen in the current controversy over the use
of silicone spray on tennis rackets, which is used
to increase spin.
Table 1: The use of surface engineering in sport
Function Surface
engineering
technology
Application
Friction control Polymer coatings Boats, canoes
Self-lubricating
coatings
Roller skates, golf
club heads
Ion beam
modications of
polymers
Skis, grip tapes,
surfboats,
snowboards
Wear protection Nano composite
coatings
Roller skates, ice
skates
Thermal oxidation
of titanium surfaces
Racing car and
engine components
Oxygen diffusion of
titanium
Titanium
transmission
components
Prototyping
Prototyping is an important part of any product
development process as it enables designers
to look at suitable materials, work out specic
production processes and trial the functionality of
the design
[25]
.
Paralympic swimming has been revolutionised in
recent years thanks to prototyping. Swimming
prosthetics, developed to compensate for
amputated limbs, are designed using sophisticated
simulation and analysis technologies, after which
several prototypes are manufactured. By testing
out a variety of materials, designs and masses, the
prosthetic can be ne-tuned to be as efcient and
comfortable for the athlete as possible
[26]
.
Human movement analysis uses motion capture
and analysis equipment to help athletes, coaches
and engineers visualise and understand the
thousands of tiny biomechanical movements that
the body can make during a sporting event. A
movement analysis system is used by Team GB
diving coaches as a training tool at their base at
Shefelds Ponds Forge International Swimming
Centre. The system uses a network of machine
vision video cameras operating at 100 frames per
second to record the motion of the diver in real-
time, allowing the coach to review each dive in
slow motion and compare it with previous dives.
Developments in analysis technology over the
past 1015 years mean that sports engineers are
now ooded with data, so much so that the issue
for engineers today is in using this wealth of
information as efciently as possible to achieve
the best results. The full arsenal of monitoring
equipment a sports engineer has at their
disposal is listed in Table 2, taking swimming as
an example.
Analysis
The engineering work that is done behind closed
doors on the training ground and, increasingly, IT
laboratories, can have as profound an effect on an
athletes performance as the enabling technologies
that are visible for all to see.
Monitoring and performance analysis of elite
athletes during training and competition is an
area of constant improvement and development.
Monitoring systems which can provide real-time
feedback to the athlete, coach and sports engineer
regarding the performance and physiological
capabilities of an athlete are critical for the
development of personal training plans. These can
ensure continuous improvement, enhancing the
ability to win major competitions
[28]
.
Modelled analysis, which uses theoretical
modelling to analyse the athletes movement, has
also undergone a revolution in the past decade due
to the use of computational uid dynamics (CFD)
and nite element analysis (FEA).
Sports engineers are now using CFD to
understand everything from the aerodynamic
behaviour of a cyclist, the hydrodynamic
performance of a yacht or the heat transfer
through an athletes helmet
[29]
. For example,
the British Bob Skeleton Association (BBSKA)
worked with Shefeld Hallams Centre for Sports
Engineering Research (CSER) on CFD models to
optimise the aerodynamics on British bobsleighs.
The new design helped Amy Williams win Great
Britains rst ever gold medal in the event at the
2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic Games.
EMBEDDED
TECHNOLOGIES

Why do sports engineers use Finite Element
Analysis (FEA)?
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a powerful
structural analysis tool used to understand
how objects deform when subjected to an
applied force. FEA can be used to understand
the deformation of objects, such as tennis balls,
upon impact. It can also be used to determine
if a bicycle frame is structurally strong enough
or analyse stress concentrations in an ice skate
blade. FEA can increase the efciency of the
product research and development process,
as design concepts can be tested without the
requirement of producing numerous prototypes.
Table 2: Performance analysis in swimming
[28]
CATEGORY OF ANALYSIS

Remote
There is no sensor put on the athlete
and results are often viewed in an
alternative location
TECHNIQUES AVAILABLE

Coaches and athletes analyse lm footage
looking at performance and/or technique
once the session is over
TOOLS TO USE
Qualitative
Quintic
Vircon
Dartsh
Poseidon
Glide to win (EPSRC)
SWUM
Direct
Sensors are attached directly to the athlete
to monitor how they are performing. The
results are obtained as they happen
Physiological analysis
The athletes physiological changes are
monitored in real-time
Heart rate monitor
Weight
Body fat
Fitness testing
Pressure/Force analysis
The pressure or balance of athletes is
monitored. During tumble turns in a
swimming pool these devices can measure
whether the swimmer is getting an
even force when they push off on the
return stroke
Pressure sensors in research
Commercial pressure sensors
Force sensors in research
Force sensors instrumented in pools
Velocity/Acceleration analysis
The athlete can measure where they are
losing speed to help them improve. It can
also help control their acceleration rates at
either the start or end of the event
Velocity commercial tethered system
Velocity tethered system in research
Acceleration measurement in research
Commercial acceleration measurement
Modelled
The analysis takes place away from the
training centre using advanced
computer software
Ergometer analysis
These help the athlete concentrate on their
style ergonomic aspects out of the sports
environment
Ergometer use in research
Commercial ergometer products
(Vasa, Weba)
Theoretical analysis
Computer based analysis tools, such as
CFD or FEA, model parameters such as
aerodynamics and stress
Forces, lift and drag on hand models
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Simulation
Simulation allows sports engineers to analyse the
movement of the athletes, using data collected to
create a virtual model. This simulation can then
be used to help both coaches and athletes to see
where improvements can be made to routines
and performance.
Simulation is an engineering tool that has been
adopted in the sport of gure skating. The motion
of the skater is recorded with two panning, tilt-
table digital cameras of variable focal length. The
skater has 22 marker points on joints or specic
points of the body surface which are analysed
and used to create an inertial reference frame.
This is then used to create a precise 3D simulation
of the motion of the inner joint angles of the
skaters body
[30]
.
Results from this simulation can show take-off
velocity, jump height and length, the linear and
angular momentum of the skater, joint angles and
angular velocities. The animation of the motion
can be shown in different views with xed or
moving cameras
[30]
.
Tools used in wheelchair basketball
Wheelchair basketball is one of the most
popular Paralympic events, and for wheelchair
athletes the mobility and weight of the
wheelchair are crucial. Sports engineers
have been working with the UK Paralympic
Basketball team to help improve the design and
functionality of their wheelchairs. The work
they are doing can be split into four key steps:
Experimentation: The team performed a
number of dynamic and static tests to learn
more about the loads of wheelchairs.
Prototyping: Using prototyping techniques
an adjustable measurement wheelchair
was developed that could adjust seating
position, allowing engineers to calculate the
best option.
Analysis & simulation: The data obtained
from the previous two steps was used
to create a 3D model of the chair using
computer-aided construction.
Equipment: Finally, the new, lightweight
wheelchair was manufactured using
lightweight materials of carbon bre-
reinforced plastic (CFRP), aluminium
and titan. The formed components were
manufactured by blow-moulded process and
the tubular components by lament winding
or wrapping processes. Planar structures,
like the fenders, were manufactured through
vacuum forming techniques
[31]
.
These new, more mobile wheelchairs will
allow athletes to move faster around the court
while expending less energy to use them. This
technology is also beginning to ow from the
sports engineering laboratory to the wider
wheelchair industry, meaning all wheelchair
users can benet from these sporting
developments.
[31]
CONCLUSION

For centuries, engineering has played a vital
role in the evolution and progression of sport.
From the bouncing rubber tennis balls of the
late 19
th
Century to the carbon-bre bicycles set
to dominate the velodrome at the London 2012
Olympics, new technologies have helped to keep
traditional sports exciting and accessible as well
as help create entirely new sports.
Today, advanced sports engineering is as
important to elite athletes as good nutrition,
coaching or training, enabling them to reach their
full potential on the global stage. The technology
developed for this elite is also ltering through to
the high street and helping to solve some of the
biggest health problems we face as a society.
The UK is host to a world-leading sports
engineering industry and has cemented its place
as a global sports research hub. Universities such
as Shefeld Hallam and Loughborough are forging
links with our advanced engineering rms to
create new technologies that have the potential
to both revolutionise sport and create signicant
returns for the UK economy.
Yet the rapid advance of technology means the
ethical debates that have surrounded sports
engineering for decades are set to intensify
in the coming years. Sporting regulators
need to be prepared for these forthcoming
technological revolutions.
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
therefore recommends that:
Engineers are embedded in each individual
sports regulatory process. Here, they can
horizon-scan, looking for new technological
developments that can enhance the sport
and also help predict the consequences of a
technological intervention. These engineers
will advise on the use or misuse of a
technology based on robust evidence.
Organisations such as UK Sport, as well as
government and industry, continue to invest
in sports engineering research after the
London 2012 Olympics to maintain the UKs
position as a world-leading sports engineering
research hub.
Sporting regulators, as well as governments,
start preparing policies and positions
now to prepare for the advance of Human
Enhancement Technologies (HETs) in sports.
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers would
like to thank the following people for their
assistance in developing this report:
Haj Bhania
David Carnell CEng FIMechE
Anna Coppell AMIMechE MEng PhD
Nicky Evans
Professor Stephen Haake EPSRC,
Senior Media Fellow
Dr Ben Halkon AMIMechE
Dr David James, Royal Academy of Engineering
Public Engagement Fellow
Sue Lancashire CEng FIMechE
Hannah Latham AMIMechE
Christopher Lowther CEng FIMechE
Philippa Oldham CEng MIMechE
Anna Seddon
Sian Slawson BSc
James Speedy AMIMechE
Dr Gavin Williams
Andrea Vinet MEng
With special thanks to:
Centre for Sports Engineering Research,
Shefeld Hallam University
Sports Technology Institute,
Loughborough University
Frazer Nash Consultancy
McLaren Applied Technologies
Team GB Women Wheelchair Basketball Squad
UK Sport
CONTRIBUTORS
Image Credits
Cover image: Courtesy of Shefeld Hallam
Universitys Centre for Sports Engineering Research
(CSER); page 2: Andrew Weekes; pages 1012: Bob
Thomas/Warwick Kent/Getty Images/Associated
Press/Tag Heuer; page 13: Jan Kruger/Getty
Images; page 20 Getty Images/Michael Steele
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Pole Vault, Introduction, IAAF, www.iaaf.org
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DM James, 2010, The ethics of using engineering to enhance
athletic performance, Proceedings of the 8th International
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Economics and Tradition, Journal of the Japanese Society of
Experimental Mechanics, Vol 5 (4), pp327334
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First in 1823 Foremost Ever Since. Rugby,
www.gilbertrugby.com/history
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12
SGMA, Press Release: SGMA Reveals Sports Industry Is On
The Rebound, 19 May 2011
13
DT Curtis & SJ Haake, 2004, Academia-Industry
collaboration: a catalyst for sports product innovation in the
UK, The Engineering of Sport 5, pp602608
14
Michael Hutchinson, The Hour: Sporting Immortality the
Hard Way, Yellow Jersey Press, 2006
15
www.itftennis.com/technical
16
Scott-Elliot, Robin, Swimming: Second wave seek a tting
stage, The Independent 4 March 2012
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www.wada-ama.org/en/Footer-Links/FAQ
18
A Miah, Rethinking Enhancement in Sport. Annals New York
Academy of Sciences, 2006, 1093 pp301320
19
The House of Commons Science and Technology Committee,
Human Enhancement Technologies in Sport, 2007, www.
publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/
cmsctech/67/67.pdf
20
D James, The Trouble with Oscar, Engineering Sport Blog:
The Centre for Sports Engineering Research, 7 October 2011,
www.engineeringsport.co.uk/2011/10/07/the-trouble-
with-oscar
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Short List, Oscar Pistorius: A life under scrutiny, 2012, www.
shortlist.com/entertainment/sport/oscar-pistorius-a-life-
under-scrutiny
22
BBC News, Bionic limb breakthrough, (3 July 2006)
23
Foam protection in sport, 2.4, Cycle Helmets, NJ Mills;
Materials in Sports Equipment, Mike Jenkins
24
Future applications of surface engineering in sport Surface
Engineering H Dong; Materials in Sports Equipment,
Mike Jenkins
25
Innovation in Sports Equipment, particularities in process
and organisation, EF Moritz, The engineering of sport 4, 2002
26
Development of swimming prosthetic for physically disabled
(optimal design for one side of above-elbow amputation),
K Yoneyama and Motomu Nakashima, The Engineering of
Sport 6, Vol 1, Development for Sports
27
N Caplan, A Coppel & T Gardner, Jan 2009, A review
of propulsive mechanisms in rowing, Journal of Sports
Engineering and Technology, 224 (1), pp. 1-8. ISSN 1754-3371
28
Enabling technologies for robust performance monitoring, L
Justham, S Slawson, A West, P Conway, M Caine, R Harrison,
The Engineering of Sport 7, Vol 1 (Eds M Estivalet and P
Brisson)
29
Winning Sports Flow Solutions with CFD, Fluent
30
Methods of simulation and manipulation for the evaluation
of gure skating jumps, T Hartel, F Hildebrand, K Knoll; The
Engineering of Sport 6, Vol 2, Developments for disciplines,
(Eds E Fozzy Moritz and SJ Haake)
31
Design and construction of custom-made lightweight carbon
bre wheelchair, M Siebert, The Engineering of Sport Vol 7
REFERENCES
Institution of
Mechanical Engineers
1 Birdcage Walk
Westminster
London SW1H 9JJ
T +44 (0)20 7304 6862
F +44 (0)20 7222 8553
manufacturing@imeche.org
www.imeche.org

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