This article reprinted from:

McMahon, K. A. 2010. 2D:4D Ratio. Investigation of a Sexually Dimorphic Trait in the

Human Skeleton. Page(s) 495-501, in Tested Studies for Laboratory Teaching,
Volume 31 (K.L. Clase, Editor). Proceedings of the 31st Workshop/Conference of the
Association for Biology Laboratory Education (ABLE), 534 pages.



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2D:4D RATIO
INVESTIGATION OF A SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC TRAIT IN THE HUMAN SKELETON
Karen A. McMahon
Biological Science
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa OK 74104
karen-mcmahon@utulsa.edu
POPULATION
N MEAN
R 2D:4D
MEAN
L2D:4D
FEMALE
STUDENTS
18 0.99
0.05
0.97
0.05
WOMENS
SOCCER TEAM
11 0.98
0.04
0.96
0.03
MATERIALS & METHODS
Metric rulers (150 mm) preferably transparent vinyl
Digital calipers, resolution of 0.01 mm (optional)
Photocopies of hands (optional)
Students measure the length (in mm) of the 2
nd
(index finger) and 4
th
(ring
finger) digits of each hand (palm side) from the basal crease
(metacarpophalangeal joint) to the finger tip (Fig 2).
Calculate the right and left 2D:4D ratio.
Compare 2D:4D ratio means in populations - males vs. females, athletes vs.
non-athletes, older faculty/staff vs. college-age students, etc.
Fig.1. Left hand of a
female (a) and male
(b). a) In females,
the 2
nd
digit is
typically near equal
in length to the 4
th
digit and the 2D:4D
ratio = 1. b) In
males, the 2
nd
digit is
usually noticeably
shorter than the 4
th
digit and the 2D:4D
ratio < 1.
31
st
ANNUAL
ABLE (ASSOCIATION OF BIOLOGY
LABORATORY EDUCATION) CONFERENCE
University of Delaware, Newark, DE
June 9 -13, 2009
RESULTS
No significant differences were found in measuring finger length directly or from photocopies with either a ruler or digital calipers
(Table1).
Mean right 2D:4D ratio for female students (0.98) was significantly different from mean right ratio for male students (0.94). Left
2D:4D ratios for female (0.98) students were slightly higher than male (0.97) students (Table 2). In the general population males have
a mean 2D:4D ratio of 0.98 and women a mean digit ratio of 1.0.
Mean right (0.98) and left (0.96) 2D:4D ratios for the womens soccer team were slightly lower from the mean 2D:4D ratios (0.99 and
0.97 respectively) for college female students (Table 3). Previous studies of woman professional teams had shown 2D:4D ratios
approaching the masculine digit ratio.
Mean right and left 2D:4D ratios for college-age males (right 0.94, left 0.97) were not significantly different from ratios for older
male faculty and staff (right 0.95, left 0.96). Mean right and left 2D:4D ratios for college-age females (right 0.98, left 0.98 ) were
slightly lower than ratios (right 1.00, left 0.99) for female faculty and staff (Table 4). It was thought that younger males would have a
digit ratio approaching the female mean because of the recent abundance of estrogen-mimicking chemicals in the environment.
DISCUSSION & FUTURE WORK
2D and 4D lengths are easily measured directly or from photocopies by
either ruler or digital calipers.
Mean 2D:4D ratios for college males were <1; 2D:4D ratios for college
females were higher and approached 1.
Mean 2D;4D ratios for women soccer players were slightly lower than
college females from the general population.
Mean 2D:4D ratios for college-age males and females did not differ
significantly from those of older college faculty and staff.
The 2D:4D ratio will be used to investigate fluctuating asymmetry
during 2009 - 2010.
REFERENCES
Honekopp, Johannes, Luise Bartholdt, Lothar Beier, and Andreas
Liebert. 2007. Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex
hormone levels: new data and a meta-analytic review.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 32: 313 - 321.
Lutchmaya, S. S. Baron-Cohen, P. Raggatt, R. Knickmeyer, and J. T.
Manning. 2004. 2nd to 4th digit ratios, fetal testosterone and estradiol.
Early Human Development 77: 23 - 28.
Malas, Mehmet Ali, Sevkinaz Dogan, E. Hilal Evcil, and Kadir
Desdicioglu. 2006. Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio
(2D:4D). Early Human Development 82: 469 475.
Manning, John T. 2002. Digit ratio: a pointer to fertility, behavior, and
health. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick NJ, 173 pp.
Putz, David A., Steven J. C. Gaulin, Robert J. Sporter, and Donald H.
McBurney. 2004. Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D
indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior 25: 182 - 199.
SUPPLIES & SOURCES
Rulers, transparent vinyl (150 mm), $0.55 0.75 each
Digital calipers (0.01 mm resolution), $70-$100
Carolina Biological Supply Company www.carolina.com
Edmund Scientifics scientificsonline.com
Wards Natural Science wardsci.com
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks to the students, faculty, staff, and
the Womens Golden Hurricane Soccer Team
at The University of Tulsa for participating
in this study.
Table 2. Mean 2D:4D ratios for right and left hands of
male college students compared to female college students
(spring 09). *ANOVA Single Factor p<0.0065, +/-
standard deviation.
Table 4. Mean 2D:4D
ratios for right and left
hands of college students
compared to faculty and
staff.
YOB = year of birth,
+/-standard deviation.
POPULATION
N MEAN
R 2D:4D
MEAN
L2D:4D
COLLEGE
AGE MALES
YOB 1988-1990
7 0.94
0.20
0.97
0.20
OLDER MALES
YOB 1934-1975
11 0.95
0.04
0.96
0.04
COLLEGE AGE
FEMALES
YOB 1987-1990
14 0.98
0.03
0.98
0.04
OLDER
FEMALES
YOB 1939-1973
10 1.00
0.02
0.99
0.02
Table 1. Comparison of mean 2D, 4D, and 2D:4D ratio for right and left hands when measured by ruler and digital calipers directly or
from xeroxed copies. N=2. +/-standard deviation.
Fig. 2. Measuring digit
length. a) Basal crease to
finger tip of the 4
th
digit.
b) Metacarpophalangeal
joint to tip of distal phalanx
of the 4
th
digit.
Measuring digital length by
transparent metric ruler (c)
or by digital calipers (d).
METHOD
MEAN R2D
(mm)
MEAN R 4D
(mm)
MEAN R2D:4D MEAN L2D
(mm)
MEAN L4D
(mm)
MEAN L2D:4D
Ruler
Directly
71.00
5.66
72.00
4.24
0.99
0.02
70.00
7.07
73.00
7.07
0.96
0.00
Ruler
Xerox
71.00
5.66
71.50
4.95
0.99
0.01
70.50
6.36
72.50
7.78
0.97
0.02
Calipers
Directly
69.39
4.76
69.72
4.79
1.00
0.00
70.82
4.53
70.03
4.70
1.01
0.00
Calipers
Xerox
70.85
8.14
70.46
5.32
1.00
0.04
70.51
7.51
70.15
8.01
1.01
0.01
POPULATION
N MEAN R
2D:4D*
MEAN L
2D:4D
MALE
STUDENTS
7 0.94
0.20
0.97
0.20
FEMALE
STUDENTS
14 0.98
0.03
0.98
0.04
Table 3. Mean 2D:4D ratios for right and left hands of
female college students (fall 08) compared to female
college soccer players.
+/- standard deviation.
c
b
d
a
a b
INTRODUCTION
The ratio between the 2
nd
digit (index finger) and 4
th
digit (ring finger)
length (2D:4D) is a sexually dimorphic trait.
Males tend to have a lower 2D:4D ratio because the 2
nd
digit is usually
shorter than the 4
th
digit. Females tend to have a higher 2D:4D ratio because
the 2
nd
and 4
th
digits are approximately of equal length. (Fig. 1)
The 2D:4D ratio is established by the 14
th
week of gestation. The higher
the fetal testosterone levels, the lower the 2D:4D ratio.
Homeobox genes Hoxa and Hoxd control development of both genitals and
digits.
Variations in 2D:4D ratios have been correlated with certain diseases,
athletic ability, mental skills, and career choices.
Students can easily measure digit length directly or from photocopies using
a metric ruler or digital calipers.
This exercise brings an investigative approach to the study of the human
skeleton and introduces provocative discussions about development.
495
THE 2D:4D RATIO
INVESTIGATION OF A SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC TRAIT IN THE HUMAN
SKELETON

Karen A. McMahon
Biological Science
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa OK 74104
karen-mcmahon@utulsa.edu


Abstract
The ratio (2D:4D) between 2
nd
digit and 4
th
digit length is sexually dimorphic in humans. Males have
2D:4D <1 because the 2
nd
digit is shorter whereas in females, 2D:4D = 1. This dimorphism reflects
relative testosterone:estrogen levels during fetal development and is observable by week 14. The 2D:4D
ratio has been correlated with certain diseases, careers, athletic ability, and mental skills. Students
predicted 2D:4D ratios for a population subset. Digit lengths were measured directly or from a
photocopy with either a ruler or calipers. Mean 2D:4D was lower for female athletes; no trend in 2D:4D
was detected between age groups.


Introduction
The ratio (2D:4D) between the 2
nd
digit (index finger) and the 4
th
digit (ring finger) length is a
sexually dimorphic trait of the human skeleton. In many females, 2D:4D = 1 because the 2nd and 4th
digits are approximately of equal length (Fig. 1a). In most males, 2D:4D <1 because the 2nd digit is
usually shorter than the 4
th
digit (Fig. 1b). Low 2D:4D ratios are correlated to higher fetal testosterone
levels whereas high 2D:4D ratios are indicative of higher fetal estrogen levels. Relatively higher fetal
testosterone levels promote the growth of the 4
th
digit, resulting in a low2D:4D. The 2D:4D ratio is
established by the 14
th
week of gestation and is not correlated with circulating sex hormones in adults.
Homeobox genes Hoxa and Hoxd control development of both the urogenital system and digits and may
explain the connection between prenatal sex hormones and digit growth (Manning, 2002; Honekopp et
al., 2007; Lutchmaya, et al., 2004; and Malas et al., 2006).

Several studies have correlated 2D:4D ratios with certain diseases, genetic disorders, athletic ability,
mental skills, and career choices (Manning, 2002; Putz et al., 2004). Students predict 2D:4D ratios for a
specific group. This exercise offers an investigative approach to the study of the human skeleton in the
Human Anatomy & Physiology laboratory course.
496

Figure 1. The 2D:4D is typically 1 in females (a) whereas
males (b) usually have a 2D:4D less than 1 because the second
digit is shorter than the fourth.


Student Outline
Learning Objectives
1. Learn about a sexually dimorphic trait in the human skeleton.
2. Understand how 2D:4D may be correlated with certain skills and disorders.
3. Design a scientific investigation correlating 2D:4D to certain characteristics in a defined population.

Materials Needed
Metric Rulers (150 mm, preferably transparent vinyl)
Digital calipers (0.01 mm resolution, optional)
Photocopies of palm side of hands (optional)

Protocol
1. Turn the hand to be measured palm side up. Look for the basal crease at the attachment of the finger
to the palm. Align the ruler or calipers from the basal crease to the fingertip (Fig. 2). In the human
skeleton, the basal crease corresponds to the metacarpophalangeal joint on the skeleton and the fingertip
corresponds to the distal end of the distal phalanx. (Fig.3). Measure the length in mm of the second and
fourth digits of each hand. Record in Table 1.

2. Calculate the right, left, and overall 2D:4D and record in Table 1. Calculate the mean right, left,
and overall 2D:4D for the each subset of the population measured.

3. Are there any differences in 2D:4D between the tested groups? Is your hypothesis supported?
Explain.

a b
497

Figure 2. Digit length is measured in millimeters from the basal crease to the finger tip
with either a ruler or a digital caliper.


Figure 3. The basal crease corresponds to the
metacarpophalangeal joint of the hand (blue arrows)
and the fingertip to the distal end of the distal phalanx
(red arrows).

Table 1. Record the length in mm of the right 2D,4D,
and the left 2D,4D. Calculate the right, left, and overall
2D:4D.






Instructors Notes
No significant differences in the 2D:4D ratio were found when measuring hands directly or from
photocopies by ruler or digital calipers (Table 2). Some students found it difficult to identify the
basal crease from a photocopy. Others found locating the endpoint of the fingertip much easier on a

Subject
R 2D
(mm)
R4D
(mm)
R
2D:4D
L2D
(mm)
L 4D
(mm)
L
2D:4D
Overall
2D:4D

498
photocopy. I found that if the vinyl rulers were transparent it made it easier for students to line up
from the basal crease to the fingertip. Digital calipers were easy to use and are more accurate than
the rulers. Photocopies provided a record to check students accuracy of measurement.

Table 2. Comparison of mean 2D, 4D, and 2D:4D for right and left hands when
measured by ruler and digital calipers directly or from xeroxed copies. No significant
differences were found among measurement techniques. N = 4, +/- standard deviation,
ANOVA p=0.9999.

Method
Mean
R2D
(mm)
Mean
R4D
(mm)
Mean
R2D:4D

Mean
L2D
(mm)
Mean
L4D
(mm)
Mean
L2D:4D

Overall
2D:4D

Ruler
Directly
70.503.70

71.75 3.77

0.980.02

69.004.90

72.504.80

0.95 0.01 0.970.01

Ruler
Xerox
70.505.26

71.254.35

0.990.01

71.754.27

72.006.98

1.000.06

0.990.02

Calipers
Directly
70.073.97

70.405.23

1.000.02

69.703.50

68.096.43

1.030.06

1.010.04
Calipers
Xerox
70.015.56 70.524.74 0.990.03

70.545.10 70.045.26 1.010.01 1.000.01

Mean right 2D:4D for female students (0.98) was significantly different from mean right ratio for
male students (0.94). Left 2D:4D for female (0.98) students was slightly higher (0.97) than the mean left
ratio for male students (Table 3).

Table 3. Mean 2D:4D for right and left hands of male college
students compared to female college students (spring 09).
*ANOVA Single Factor p<0.0065, +/- standard deviation.

Population N Mean R 2D:4D* Mean L 2D:4D
Male Students

7 0.940.20 0.97 0.20
Female Students

14 0.980.03 0.980.04

Since testosterone is correlated with good visual and spatial skills and these are skills which are
valued in many sports, it was hypothesized that the women in the university soccer team would have
lower 2D:4D ratios than college age women who were not athletes. Mean right (0.98) and left (0.96)
2D:4Ds for the womens soccer team were slightly lower from the mean 2D:4Ds (0.99 and 0.97
499
respectively) for college female students (Table 4). Previous studies of woman professional teams had
shown the 2D:4D approaching the masculine digit ratio.

Table 4. Mean 2D:4D ratios for right and left hands of
female college students compared to female soccer players
(fall08). +/- standard deviation

N Mean R
2D:4D
Mean L
2D:4D
Students
18


0.990.05


0.970.05

Soccer Team
11

0.980.04


0.960.03


It was hypothesized that younger males would have a digit ratio approaching the female mean
because of the increasing abundance of estrogen-mimicking chemicals in the environment but overall
mean 2D:4D for college-age males (0.95) was identical to the overall mean 2D:4D for male faculty/staff
(0.95). Overall mean 2D:4D for college-age females (0.98) was slightly lower than the overall mean
2D:4D (0.99) for female faculty/staff (Table 5).

Table 5. Mean 2D:4D for right and left hands in college-age
students as compared to older university faculty and staff.

N

Mean R
2D:4D
Mean L 2D:4D Overall mean
2D:4D
College Age Males
YOB 1988 - 1990


7

0.940.20


0.970.20


0.950.20
Older Males
YOB 1934 - 1975

11 0.950.04 0.960.04 0.950.04
College Age Females
YOB 1987 - 1990

14 0.980.03

0.980.04

0.980.03

Older Females
YOB 1939 -1 967

10

1.000.02


0.990.02

0.990.03


Suppliers
Transparent vinyl rulers (150 mm) cost from $0.55 -$0.75 each. Digital calipers (0.01 mm
resolution) cost from $50 -$100 and both are available at science supply houses such as Carolina
500
Biological Supply Company (www.carolina.com), Edmund Scientifics (scientificsonline.com) or Wards
Natural Science (wardsci.com).


Acknowledgments
Many thanks to the Womens Golden Hurricane Soccer Team and to the students, faculty, and
staff, at The University of Tulsa for participating in this study.


Literature Cited
Honekopp, Johannes, Luise Bartholdt, Lothar Beier, and Andreas Liebert. 2007. Second to fourth digit
length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: new data and a meta-analytic review.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 32: 313 - 321.

Lutchmaya, S. S. Baron-Cohen, P. Raggatt, R. Knickmeyer, and J. T. Manning. 2004. 2nd to 4th digit
ratios, fetal testosterone and estradiol. Early Human Development 77: 23 - 28.

Malas, Mehmet Ali, Sevkinaz Dogan, E. Hilal Evcil, and Kadir Desdicioglu. 2006. Fetal development
of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D). Early Human Development 82: 469 475.

Manning, John T. 2002. Digit ratio: a pointer to fertility, behavior, and health. Rutgers University
Press, New Brunswick NJ, 173 pp.

Putz, David A., Steven J. C. Gaulin, Robert J. Sporter, and Donald H. McBurney. 2004. Sex hormones
and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior 25: 182 - 199.

About the Author
Karen A. McMahon is an instructor at The University of Tulsa who has taught the laboratory for
introductory Human Anatomy & Physiology since 1997. She is indebted to the faculty, staff, and
students who have supported her interest in developing investigative activities for the A&P laboratory.
501