Agriculture in Biblical times

Student, Tudor Mustea

Master anul I , Administrarea Afacerilor Agricole
In the modern world only a minority are involved in the primary production of food -
agriculture. In the ancient world almost everyone had a near daily involvement. Even the potter
or smith had a family field and perhaps a few animals. Only the very rich did not work with the
soil or keep flocks, but they, as owners, took interest in the management of land and beasts.
-The fertile hills of southern Galilee-
While those living in areas of abundant rainfall (such as New Zealand) may find it
difficult to recognize the dry hills and plains of Palestine as rich land, that was how Canaan was
perceived. Biblical descriptions like Deuteronomy 8:7-9 are well known:
"For the Lord your God is bringing you into a good land, a land with flowing streams,
with springs and underground waters welling up in valleys and hills, a land of wheat and
barley, of vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey, a land
where you may eat bread without scarcity, where you will lack nothing, a land whose
stones are iron and from whose hills you may mine copper."
We also have a similar description of Canaan from Sinhue (a 20th Century BCE Egyptian):
"It was a good land named Yaa. Figs were in it, and grapes. It had more wine than water.
Plentiful was its honey; abundant its olives. Every [kind of] fruit was on its trees. Barley
there was and emmer. There was no limit to any [kind of] cattle." (quoted
from Thompson p.125)
Crops
Grain (wheat & barley), grapes, figs and olives as well as legumes (lentils & chick-peas), onions,
cucumbers, melons, dates, pomegranates, almonds and spices were grown for food. Flax
provided fibers for rope and linen. The seeds were fed to animals.
Terracing on the slopes of the Mt of Olives in Jerusalem
Terracing
In the plains and on some valley floors the land was already fairly level for planting. On hillsides
terraces were first constructed, to retain soil and moisture. Rocks and larger stones were removed
from the uphill side and used for a wall on the downhill side (Isaiah 5:2He dug the soil and
cleared it of stones; he planted the finest vines. He built a tower to guard them, dug a pit for
treading the grapes. He waited for the grapes to ripen; Ps 80:9You cleared a place for it to
grow; its a roots went deep, and it spread out over the whole land. It cover the hills with its
shade; its branches overshadowed the giant cedars.).
Plowing
For annual crops the land was first plowed. Good plows had a metal blade attached to a shaped
branch (or specially made wooden frame) and were pulled by oxen or donkeys.
The cycle of rain and dry seasons defined the time when various crops were planted and
harvested.
Grains
Both wheat and barley were grown for bread, the staple food. Wheat makes better dough, but
needs good soil and water. Barley tolerated poor soil and drought better.
Between November and January, seed was scattered (as Jesus describes, Mk 4:3-8) and then
plowed or hoed to bury it. Since birds eat seeds and young plants, both human and inanimate
scarecrows were used.
Barley matured first, April to early May, wheat a month later. Stalks were cut with sickles then
tied in bundles (sheaves).
Threshing
The sheaves were spread on a flat rock or prepared earth threshing-floor. Animals were walked
over the floor, often dragging threshing sledges (Am 1:3), so separating grain and stalk - the
more tender seeds of herbs and beans were threshed with sticks (Is 28:27). The chaff (outer
covering of the grain) and grain were also detached at this time, but were more difficult to
separate by hand.
Winnowing
Tossing in the air allowed the wind to blow the chaff from the grain.
Flocks and Herds
Flocks
Both sheep and goats were kept for meat and milk as well as wool or hair. Both are hardy
animals not requiring shelter and able to find food in marginal conditions which do not permit
cattle to survive. Most peasant families would own, at least a few, sheep - making shepherding a
common occupation.
The photo taken near Tekoa illustrates several features of biblical shepherding. The flock has
both sheep and goats (in this case the sheep are pale and the goats black, however the
distinguishing feature is the tail - sheep's tails hang down while goats' stick up - cf. Mt 25:32).
The land has little vegetation and flocks would be moved from place to place. In such a climate
the shepherd's camp would be by the nearest source of water.
Often flocks were moved from one area to another during the year, flocks based in places on the
Judean ridge (like Bethlehem or Tekoa) would be moved further down the steep slope into the
Judean desert towards the Dead Sea when those areas had received rain and/or runoff allowing
some grass to grow. Thus even village based shepherding was almost a semi-nomadic lifestyle.
Herds
Cattle have not been common in Palestine in the modern period, though Israel today does have a
significant dairy industry, modern Beduin tend to get their milk from goats. In biblical times
however cattle seem to have been more common (judging by the number of references in the
Bible).
Because cattle require longer and richer grazing than sheep, it is likely that true herds were only
common in the lusher areas like Transjordan (especially the Bashan plateau) and Galillee.
However, references to cattle as sacrificial animals suggests that many families would have kept
a few beasts (rather like the European tradition of the "house cow").
Cattle were rarely penned and fed grain (a staple human food), such animals became fat and
provided a luxury meat (cf. Am 6:4).