Petroleum Sedimentology

EASC (30024)
Lecture 1: Generating seismic sections
Lecture 2: Interpreting seismic sections
Lecture 3: Borehole logging
Lecture 4: The future of the oil industry
James Verdon
Housekeeping
Timetable:
Mon 11.11: Lecture 1: Generating seismic sections
Tue 12.11: Practical 1: Seismic sections
Wed 13.11: Lecture 2: Interpreting seismic sections
Mon 2.12: Lecture 3: Borehole logging
Tue 3.12: Practical 2: Borehole logging
Wed 4.12: Lecture 4: The future of the oil/gas industry
Recommended Reading:
Kearey, Brooks, Hill: An introduction to geophysical exploration.
Course Materials:
Can be found at www1.gly.bris.ac.uk/~JamesVerdon/teaching.shtml.
Maybe also on Blackboard
The Tools of Subsurface Analysis
To understand our reservoirs, we must be able to image:
Where the oil is
The geometry of target reservoirs
The lithologies of target reservoirs
There are two main geophysical methods that we can use:
Seismic reflection images (seismic sections)
Borehole logs
Principals of Seismic Acquisition
Acquisition on Land and at Sea
At every impedance boundary, energy is
partitioned into reflection and transmitted
parts.
Impedance = Velocity x density
Z = V!
Reflection coefficient:

R =
Z
2
! Z
1
Z
2
+ Z
1
convolution
Depth domain: Time domain:
!V
The seismic trace: convolution of reflection coefficients with the induced wavelet.
Many seismic traces make up a seismic section.
*
=
Seismic Processing
Split-spread shooting
On-end shooting
Stacking
NMO and Stacking
Traveltimes in a CMP gather obey normal moveout (NMO) equation
(horizontal layers).
h
x
t(x) =
S
V
RMS
=
(2h)
2
+ x
2
V
RMS
t
0
= 2h / V
RMS
t(x) = t
0
2
+
x
2
V
RMS
2
V
RMS
=
v
i
2
!
i
i=1
n
"
!
i
i=1
n
"
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
1/2
t
0

NMO and Stacking
Traveltimes in a CMP gather obey normal moveout (NMO) equation
(horizontal layers).
t(x) = t
0
2
+
x
2
V
RMS
2
NMO and Stacking
By computing NMO velocity, we can shift the traces so that the peaks
are aligned.

t(x) = t
0
2
+
x
2
V
RMS
2
dt = t(x) ! t
0
NMO and Stacking
By adding the traces together, signal will be reinforced while noise will cancel
out. This increases the strength of the signal (known as brute stacking).
NMO and Stacking
By adding the traces together, signal will be reinforced while noise will cancel
out. This increases the strength of the signal (known as brute stacking).
We are interested in direct reflections from relatively flat layers. However, energy
can arrive at the geophones that has come from unwanted sources:
Multiple reflections from high-reflectivity boundaries
Diffraction from point-scatterers (such as high-angle faults)
Artifacts can also be generated by dipping layers
The purpose of migration is to remove unwanted artifacts ,and to move reflected
energy to its correct location.
Scattering of energy
Scattering of energy
Migration of a dipping reflector:
Because reflected energy does not emerge vertically, dips are
underestimated
tan d
app
= sin d
Migration of a dipping reflector:
Migration of a dipping reflector:
Multiple reflections from highly-reflecting layers, especially the sea-bed
x
=
=
The observed trace is a result of
convolution between the induced
wave and subsurface traces.
We deconvolve to turn our
observed traces into something
resembling the reflections.
A sensor near to the shot point
provides information to estimate a
waveform for deconvolution.
x =
Deconvolution is particularly necessary for ringy signals
The observed trace is a result of
convolution between the induced
wave and subsurface reflection
profile
We deconvolve to turn our
observed traces into something
resembling the reflection profile.
A sensor near to the shot point
provides information to estimate a
waveform for deconvolution.
The final waveforms from each CMP gather, after NMO removal and stacking, after
migration, after deconvolution, are plotted alongside each other in space, allowing us to see
how reflectors have moved up or down along the section.
Seismic Resolution
What size of features can we image with seismic waves?
Vertical resolution
Horizontal resolution
The Earth is a low-pass filter - loose resolution with depth
Horizontal Seismic Resolution:
Fresnel Zone
If ray-paths are less than !
wavelength different,
constructive interference occurs
h+"/4
h
w
h
2
+ (w / 2)
2
= (h + ! / 4)
2
w
2
/ 4 = (h
2
+ h! / 2 + !
2
/ 16) " h
2
,
w
2
/ 4 = h! / 2 + !
2
/ 16
w
2
= 2h! + !
2
/ 4
w = 2h!, !
2
/ 4 << 2!h
v = f !
w = 2hv / f
Horizontal Seismic Resolution:
Fresnel Zone
Vertical Seismic Resolution - Tuning
Closely-spaced reflections will interfere, increasing or reducing amplitudes, and sometimes
making it impossible to identify two separate beds
Vertical Seismic Resolution - Tuning
Tuning thickness # "/4 # V/4f
Below the tuning thickness, individual beds will not be resolved
If reflection polarities are opposite:
- Below tuning thickness, no reflection occurs,
- At tuning thickness, reflection becomes maximum
Vertical Seismic Resolution - Tuning
Tuning thickness # "/4 # V/4f
Below the tuning thickness, individual beds will not be resolved
If reflection polarities are the same:
- Below tuning thickness, reflection is maximum,
- At tuning thickness, reflection is reduced
Vertical Seismic Resolution - Tuning
Summary
Seismic sections are used to image the distribution of sediments in the subsurface
Summary
Seismic sections are used to image the distribution of sediments in the subsurface
The seismic processing workflow:
Summary
Seismic sections are used to image the distribution of sediments in the subsurface
The seismic processing workflow
Resolution issues: