Profile Analyses 1

Running Head: PROFILE ANALYSES OF PERSONALITY

Profile Analyses of Personality-Leadership Performance Relations
Jeff Foster and Joyce Hogan
Hogan Assessment Systems



Paper presented in M. Ingerick & L. M. Hough (symposium chairs) What Makes a Great
Leader? Refining the Personality-Leadership Relationship. 21
st
Annual Conference of Society
for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, May 2006, Dallas, Texas.




Profile Analyses 2

Abstract
We examine the effects of both bright side and dark side personality characteristics on
leadership performance. Specifically, three profiles are evaluated using meta-analyses from
datasets (K = 6; N = 881) containing bright side personality variables, dark side personality
variables, and leadership performance ratings. Using three leadership models, we created
profiles using: (a) bright side marker HPI scales only; (b) dark side marker HDS scales only; and
(c) a combination of HPI and HDS scales. All profiles produced positive results, with
individuals who fit the profiles receiving significantly higher leadership ratings than those who
did not. Standardized group mean difference scores were .33 for the bright side profile, .36 for
the dark side profile, and .44 for the combination leadership profile. These results demonstrate
the value of selecting for positive personal characteristics while selecting out characteristics
detrimental to effective leadership performance. Implications and directions for future research
are discussed.

Profile Analyses 3
Profile Analyses of Personality-Leadership Performance Relations
Leadership requires taking personality seriously because leadership, personality, and
personality assessment are necessarily related. How leaders view themselves is difficult to
measure with any scientific certainty; how observers view them is easy, reliable, and valid. Prior
to the appearance of Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardts (2002) meta-analysis of five-factor model
personality measures and leadership effectiveness, the literature suggested that personality
factors had only modest influence on leadership effectiveness. Because of the difficulties
involved in measuring leadership effectiveness, we approached the topic from the opposite
viewincompetence. This tactic has several advantages since there is no shortage of failed
managers/leaders, they can be identified by observers, and their characteristics can be mapped
empirically using well-validated personality assessments.
The assertion that there are flawed leaders has gone from the unthinkable to the obvious.
Issues of contemporary business journals describe the practices of failed executives; entire
volumes appear on personality factors associated with leader derailment (cf. Dotlich & Cairo,
2003). Some of these writings are a rediscovery of Bentzs (1985) research on management
incompetence among failed Sears executives. Bentz identified seven themes in flawed managers
who were otherwise bright, socially skilled, and identified as high-potential: (1) unable to
delegate or prioritize; (2) being reactive rather than proactive; (3) unable to sustain relationships;
(4) unable to build a team; (5) having poor judgment; (6) being a slow learner; and (7) having an
overriding personality defect.
Center for Creative Leadership researchers replicated and refined Bentzs original
findings. McCall, Lombardo, and Morrison (1988) and Leslie and Van Velsor (1996) summarize
their findings about managerial failure with four themes: (1) problems with interpersonal
Profile Analyses 4
relations; (2) failure to meet business objectives; (3) inability to build a team; and (4) inability to
adapt to transitions.
Since Judge et al.s (2002) definitive identification of positive personality factors
associated with leadership effectiveness and an emerging literature on negative personality
characteristics associated with ineffectiveness, it is possible to assimilate these perspectives into
a comprehensive character model of leadership competence. The current research investigated
and compared three approaches for predicting leadership outcomes: (a) predicting leadership
with bright side personality measures; (b) predicting leadership with dark side personality
measures; and (c) predicting leadership with a combination of both. We anticipated that each
type of measure would predict performance but, because both have implications for distinct
components of leadership behavior, the greatest degree of overall leadership effectiveness
prediction would be achieved when both bright side and dark side measures were used
simultaneously. Specifically, we proposed and tested the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: A profile constructed from bright side personality measures will be
significantly related to leadership performance.
Hypothesis 2: A profile constructed from dark side personality measures will be
significantly related to leadership performance.
Hypothesis 3: A profile constructed from both bright side and dark side personality
measures will be significantly related to leadership performance.
Hypothesis 4: A profile constructed from both bright side and personality measures will
be more highly predictive of leadership performance than profiles that use only one type
of personality measure.

Profile Analyses 5
Method
Measures
Bright Side Personality. Most important bright side personality characteristics can be
described in terms of the Five-Factor Model (FFM; cf. De Raad & Perugini, 2002; Digman,
1990; Goldberg, 1992; John, 1990, p. 72; McCrae & Costa, 1987; Wiggins, 1996). The FFM is
comprised of five dimensions that represent how we think about and describe people (Goldberg,
1990):
I. Surgency/Extraversion - the degree to which a person seems outgoing and talkative.
II. Agreeableness - the degree to which a person seems pleasant and rewarding to deal with.
III. Conscientiousness the degree to which a person complies with rules, norms, and standards.
IV. Emotional Stability - the degree to which a person appears calm and self-accepting.
V. Intellect/Openness to Experience - the degree to which a person seems creative and open-
minded.
The Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI; R. Hogan & Hogan, 1995) was used for this
study to assess bright side characteristics of personality. The HPI was developed specifically to
predict real-world outcomes such as job performance and assesses the FFM in occupational life
within a normal population. The HPI contains seven primary scales that are aligned with the
FFM as follows:
I. Adjustment the degree to which a person is steady in the face of pressure, or conversely,
moody and self-critical (FFM: Emotional Stability).
II. Ambition the degree to which a person seeks status and values achievement (FFM:
Profile Analyses 6
Extraversion).
III. Sociability the degree to which a person needs and/or enjoys social interaction (FFM:
Extraversion).
IV. Interpersonal Sensitivity the degree to which a person is socially sensitive, tactful, and
perceptive (FFM: Agreeableness).
V. Prudence the degree to which a person is concerned with self-control and
conscientiousness (FFM: Conscientiousness).
VI. Inquisitive the degree to which a person seems imaginative, adventurous, and analytical
(FFM: Intellect/Openness).
VII. Learning Approach the degree to which a person enjoys academic activities and values
education as an end in itself (FFM: Intellect/Openness).
The seven dimensions of the HPI are assessed using 206 true-false items. The internal
consistency and test-retest reliability of the scales are as follows: Adjustment (.89/.86),
Ambition (.86/.83), Sociability (.83/.79), Interpersonal Sensitivity (.71/.80), Prudence (.78/.74),
Inquisitive (.78/.83), and Learning Approach (.75/.86).
Dark Side Personality. The Hogan Development Survey (HDS; R. Hogan & Hogan,
1997) was used for this study to assess dark side characteristics of normal personality. The dark
side personality characteristics measured by the HDS represent flawed interpersonal strategies
that (a) reflect peoples distorted beliefs about others, and (b) negatively influence careers and
life satisfaction (Bentz, 1985; R. Hogan & Hogan, 1997; Leslie & Van Velsor, 1996).
Behavioral manifestations of dark side personality measures emerge during times of stress or
Profile Analyses 7
when people let their guard down. These dispositions reflect maladaptive behaviors that coexist
with bright side personality characteristics.
In the context of personnel selection, the HDS identifies applicants whose behavior, over
time, will erode relationships with others because of flawed interpersonal strategies. The HDS is
designed to assess 11 dysfunctional dispositions that can impede job performance and lead to
career difficulties:
I. Excitable concerns being initially enthusiastic about people or projects, and then becoming
disappointed with them. Result: seems to lack persistence.
II. Skeptical concerns being socially insightful, but cynical, mistrustful, and overly sensitive
to criticism. Result: seems to lack trust.
III. Cautious concerns being overly worried about making mistakes and being criticized.
Result: seems resistant to change and reluctant to take chances.
IV. Reserved concerns seeming tough, remote, detached, and hard to reach. Result: seems to
be a poor communicator.
V. Leisurely concerns being independent, ignoring others requests, and becoming irritable if
they persist. Result: seems stubborn, procrastinating, and uncooperative.
VI. Bold concerns seeming entitled and having inflated views of ones competence and worth.
Result: seems unable to admit mistakes or share credit.
VII. Mischievous concerns being charming, but manipulative and ingratiating. Result: seems to
have trouble maintaining relationships and learning from experience.
Profile Analyses 8
VIII. Colorful concerns being dramatic, engaging, and attention-seeking. Result: seems
preoccupied with being noticed and may lack sustained focus.
IX. Imaginative concerns thinking and acting in interesting, unusual, and even eccentric ways.
Result: seems creative but often lacking good judgment.
X. Diligent concerns being conscientious, perfectionistic, and hard to please. Result: tends to
disempower staff and subordinates.
XI. Dutiful concerns being eager to please and reluctant to act independently. Result: tends to
be pleasant and agreeable, but reluctant to support subordinates and co-workers.
The eleven dimensions of the HDS are assessed using 168 agree-disagree items that have
no psychiatric or mental health content. Principal components analysis of the HDS yields three
clearly defined factors that support interpreting the inventory in terms of Horneys (1950)
taxonomy of flawed interpersonal characteristics (R. Hogan & Hogan, 2001). The average alpha
for the scales is .67 and test-retest reliabilities range from .58 to .87. The test manual documents
the instruments development and psychometric properties.
Leadership Performance. The criteria used for this study was leadership performance.
Although performance ratings varied by sample, each contained at least one item for assessing
global leadership performance (e.g., leads by example) or multiple items used to construct an
overall leadership scale. All ratings were provided by supervisors who were knowledgeable of
the targets job performance.


Profile Analyses 9
Profile Construction
We constructed and subsequently evaluated three personality-based predictor profiles.
The first profile, which was consistent with Judge et al.s (2003) approach of focusing on
leadership bright side characteristics, used bright side personality scales that have been found to
be predictive of leadership performance. The second profile corresponded to Bentzs (1985) and
McCall et al.s (1998) approach of focusing on derailing behaviors, particularly those
characterizing problems with interpersonal relations (i.e., volatile, aloof, cold, overly ambitious,
and arrogant). The final profile used both bright side and dark side personality scales to predict
leadership performance.
Bright Side Profile. In reviewing the Hogan Archive, which contains results from over
200 criterion studies conducted over the past three decades, Foster and Hogan (2005) identified
35 studies using the HPI to predict performance for leadership jobs. Results from applying
Hunter and Schmidts (1990) meta-analysis methods to validation studies (K = 35; N =3751)
indicated that four HPI scales had correlations with overall performance for managers and
executives at = .10 or higher: Adjustment ( = .22), Ambition ( = .31), Interpersonal
Sensitivity ( = .15) and Prudence ( = .13). These results provided the architecture for
constructing a leadership profile based upon bright side personality characteristics.
The HPI technical manual (R. Hogan & Hogan, 1995) stipulates that, in evaluating scores
on the HPI, one rule of thumb is to interpret scores above the 65
th
percentile high and scores
below the 35
th
percentile low (p. 49). Because the four scales used to construct the Bright Side
Profile are positively related to job performance, we labeled individuals falling above the 35
th

percentile on each scale as having high leadership potential whereas those falling below the 35
th

percentile on any of the four scales were labeled as having low leadership potential.
Profile Analyses 10
Dark Side Profile. Foster (2006) applied Hunter and Schmidts (1990) meta-analysis
methods to studies from the Hogan Archive (K = 12; N = 1,058) to determine relationships
between HDS scales and managerial job performance. Six HDS scales were related to
performance at = .10 or higher: Excitable ( = -.18), Skeptical ( = -.19), Cautious ( = -.17),
Bold ( = -.10), Mischievous ( = -.15), and Imaginative ( = -.20). These results provided the
architecture for constructing a leadership profile based upon dark side personality characteristics.
According to the HDS technical manual (R. Hogan & Hogan, 1997), scores at or above
the 90
th
percentile are considered high on the HDS. The implications of high scores on the HDS,
in general, are undesirable. Because each of the six scales used to construct the Dark Side
Profile are negatively related to job performance, we labeled individuals falling below the 90
th

percentile on each scale as having high leadership potential whereas those falling above the 90
th

percentile on any of the six scales were labeled as having low leadership potential.
Total Leadership Profile. To determine the effectiveness of both bright side and dark
side personality measures in predicting leadership performance, a comprehensive leadership
profile was constructed using scales from both the HPI and HDS. Previous research indicates
incremental validity of the HDS measures over the HPI in predicting leadership performance,
with multiple Rs ranging from .31 to .56 (Davies, Hogan, Foster, & Elizondo, 2005).
Davies et al. (2005) explored the predictive power of both bright side and dark side
personality measures for use with the Leadership Domain Model (R. Hogan & Warrenfeltz,
2003; Warrenfeltz, 1995). This model synthesizes existing competency models into the domains
of Intrapersonal Skills, Interpersonal Skills, Technical Skills, and Leadership Skills. These four
domains form a hierarchy of trainability, with earlier skills being harder to train than later skills,
Profile Analyses 11
and serve as the a basis for personnel selection, training, and performance evaluation (J. Hogan,
Davies, & Hogan, in press; R. Hogan & Warrenfeltz).
The structure of this performance model is presented in Table 1. Previous research
outlining relationships between personality predictors and job performance (Davies et al., 2005;
Foster & Hogan, 2005; J. Hogan, Davis, & Hogan, in press) was used to align both HPI and HDS
scales with performance competencies specific to each of the four domains and these appear in
Table 2.
As seen in Table 2, each of the HPI and HDS scales used to construct the first two
profiles relate to specific areas of leadership performance. The Total Leadership Profile was
constructed using cutoff scores at the 35
th
percentile for four HPI scales (Adjustment, Ambition,
Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Prudence) and the 90
th
percentile for six HDS scales (Imaginative,
Excitable, Skeptical, Reserved, Bold, and Cautious). Individuals falling above the 35
th
percentile
on each of the HPI scales and below the 90
th
percentile on each of the HDS scales were coded as
having high leadership potential whereas those failing to meet any of these cuts were coded as
having low leadership potential.
Analytical Approach
A series of meta-analyses (Hunter and Schmidts, 1990) were conducted to determine the
leadership predictiveness of each profile. Studies included in the Hogan Archive met six criteria:
(a) data were gathered from job incumbents for the purpose of criterion validation; (b) job
incumbents held leadership positions; (c) HPI data were collected; (d) HDS data were collected;
(e) job performance data were collected; and (f) job performance rating data included a rating of
leadership ability.
Profile Analyses 12
Six studies were identified meeting these criteria (N = 810). For each dataset, individuals
were coded as high leadership potential versus low leadership potential based on: (a) the Bright
Tide Profile; (b) the Dark Tide Profile; and (c) the Total Leadership Profile. Group mean
differences, expressed in standard deviations [i.e., Cohens (1962) d], were calculated based on
each profile. Then, these effect sizes were meta-analyzed to determine the predictability of each
profile.
Results
Table 3 shows the group mean differences for each profile examined in each of the six
datasets used for this study. As seen, the results for all three profiles were in a positive direction
across nearly all six studies, indicating that each profile effectively predicted leadership ratings.
The one exception to this finding came from using the Bright Side Profile for a single small
sample study; it is likely that a lack of power contributed to the discrepancy associated with this
result. The results presented in Table 4 indicate that the Bright Side Profile, the Dark Side
Profile, and the Total Leadership Profile all effectively predicted leadership performance, with
effect sizes frequently nearing or falling within the moderate range, described by Cohen (1962)
as .50 to .80.
Meta-analytical results for difference scores are presented in Table 4, which indicates
positive effects were found with both the Bright Side and Dark Side Profiles, with estimated
population parameters of = .33 and = .36 respectively. To test Hypotheses 1 and 2, 95%
confidence intervals were reviewed. Lower limit confidence intervals for both profiles were
greater than .00 (.24 and .26, respectively), thereby supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2.
Results for the Total Leadership Profile were higher, with a population parameter of =
.44. To test Hypothesis 3, 95% confidence intervals were again reviewed. As seen in Table 4,
Profile Analyses 13
the lower limit confidence interval for the total leadership profile was greater than .00 (.35),
thereby supporting Hypothesis 3. Population parameters were examined for Hypothesis 4. As
shown in Table 4, the population parameter estimating the group mean leadership rating scores
was higher for the Total Leadership Profile than for either the Bright Side or Dark Side Profiles,
thereby supporting for Hypothesis 4.
Together, these results clearly support the usefulness of both bright side and dark side
personality measures in predicting leadership performance. Furthermore, the greatest
predictability was obtained using the Total Leadership Profile representing both bright side and
dark side personality characteristics.
Discussion
These results demonstrate that both bright side and dark side personality measures can be
used to construct leadership profiles identifying high performers at both practically and
statistically significant levels. Furthermore, a profile consisting of scales from both inventory
types produced the greatest predictability, indicating that both bright and dark side personality
measures should be used to develop comprehensive leadership profiles. These results are
particular impressive given that a standard, generic set of cutoff scores was used to assess each
profile across each of the six datasets examined for this study.
In most applied settings, the validity of a specific set of cut-scores will vary based upon
job characteristics. Best practices in validity research require a full job analysis and the
development of a specific selection profile based upon a number of contextual factors relating to
the KSAs required for successful job performance and the context in which the job is performed
(J. Hogan, Davies, & Hogan, in press). The variability of difference scores presented in Table 3,
along with the percentage of variance accounted for from each profile presented in Table 4,
Profile Analyses 14
suggest that the profiles used for this study were more effective at predicting leadership
performance for some jobs than others. From a meta-analytical perspective, these results
indicate the presence of moderators that influence the relationship between the profiles examined
and job performance across samples. From a practical perspective, these results indicate that
more effective profiles could be constructed for some, if not all, of the jobs examined in this
study.
The purpose of the current study was not, however, to demonstrate methods for obtaining
the largest possible effect size through the use of personality profiles. Instead, we sought to
compare standardized, generic profiles constructed using bright side, dark side, and a
combination of the two types of personality measures. As expected, both bright side and dark
side personality measures were effective at predicting leadership performance. Moreover, a
combination of both types of personality measures resulting in the greatest predictability,
suggesting that traits associated with both effective leadership behaviors and those associated
with ineffective or maladaptive behaviors are useful in predicting leadership performance in
organizational settings.
This study provides a number of directions for future research. First, as noted above, it
would be worthwhile to examine other profiles that may be more effective in predicting
leadership performance. Although it is almost certain that profiles customized to fit the needs
and context related to a specific job would produce greater effect sizes in the forms of group
mean performance differences, it is also possible that alternative generic profiles would also be
more effective across jobs. For example, the current profiles employed equal cut-scores to each
scale found to be predictive of performance from both the HPI (greater than or equal to the 35
th

percentile on each scale) and the HDS (less than the 90
th
percentile on each scale). It may be
Profile Analyses 15
beneficial to explore other possibilities, such as giving greater weight (i.e., more stringent cuts)
to scales that have higher correlations with job performance.
Finally, because strengths of the current research were the use of multiple samples and
meta-analytical methods, it also may be beneficial to reexamine these analyses on more samples
as they become available. The increasing use of both the HPI and HDS for the prediction of
leadership performance, as well as other personality assessments, should provide a rich source of
data for the further examination of the issues presented in this research and the generalizibility of
these findings in the future.




Profile Analyses 16
References
Bentz, V. J. (1985, August). A view from the top: A thirty year perspective of research devoted to
the discovery, description, and prediction of executive behavior. Paper presented at the
93
rd
Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Cohen, J. (1962). The statistical power of abnormal-social psychological research: A review.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 145-153.
Davies, S., Hogan, J., Foster, J. L., & Elizondo, F. (2005). Recombinant personality measures for
predicting leadership performance. Paper presented at the 20
th
Annual Conference of the
Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Los Angeles, CA.
De Raad, B., & Perugini, M. (Eds.). (2002). Big Five assessment. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe &
Huber.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual
Review of Psychology, 41, 417-440.
Dotlich, D. L., & Cairo, P. C. (2003). Why CEOs fail. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative description of personality: The Big-Five factor
structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure.
Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
Foster, J. L. (2006). Validity of the Hogan Development Survey: Meta-analytical results from the
Hogan Archive. Technical Report. Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems.
Foster, J. L., & Hogan, J. (2005). Validity of the Hogan Personality Inventory for job family
profiles. Technical Report. Tulsa, OK: Hogan Assessment Systems.

Profile Analyses 17
Hogan, J., Davies, S., & Hogan, R. (in press). Generalizing personality-based validity evidence.
In S. M. McPhail (Ed.), Alternative validation strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (1995). Hogan Personality Inventory manual. Tulsa, OK: Hogan
Assessment Systems.
Hogan, R. & Hogan, J. (1997). Hogan Development Survey manual. Tulsa, OK: Hogan
Assessment Systems.
Hogan, R., & Warrenfeltz, W. (2003). Educating the modern manager. Academy of Management
Learning and Education, 2, 74-84.
Horney, K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth. New York: Norton.
Hunter, J. E. & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in
research findings. New York: Sage.
John, O. P. (1990). The Big-Five factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the natural
language and in questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality theory
and research (pp. 66-100). New York: Guilford.
Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A
qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.
Leslie, J. B., & Van Velsor, E. (1996). A look at derailment today: North American and Europe.
Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
McCall, M. W., Jr., Lombardo, M. M., & Morrison, A. M. (1988). Lessons of experience.
Lexington, MA: Lexington Press.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1987). Validity of the five-factor model of personality across
instruments and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 81-90.
Profile Analyses 18
Warrenfeltz, R. B. (1995, May). An executive-level validation of the Borman and Brush
taxonomy. Paper presented at the 10
th
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Wiggins, J. S. (1996). The Five-Factor Model of personality. New York: Guilford.


Profile Analyses 19
Table 1
Leadership Domain Model of Job Performance, Example Competencies, and Personality Measures
Metaconcept Domain Example Competency FFM Measurement

Leadership
Achievement
Building Teams
Business Acumen
Decision Making
Delegation
Employee Development
Initiative
Leadership
Managing Performance
Resource Management

Surgency/Extraversion
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness


Getting Ahead

Technical
Analysis
Creating Knowledge
Decision Making
Political Awareness
Presentation Skills
Problem Solving
Safety
Technical Skill
Training Performance
Written Communication

Openness to Experience
Conscientiousness


Interpersonal
Building Relationships
Communication
Consultative Skills
Cooperating
Influence
Interpersonal Skill
Organizational Citizenship
Service Orientation
Teamwork
Trustworthiness

Agreeableness
Surgency/Extraversion
Emotional Stability
Getting Along

Intrapersonal
Dependability
Detail Orientation
Flexibility
Following Procedures
Integrity
Planning
Respect
Risk Taking
Stress Tolerance
Work Attitude

Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Surgency/Extraversion



Profile Analyses 20
Table 2
Predictor Alignment with the Leadership Domain Model
Domain Predictor Scale Example Behaviors p
Leadership Skills HPI Adjustment Leading and Building Teams 0.31
HPI Ambition Employee Development 0.29
HPI Interpersonal Sensitivity Leading and Building Teams 0.24
HPI Prudence Leading and Building Teams 0.23
HDS Imaginative Leadership -0.23
HDS Mischievous Leading and Building Teams -0.13
HDS Bold Leading and Building Teams -0.09
HDS Excitable Leadership -0.19
HDS Skeptical Leading and Building Teams -0.15
HDS Cautious Delegation -0.23
Technical Skills HPI Learning Approach Training Performance 0.25
HPI Prudence Safety 0.21
HPI Inquisitive Decision Making 0.20
HDS Imaginative Safety -0.22
HDS Skeptical Technical Skill -0.34
Continued on the next page.












Profile Analyses 21
Table 2 (Cont.)
Predictor alignment to the Leadership Domain Model
Domain Predictor Scale Example Behaviors p
Interpersonal Skills HPI Interpersonal Sensitivity Influence 0.25
HPI Adjustment Building Relationships 0.17
HPI Sociability Influence 0.21
HDS Bold Trustworthiness -0.22
HDS Cautious Communication -0.17
HDS Imaginative Influence -0.21
HDS Reserved Customer Service -0.30
HDS Mischievous Teamwork -0.20
Intrapersonal Skills HPI Adjustment Work Attitude 0.36
HPI Ambition Flexibility 0.21
HPI Prudence Respects Others 0.23
HDS Leisurely Planning -0.19
HDS Skeptical Work Attitude -0.20
HDS Excitable Stress Tolerance -0.23
HDS Imaginative Work Attitude -0.26

Profile Analyses 22
Table 3
Group Mean Differences for the Bright Side, Dark Side, and Total Leadership Profiles
Archive Study # N
Bright Side
Profile Difference
Dark Side
Profile Difference
Total Leadership
Profile Difference
182 107 .39 .15 .43
267 23 -.10 .57 .01
291 63 .11 .40 .47
324 295 .29 .35 .38
330 69 .26 .62 .34
375 253 .16 .02 .16
Note. All difference scores were calculated by subtracting the group mean score of those not fitting the profile
from those fitting the profile expressed in standard deviations.

Profile Analyses 23
Table 4
Meta-Analytic Results for the Bright Side, Dark Side, and Total Leadership Profiles
Profile k N d
obs
SD
d

v
%VE 90% CV 95% CI
Bright Side HPI
Profile
6 810 .24 .11 .33 53 .16 .24
Dark Side HDS
Profile
6 810 .24 .22 .36 11 -.11 .26
Total Leadership
Profile
6 810 .31 .13 .44 33 .19 .35
Note. k = number of studies; N = number of participants across k studies; d
obs
= observed group mean difference;
v
=
operational difference (corrected for criterion reliability only); %VE = percentage of variance explained; 90% CV
= lower limit credibility value; 95% CI = lower limit confidence interval



Profile Analyses 24
Participant information:

Presenter:
Jeff Foster, Hogan Assessment Systems
2622 E. 21
st
St.
Tulsa, OK 74114
Tel: 918-749-0632
Email: jfoster@hoganassessments.com
SIOP Member

Coauthor:
Joyce Hogan, Hogan Assessment Systems
2622 E. 21
st
St.
Tulsa, OK 74114
Tel: 918-749-0632
Email: jhogan@hoganassessments.com
SIOP Fellow