The Making of Latin Christianity

The Rise of Rome

(300-500)
Rome and the Popes
(300-400)
Important to bear in mind that Rome was not
necessarily the centre of the Church in the
early period. The church was strong in the
eastern parts of the Empire, Egypt and the
Levant.
Romes claims to supremacy stems from its
connexion with Peter.

A Short History of Rome
31 BC to 284: Roman empire under great
stress from without by invasion and from
within by civil strife.
285 Diocletian reforms structure
313 Constantine wins battle of Milvian Bridge
and grants religious freedom to Christians
330 Constantine founds Constantinople
380 Theodosius makes Christianity the official
religion of the empire.
Fall of Rome
After 375 barbarian invaders put Rome under
constant attack.
Rome falls in 410 leaving a power vacuum.
Arian tribes control modern-day France,
Germany, and Spain.
Angles and Saxons control Britain.
The See of Peter
Romes association with Peter came at the
expense of the other Roman martyr, Paul.
Peters charisma was important to establishing
the bishop of Rome as the final arbiter of
doctrine.
The popes claims to authority stem from his
close association with the tombs of the
Apostles.
See of Peter
Movement of the administrative apparatus of
the Roman state to various capitals in the
empire left Rome with a power vacuum filled
by the bishop of Rome.
Constantine assists the church in gaining
prestige through a massive works programme.
One result of this programme is the building
of a massive church over what was believed to
be the tomb of Peter.
Damasus (366-384)
Damasus was elected bishop after a tumutous
election in which he succeeded in having 100 of
his opponents executed.
Sought to highlight the traditions of Rome.
First pope to use Latin.
Made the city a place of pilgrimage.
First to assert that Peter was not only founder of
church in Rome but its first bishop. (ca 370)
Appointed Jerome to write a Latin translation of
the Bible.
Rise of the Christian Aristocracy
By 4
th
century, Christianity becomes
respectable.
Embraced by emperor, the nobility decide to
join.
With decline of the empire, positions in the
church seem to be better bets that careers in
the Roman civil service.
By 390, it appeared that the future lay in the
power of the Church.
Sack of Rome
Roman empire comes under attack by various
northern tribes.
Rome falls to an army of Visigoths in 410.


Augustine of Hippo
Latin-speaking theologian born in
Grew up in North Africa to non-Christian
father and deeply Christian mother.
Flirted with Manichaeism, a form of
Gnosticism, for about nine years.
Converted to Christianity around 386.
Became bishop of Hippo (in modern day
Algeria)
De Civitate Dei
Written to explain in part how a great Christian
empire, like Rome, could be conquered by
pagans.
Asserts the existence of two cities
The earthly city: of necessity imperfect. No structure
on this earth could be perfect.
The heavenly city: that place wherein the saints dwell
and toward which Christians on earth are progressing.
Supporters of papal authority will later use the
image of two cities to defend the prerogatives of
the church.
The Pelagian Controversy
Pelagius, a British monk, asserted that man
can work toward his own salvation. He has
free will which allows him to choose to turn to
God.
Augustine asserts a doctrine of grace that
makes Gods choice --- his predestination ---
the determinative factor in salvation.
Early Monasticism
(400-500)
Four periods of monasticism
3
rd
to 6
th
century: growth of monasticism due to
the decay of the empire.
10
th
and 11
th
century: period of monastic reform
13
th
century: era of the friars
16
th
century: emergence of the Jesuits in the
Counter-Reformation
Causes of Monasticism
Dualistic view of the flesh and spirit
Scriptures
Psychological tendencies
Geography
Dualistic view of the flesh and spirit
Idea that the world was evil and the spirit
good, influenced Christianity and served as an
impetus for removal from the world.
Scriptural
Some scriptures seem to support removal
from the world.
1 Cor. 7 is an example.
Writings of the church fathers seem to lend
support as well.
Psychological Factors
Disorder in society breeds a desire to escape.
Roman decay provides impetus for some to
flee the harsh realities of this world.
Also, the ascetic life of the monastery could
provide for a substitute for martydom.
Geography
Egypt is the source of the monastic
movement.
Hot, dry climate lent itself to retirement from
the world.
The caves lining the Nile provided the perfect
location for monasticism.
The East
Anthony (ca. 251 ca. 356) usually regarded
as the founder of monasticism.
Moved to solitary cave in Egypt.
Others moved to be with him but he never
organised them into a community. Each was
left to pursue his own ascetic lifestyle.
Hermitic monasticism.
The East
Cenobite Monasticism: of the community.
Pachomius ( ca. 290-346) credited with
founding the first community.
Basil of Caessarea (ca. 330-379) established
large monastic community and produced a
rule for the monks. Monks were to work,
pray, read the Bible and do good deeds.
Basils rule remains influential in Eastern
monasticism today.
The West
Western monasticism differed from Eastern in
that it was less influenced by the hermit
strain.
Cold climates meant that communities were
necessary to provide housing and warmth.
Athanasius is traditionally credited with
introduction of monasticism to the West.
The West
Benedict of Nursia (ca. 480-543) founded the
great monastery at Monte Casino (529).
Developed a Rule which divided the day into
periods for reading, worship, and work.
Rule emphasized poverty, chastity and
obedience.
By the 7
th
century, it was carried to England,
German and France. Became the dominant
rule by the year 1000.
Benefits of Monasticism
Medieval equivalent of an experimental farm.
Kept scholarship alive.
Provided source of missionaries
Refuge for the outcasts of society

The Monastic Orders
What were they?
Communities specially endowed and set apart form
the full, lifelong, and irrevocable practise of the
Christian life at a level of excellence judged to be
impossible outside such a community
Distinguished by group of people who took life-
long vows.
While there is great variety over time, there were
six to eight major communities by the end of the
13
th
century, with 20 sub-branches.


Rise and Growth
Characterised by rather stable monastic
practise until about 1100
After 1100 for about 100 years, there is great
growth, with a variety of orders coming into
existence.
In effect, stability of monasticism prior to 1100
reflects stability of the society as a whole.
Growing complexity of society after 1100
brings complexity in monastic organisation.
Do They Live Up to Their Aims
Formed as protest against the world, but
become shaped by society. Members in many
ways act as worldly as those around them.
ON the one hand, they are a betrayal of their
ideals.
On the other hand, they achieve their goals
rather admirably. Centres of learning and
spiritual thought, they did well given the
conditions under which they operated.

Early History of Monasticism
Monastic derived from monachos, a solitary person.
Religious men or women who withdraw from society to
pursue their own spiritual salvation.
Earliest form appears in Egypt in late 3
rd
and early 4
th

century. Anthony of Egypt (356d.) considered the
founder of Christian monasticism.
Earliest monasteries established to provide isolation
from the world.
Dalmatou is first monastery in Constantinople (late 4
th

century).
St. Catherines monastery founded by Justinian on the
site of Mount Sinai in 548-565.
The Benedictines
Benedict of Nursia (480?-547?)
Not the founder of Christian monasticism.
Monastic communities existed in Asia minor,
Egypt and Palestine since at least the 3
rd
century.
Established monasteries in and around Rome.
Established Monte Cassino, his principal
monastery in 529.
Established a rule which became a model for
other communities to follow.
The Rule of St. Benedict
Probably borrowed large passages from the
rule of The Master (identity unknown).
However, Benedict changes its focus and tone
significantly.
Benedicts Rule is
Short
Complete and clear
Devoid of rigidity

Features of Benedicts Rule
Obedience
Tenderness
Daily Worship
Obedience
The first degree of humility is obedience without
delay. This is the virtue of those
who hold nothing dearer to them than Christ.
Rule of St. Benedict, ch. 5
Obedience is the overriding theme. Goal is to
encourage the denial of self in order to become
instruments of God
Aspects of Obedience
Obedience to Gods precepts as found in the Gospels
Obedience to the Rule
Obedience to the Abbot


Tenderness
Tenderness
Benedict recognises that rigidity is not useful, can be
counterproductive
Rule provides for mercy and tenderness on part of the
abbot, in particular.
Tenderness makes it useful for a wide range of
communities
Let the Abbot be most solicitous in his concern for
delinquent brethren, for it is not the healthy but the
sick who need a physician (Matt 9:12). And therefore
he ought to use every means that a wise physician
would use. Rule of St. Benedict, ch. 27
Daily Worship
The Daily Worship is the centre of the Rule.
Built on two pillars: At midnight I will rise and
give thanks to thee and seven times a day do I
praise thee. (Ps. 119)
Result: The long night office and seven day-
offices: matins, prime, terce, sext, nones, vespers
and compline.
Monthly recitation of the entire psalms and
yearly reading of the Bible.
The offices and scripture readings form the basis
of the Anglican daily office.
Functions of the Monasteries
Social Function

Penitential Function

Family Function
The Social Function
Did not exist for personal salvation. Who would pay
for that?
Existed to aid in battle against spiritual demons.
Prayers and works to protect the kingdom against
the forces of evil.
Monastic warfare:
The monks fight together in the strength of Christ with
the sword of the spirit against the aery wiles of the
devils. They defend the king and clergy of the realm
from the onslaughts of their invisible enemies.

The Penitential Function
Imposition of penances meant delay in getting into
heaven. Soul might wait in purgatory for years, even
centuries, before being admitted to heaven. Need to
pay the debt.
A great man could pay the penance (whether in money
or acts) or engage another man to pay it for him. One
mans penance is as good as anothers. Payment of
supernatural debt that was important.
Monasteries offer a way to pay this debt. Monks and
abbeys could be used to offer the prayers or actions
necessary to pay any penance.

Family Function
Economy of family required a place for all the
sons and daughters. Can`t divide the land.
Monasteries provided places where younger
sons and daughters of the military might go.
Provided sons of noblemen with suitable
provision and atmosphere.
Families endow monasteries to provide secure
and comfortable place for their offspring.
Change and Decay
By 1050, Benedictine monasteries are at their
apex, the prime expression of the Christian
religion throughout western Europe.
Benedictine monopoly comes to an end around
1100.
Brought about by two factors:
Spiritual malaise: desire for more personal salvation.
Concern about rigidity of the rule.
Economic decline: impossible to establish large
estates to support monasteries.


Decline of the Benedictines
Number of monks began to fall as revenues failed
to keep up with expenses.
Institutions needed to maintain their social
standing and standard of living.
Monasteries could admit new members since
revenues would not permit more mouths to feed.
Benedictine houses part of the established order,
not the source of new ideas or innovation.

The New Orders
Benedictine collapse in between 1050 and 1100
coincides with the beginning of the rapid
expansion of western society.
Increasing complexity of society leads to new
openings for other orders between 1075 and
1125.
Two orders stand out:
Augustinian canons
Cistercian monks
They occupy the left and right of the Benedictine
position.

The Augustinians
Founded on the rule of St. Augustine. This rule
goes behind the Rule of Benedict, behind the
organised church --- back to the Bible.
Augustines letter:
Have all things in common
Pray together at appointed times
Dress without distinction
Obey a superior
This rule is flexible which allows for adoption by
many different types of communities.


Life of the Augustinians
Rule produces broad and severe school
Severe school insists on rules of abstinence,
silence and manual labour
Broad school denied necessity of manual
labour, contenting itself with holding things in
common.
They are the left wing of monasticism.
Work of Augustinians
Early communities come into effect without large
endowments or without formal acts of foundation.
Small groups could come together for small purposes.
Very practical communities. Devoted to small works of
mercy and community. Ran schools, hospitals,
repaired churches.
Pope Urban II: Two forms of religious life: monastics
and canons. Monastics abandon earthly things and
give themselves up to contemplation. Canons make
use of earthly things to build up the broken world. In
effect, Benedictines play the Churchs Mary to the
Augustinians Martha.


Social Place of Augustinians
Because they are smaller and less elaborate
communities, they are suited to a more
flexible and diverse society.
Attractive to middling nobles. Could be the
patron of a monastic house without large
outlay.
They were ubiquitously useful.
Thousands of communities by 1250.
The Cistercians
A reaction to the Benedictines, but very different
from Augustinians
Augustinians: small communities, localised
support mechanisms, closely identified with the
environment, close to towns and castles, poor
Cistercians: large agricultural holdings, built on
the frontier, refused ornamentation because of
principle rather than poverty.
Puritan in their approach to the Rule of St.
Benedict. Occupy the right wing of monasticism.

Aims of Cistercians
Restore the Rule of St. Benedict to its original
simplicity.
Criticised institutionalisation and worldliness
of Benedictine order.
Focus on following the whole Gospel, which
is to follow Christ in stark simplicity and
poverty, the pauperes pauperem Christum
sequentes (the poor following the Christ in
poverty).
Organisation of the Cistercians
Required endowments of some size
Took large agricultural tracts in undeveloped
areas, the frontiers
Went to the edge of the settled lands of
Europe.
Ironically, this was the best economic decision
Organisation
Masterpiece of medieval planning
Strong chain of authority from top to bottom
Military precision
Regulate every detail of daily life
Ultimately a frontier organisation engaged in a
work of colonisation which was partly religious,
partly military, and partly agrarian
Use of conversi, lay brethren, to do the manual
work of the community.

The Cistercians Puritan Paradox
Their simplicity and organisation made them
rich.
Unlike Benedictines, the Cistercians reject
ornamentation, ostentation in their abbeys
and their way of life
Allowed them to achieve large surpluses
Accusations of greed and covetousness
Decline by 1220.

The Friars
Arise after 1200 largely in towns and
universities.
Towns and universities part of the rise of the
new secular society after 1050 and thus
provide impetus for the friars new way of
monasticism
Two great kinds: Dominicans and Franciscans

Founding
Dominicans
Founded around 1206 to combat heresy in the
Languedoc
Utilised rule of St. Augustine
Rose up because Cistercians could not manage the
job. The Cistercians were seen as part of the
established order. Dominicans adopted an
apostolic life, the viti apostolica.
Aimed at combatting heresy through preaching
reinforced by a primitive simplicity of apostolic life
Founding
Franciscans
Founded by Francis of Assisi in 1210
Rule of St. Francis was a call to total renunciation
Poverty was not merely a tool of self-abnegation --
- it was the goal of the Franciscan
Sell everything and give to the poor
Grew very fast, faster than Dominicans
Work of the Friars
Took the whole world for their parish
Franciscans more successful than Domincans
Urban orders. They went into the towns to
beg from the populace so as to care for the
populace.
Preached in the streets
In time support for friars comes from legacies
and bequests.

Friars and Scholars
Wealthy families did not necessarily want their
sons to become friars. Better to go to the
Benedictines
University men good fodder for friar recruitment.
Provides a secure place for the learned.
Dominicans, in particular, noted for their
academic adventures
Friars originally organised to combat heresy. They
became attractive to university men because they
offered opportunity for prolonged university
study.