LOTC Spring 2014

Features New Frontiers in Psychology
Letter from the Editor .page 2

Magazine Credits. page 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SPRING 2014 VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
LYING ON THE COUCH
BROOKLYN COLLEGE PSYCHOLOGY MAGAZINE
The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical
Preference
By: Brian Ghezelaiagh ..page 4

U.S. Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities
By: George Abadeer .page 8
Introducing the New Statistics
By: Deborah Borlam ....page 10

A Review of the Human Conectome Pro-
ject: Is Mapping the Human Brain Feasible?
By: Batya Weinstein . page 12

The New Trend of Mental Health Counsel-
ing E-Therapy: Is Skyping your Therapist a
Good Thing?
By: Irena Pergjika ....page 16

DSM V: Controversy?
By: Sara Babad .page 18
Psychological Differences between the
Mind/Politics of JFK and LBJ
By: Rodshel Ustayev .page 29

A Parents Perspective: My Autistic Son
An Interview by: Ariella Nagelpage 31

Generalization and Cultural Bias: An
Opinion Piece
By: Angela Rodriguez-Hellerpage 33

Ahead of the Curve: An Analysis of Bat-
mans Greatest Nemesis, the Joker
By: Hind El Guizouli page 35
Unexpected Findings
Healthy Living
Adolescent Depression: Causes and Ef-
fects
By: Amanda Lanter ....page 20

Depression: Nutritional Underpinnings
By: Tiffany Collings and
Hadasa Levilev ..page 24

Stress and How to Cope
By: Irena Pergjika ..page 26
LETTER FROM EDITOR
PAGE 2 LYING ON THE COUCH
Dear Reader,

In classes such as statistics and experimental research we are taught the rules of the re-
search game. We memorize equations in order to analyze data in the former; and we learn the sci-
entific method with regards to setting up experimental designs in the latter. We admire the preci-
sion, the exactness, the logic-and we rest safely in the knowledge that there is some law and order
in the scientific endeavor.
But on closer examination of research articles or psychology lectures that are taught to
us, we realize that things are not so simpleand that there are countless variables, perspectives,
and lenses through which we can look at the data. We realize that often the truth does not stand
after the equal sign in the statistical equation.
In this semesters magazine, we explore issues that the research process might face. From
an article that reevaluates our current statistical methods to a critical examination of widely ac-
cepted research on the Mozart Effect to an article that covers the biases that might be involved in
generalizing our research resultswe step back, reappraise, and critically examine what we are
taught. We realize that the research process or science is not as clear cut as we previously
thought. An article examining the debate surrounding the Human Connectome Project and an
article covering the recent controversy regarding the new DSM further emphasizes that science is
often open to interpretation
As we take more advanced psychology classes we encounter what scientists have been doing
for centuries. Disproving, debunking, and discarding previous research while creating more elabo-
rate experimental designs to account for the previous holes. The scientific method, we
learn, isn't just a series of steps to be checked off so we can prepare for publication. The pro-
cess is not linear, its cyclical; its not wholly logical, its partly creative--where intuition mixes
with ingenuity and persistence on our path to discovering the truth.
By being critical of research papers, curious, and open to thinking in different ways we
come closer to understanding the many fascinating psychological and neurological phenomena that
lurk all around us..
May we come up with publications on cures that reach a perfect statistical significance of
p=.000... (With CI's and Effect sizes to boot ;-)).

Happy Reading,
Batya Weinstein
MAGAZINE CREDITS
PAGE 3 VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2

Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief: Batya Weinstein

Managing Editor: Sara Babad

Assistant Editors: Deborah Borlam, Ronit Deutsch, Joey Bukai

Layout and Design: Sarah Babad, Ariella Nagel, Lauren Fink, Geena Bell

Marketing: Albert Abraham Mitta

Contributing Writers:
Brian Ghezelaiagh, Deborah Borlam, Amanda Lanter. Tiffany Collings. Hadasa Levilev, Irena
Pergjika, Rodshel Ustayev, Sara Babad, Ariella Nagel, Angela Rodriguez-Heller, Hind El Guizou-
li, Batya Weinstein

Cover: Rivkah Rosenberger
Faculty Advisor: Aaron Kozbelt

Club Liaison: Michelle Vargas

Executive Board:
President: Batya Weinstein

Vice President: Sarah Babad

Secretary: Deborah Borlam

Treasurer: Yaacov Y Weinstein

Contact us: Lyingonthecouchbc@gmail.com
Check us out on facebook: https://www.facebook.com/LyingontheCouchBC

By: Brian Ghezelaiagh
Abstract
The Mozart Effect is the cognitive improvement
in special temporal reasoning that is observed after one
has listened to the music of the prolific Austrian classical
composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In this factorial
2x2 experiment, we tested the effects of the auditory
stimuli of an excerpt of Mozarts Piano Concerto No. 12
in A Major and white noise, and the musical preference
of our sixty participants on their non-verbal, spatial tem-
poral reasoning abilities, as measured by the nonverbal
reasoning test developed by Kent University. The partic-
ipants particular auditory stimulus was shown to have a
statistically significant main effect on nonverbal perfor-
mance. There was also a statistically significant interac-
tion between stimulus group and musical preference.

The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical
Preference
The Mozart Effect is a cognitive phenomenon
first introduced to the literature as partial evidence of a
structural neuronal model of the cortex that is affected
by auditory stimuli (Rauscher et al., 1995). It was
shown in an experimental design utilizing undergradu-
ate psychology students that there is an effect of certain
auditory stimuli on cognitive processes. Specifically, it
was shown that repetitive music has no effect on spa-
tial-temporal reasoning, a taped short story does not
enhance spatial-temporal reasoning, and short-term
memory is not enhanced by auditory stimuli (Rauscher
et al., 1995). It was shown, however, that listening to
ten minutes of Mozarts Sonata for Two Pi-
anos in D Major prior to testing, participants
performed an average of 9 points higher on
the spatial IQ subtest of the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale. Researchers in this study
proposed various mechanisms which might
explain this enhancement of spatial-temporal
reasoning ability as a result of Mozarts mu-
sic. First, it was suggested that listening to
music facilitates the organization of neuronal
firing patterns in the cortex, thereby pre-
venting useful neuronal activity from
washing out. This is especially true for the
right hemisphere spatial-temporal processing
faculties. In addition, specific types of music
are thought to exercise the processes of
neural excitation as well as the priming the
natural cortical firing patterns that comprise
higher brain functions. Finally, cortical sym-
metry operations are enhanced by music
(Rauscher et al., 1995). This study aimed to
set a framework for future study of the ef-
fects of auditory stimuli on higher mental
processes, and suggested further examina-
tion of the neurophysiological basis of spatial
-temporal enhancement through the use of
electroencephalography (EEG).
The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical Preference

A question that comes to mind when consider-
ing the validity of the Mozart Effect is universality; spe-
cifically, does Mozarts music have the same effect on
spatial-temporal reasoning notwithstanding internal
factors such as musical preference? A follow-up study
to the original Mozart Effect paper examined the possi-
bility of the effect being an artifact of or contingent
on - musical preference (Nantais, 1999). Her experi-
ment consisted of two parts. In
the first stage, participants lis-
tened to ten minutes of either
Mozart or Schubert before per-
forming the spatial IQ subtest of
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale, as in the original experi-
ment (Rauscher et al., 1995). In
the second phase, half of the par-
ticipants listened to a short story
in lieu of silence. Interestingly, an
interaction between group and
musical preference emerged in
the second phase of the experi-
ment, wherein participants per-
formance on the spatial-temporal
reasoning test was contingent on
their preference of either classical
music or short story (Nantais,
1999). This finding both confirms
the main effect of Mozarts music
as a temporary spatial-temporal
enhancer, and also suggests that
the effect is very much dependent on preference. It
also calls into question the assertion in the original ex-
periment that a taped short story had no effect on spa-
tial-temporal reasoning.

The purpose of out experiment was to per-
form a study analogous to that of Nantais et al., with
the goal of testing the reliability of the Mozart Effect,
as well as whether or not it is contingent on prefer-
ence. In order to do this, we conducted a 2x2 factorial
design with the auditory stimuli as the first independ-
ent variable and classical musical preference as the sub-
ject variable. Participants were seated at a computer
and filled out a demographics questionnaire including
musical preference assays. They then listened to either
an excerpt of Mozarts Piano Concerto No. 12 in A
Major or an excerpt of a white noise track, and then
completed a 20 question online non-verbal reasoning
test developed by Kent University to test spatial-
temporal reasoning ability. There was a significant
main effect of auditory stimulus group, as well as an
interaction between auditory stimulus group and mu-
sical preference.

Methods
We conducted the experiment with a partici-
pant population of 60 individuals spanning the ages of
11 to 68. Participants included undergraduate stu-
dents at Brooklyn College as well as relatives of the
experimenters, many of whom participated during
Thanksgiving family gatherings. The computer used
to administer the 20 question nonverbal test varied
from participant to participant but, in all cases, head-
phones were used to play the auditory stimuli, and a
quiet ambient environment was generally provided
for. Participants were seated at the computer and
asked to first fill out a 13 question demographics
questionnaire, which asked about age, ethnicity, gen-
der, education, sexual orientation, immigrant status

if applicable, marital status, perceived artistic ability,
and details about participants experience with classical
music. Specifically, participants were asked if they listen
to classical music. If they answered yes, they are asked
to about the frequency, with answer choices of rarely
or often. They were then given the prompt, I enjoy
classical music, to which they had to respond on a scale
from strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree,
which was coded as 1,2,3, and 4, respectively.

At this point, thirty individuals half of the
participant pool were given headphones and listened
to an excerpt of Mozarts Piano Concerto No. 12 in A
Major performed by Vladimir Ashkenazy and the Arme-
nian National Philharmonic. The other thirty individuals
listened to continuous white noise for the same duration
of time as the Mozart excerpt. At this point, all partici-
pants completed the online non-verbal reasoning test
developed by Kent University to measure spatial-
temporal reasoning ability. The exam has a time limit of
12 minutes, which is automatically tracked.
The experiment was a factorial 2x2, between-
subjects design, with half of the participants exposed to
the first level of the independent variable the Mozart
stimulus, and the other half exposed to the second level
of the independent variable the white noise stimulus.
The dependent variable was spatial-temporal ability as
measured via the online non-verbal reasoning test de-
veloped by Kent University.

Results
The data, including the scores of all partici-
pants on the non-verbal reasoning test as well as classi-
cal music preference, which was simplified to a yes or
no answer, was analyzed via SPSS in a two-way ANO-
VA in order to assess the effect of Mozarts music and
preference for classical music in general on spatial rea-
soning. There was a statistically significant main effect
of group F(1,61) = 5.231, p<.05, as well as a main
effect for classical music preference, which was not
statistically significant, F(2,61) = 0.448, p>.05. In
Fig. 1: Interaction between auditory stimulus group and musical preference

addition, there was a statistically significant interaction
between group and classical music preference, F(1,61)
= 7.644, p<.05 as shown in Figure 1.

Discussion
We hypothesized that there would be an ob-
servable enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning
following exposure to Mozarts music. It was also hy-
pothesized, as per the study done by Nantasi et al., that
there would be an interaction between the type of audi-
tory stimulus to which participants were exposed and
their musical preference. The expected outcome was
that participants who reported liking classical music
would benefit more from listening to Mozart prior to
completing the nonverbal reasoning test than if they had
listened to white noise. The statistically significant in-
teraction between group and musical preference con-
firms this hypothesis. As can be seen in Figure 1, partici-
pants who reported listening to classical music scored
significantly better after listening to Mozart than after
listening to white noise. Participants who reported not
listening to classical music showed a very small differ-
ence in performance between the Mozart and white
noise groups, with participants who listened to Mozart
doing slightly worse than those who listened to white
noise.

These findings are not terribly surprising be-
cause they suggest the expected: that those who like
classical music enjoy a positive psychological enhance-
ment from listening to it, while those who either dislike
it or are apathetic and do not listen to it do not. With
respect to possible mechanisms, it was suggested by
Jones et al, (2006) that arousal may also play a role in
the spatial-reasoning enhancements exhibited by those
who enjoy classical music. By virtue of its playful, trans-
parent, and childlike nature, Mozarts music quite pos-
sibly elicits arousal and positive mood trajectory for
those who listen to it, especially if the person is fond of
classical music. This is one possible explanation for our
results. Jones et al. also noted that musical preference
had no main effect, which corroborates our finding.
Another suggested mechanism, and one that is echoed
in Rauscher et al. (1995), is that Mozarts music primes
the cortical association tracts responsible for spatial-
temporal reasoning, most likely because of its anticipa-
tory nature, thus improving performance in the particu-
lar region of interest. This experiment is a case in which
the interaction between auditory stimulus group and
musical preference was more interesting than the main
effect of group. Though a Mozart lover would not hesi-
tate to jump to the conclusion that Mozarts music has
some mystical properties that universally enhance the
spatial-temporal reasoning of all those fortunate enough
to listen, a more rational theory is that the effects of the
music is very much contingent on preference.

Work Cited
Jones, M. H., West, S. D., & Estell, D. B. (2006). The Mo-
zart effect: Arousal, preference, and spatial perfor-
mance. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, (1), 26.
Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1995). Listening
to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: towards a
neurophysiological basis. Neuroscience letters, 185(1), 44-47.
Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart
effect: An artifact of preference. Psychological Science, 10(4),
370-373.
"Retrato pstumo." Mythic World Tours. N.p., n.d. Web.
10 Apr. 2014. <http://mythicworldtours.com/mozart-
week/>.
U.S. Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities
By: George Abadeer
According to the article on the APA website, U.S.
Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities, research reveals
that Americans choose to live in a specific state based on
their temperaments. In other words, people like to be
with others around them who share the same personality
traits. The author, Peter J. Rentfrow, PhD, of the Uni-
versity of
Cambridge,
writes This
analysis chal-
lenges the
s t a n d a r d
methods of
dividing up
the country
on the basis
of economic
factors, vot-
ing patterns,
cultural ste-
reotypes or
ge ogr a phy
that appear
to have be-
come in-
grained in
the way peo-
ple think
about the United States." By considering 'personality
traits' as one of the criterion in dividing up the country
reveals its importance. As people with similar ideas, traits
and personalities may have a huge impact on the voting
processes and their outcome. This is because people usual-
ly tend to aggregate and live with others whom they share
the same personality traits with. This, according to the
article, has a huge effect on the voting process. The author
writes that some regions may just vote for one party over
another because people tend to like those who share the
same traits with them. The author continues by saying that
people vote for one party based on whether or not its
members exhibit the same personality traits.
To conduct such a research, researches relied
mainly on the big five personality traits: openness, con-
scientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroti-
cism and analyzed the traits of more than 1.5 million
people through answering questions about their psycho-
logical traits and demographics, including their state of
resi dence.
These ques-
t i onnai res
were ad-
mini stered
via various
online fo-
r u m s /
media like
F a c e b o o k
and survey
panels. The
results were
fasci nating
in that they
found that
there are
three main
n a t i o n a l
personality
clusters in
the US. The
findings were as follows: According to the Journal of Per-
sonality and Social Psychology, people in the north-central
Great Plains and the South tend to be conventional and
friendly and those in the Western and Eastern seaboards
lean toward being mostly relaxed and creative. In con-
trast, New Englanders and Mid-Atlantic residents are
prone to being more temperamental and uninhibited.
Researchers think that migration plays an im-
portant role in this large and diverse group of personality
traits. People who move from one state to another or
come from a different country like to live with others
who are like them and who have the same views. In addi-
tion, according to the article, the research shows that
Photo Credits; Google Images

PAGE 8
LYING ON THE COUCH
VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
agreeableness is a trait often found in people who stay in
their hometowns, and the analysis indicated that a large
proportion of residents in the friendly and conventional
region lived in the same state the year before. The relaxed
and creative region may have been influenced by a frontier
mentality that endures with lots of young people, profes-
sionals, and immigrants moving to the region for educa-
tional and employment opportunities. In the tempera-
mental and uninhibited region, a significant number of
people have moved away. Research has shown that people
who move to another part of the country are typically
high in openness and conscientiousness, and low in neu-
roticism.
This research study raises a paradox. Most people
think that the voting processes are influenced by the way
each party represents its members. Indeed, people are
greatly influenced by the external characteristics, facial
expressions and also the self-portrayal of those whom
they will elect. Nevertheless, they also look for leaders
whom they feel that they are closely related and at-
tached to. It is very hard to tell whether or not one
strategy outweighs the effects of the other and contrib-
utes mostly to the voting processes. Personally, I think
that they both contribute to the final decision that com-
mon people take before voting. However, there might
be some variations in the magnitude
of reliance on either one of those two
strategies, but the end result will al-
ways be the same.

Work Cited:
(2013) Peter, Rentfrow J. U.S. Re-
gions Exhibit Distinct Personalities,
Research Reveals. APA
Researchers think that mi-
gration plays an important
role in this large and diverse
group of personality traits.
PAGE 9

By: Deborah Borlam
Imagine hearing the following statement while
watching your local news channel: The new bill was
approved by a 74% majority, with an error margin of
2%. Now imagine if, instead, the reporter announced,
Approval for the new bill was over 70% and statistically
significant, p<.01. Which of these is more readily un-
derstood?

This question is of particular interest to re-
searchers of statistical cognition, the study of how people
understand (or sometimes misunderstand) statistical con-
cepts and presentations of data. What is the difference
between the two statements above? The first conveys
that support for the bill was
742%, or ranging between
72-76%. The 2% represents
the largest possible error in
measurement. This is the
same as reporting a 74% ma-
jority with a 95% confidence
interval of [72, 76]. A confi-
dence interval is a range of
plausible values for a given
statistic and the probability that the true value falls with-
in that range. For the example above, there is a
95% probability that support for the bill ranged between
72-76%. Confidence intervals indicate the precision of
measurement; the shorter the confidence interval, and
the smaller the range of plausible values, and the more
precise the estimate. The range of values is an interval
estimate, while a point estimate is a specific value; in our
example, 74%.

Common practice in psychology research is to
employ null hypothesis testing in designing studies, and
to report findings with associated p values that indicate
whether or not results are "statistically significant." The
p values mark the borders of the "rejection region" on
the normal curve, such that a resulting p value below the
pre-determined value of alpha (conventionally 0.01 or
0.05) allows rejection of the null hypothesis, and a p val-
ue higher than alpha fails to reject the null hypothesis.
Cumming (2014, p. 7)) expresses several criticisms of
what he terms "null hypothesis significance testing
(NHST)" and advocates replacing NHST with estimation
techniques that utilize confidence intervals, effect sizes,
and replication. Cumming argues, firstly, that NHST en-
courages black-and-white thinking, where obtained results
are either statistically "significant" or not, with no room
for further interpretation. Confidence intervals, by con-
trast, allows us to see the shades of gray, as they are inter-
val estimates, and are also more useful in that they convey
the precision of measurement and how confident we can
be that our obtained CI includes the true value of the sta-
tistic. Another problem with reliance on p values is that
the p value of a given experiment varies greatly with repli-
cation, as can be seen in
Figure 1. Cumming (2014)
refers to this as the "dance
of the p values (p.
13)." Obtaining a p value
from an experiment is of
little use, because it is one
value from an infinite se-
quence. In NHST, a repli-
cation of a study is consid-
ered successful if the resulting decision-to reject or not to
reject the null hypothesis-matches that of the original. In
other words, we are again relying on p values- either both
p's <.05 or >.05. According to Figure 1, however, this is
a poor standard of measurement, as only 9 of the 24 repli-
cations (38%) match the replication below in significance
status. Confidence intervals, on the other hand, are in-
formative for replication in that the length of the CI indi-
cates extent of variability across multiple replications, or
the precision of measurement.

To test his theories on estimation and NHST,
Cumming, along with Coulson, Haley, and Fidler (2010,
as cited in Cumming, 2012, pp. 13-14) investigated the
effect of presentation of results on how researchers inter-
pret findings. They presented leading researchers in psy-
chology, behavioral neuroscience, and medicine with a
description of two studies, half in NHST format with p
values, and half in estimation terms with confidence inter-
A confidence interval is a range of
plausible values for a given statistic
and the probability that the true
value falls within that range.
INTRODUCING THE NEW STATISTICS
vals. Findings of both studies were similar, though not
identical. The researchers were asked to state the main
conclusion of the studies and to rate the similarity be-
tween the two studies on a scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Findings re-
vealed that, while most of those who used NHST incor-
rectly judged the results to be different, most of those
who did not use NHST correctly determined the results
to be similar.

If NHST is ineffective, one may ask, why is it so
prevalent? Cumming attributes our attachment to NHST
to humans gravitation towards clear-cut, unambiguous
answers. However, Cumming cautions, ambiguity is
necessary to ensure accuracy, as a CI of plausible values
is more accurate than an either-or decision to reject or
retain the null hypothesis.

Accuracy of estimation improves with replica-
tion, according to Cumming (2014, p. 10), and for this
reason, all studies should be published in a way that they
can be incorporated into meta-analyses. A meta-analysis
is a statistical technique for combining results from two
or more studies while taking into account the standard
deviation, sample size, and effect size of each in order to
generate a weighted estimate. Meta-analyses can be used
to assess a net effect of a given treatment when findings
across studies are divergent. Instead of viewing a given
study as its own entity, Cumming advocates viewing it as
a part of a larger meta-analysis, because no generaliza-
tions should be made solely from one individual study.

Another issue Cumming addresses is that of re-
search integrity, or the ethical practice of researchers in
reporting findings. Cumming argues that, because ob-
taining statistically significant results is key to publica-
tion and research funding, the analysis and reporting of
data is biased, and research that is published is a biased
selection that is not representative of all research. To en-
sure research integrity, Cumming suggests that research
studies, including procedures and statistical techniques
used to analyze data, should be planned out completely in
advance, similar to the way the level of alpha is set before
running an experiment. Cumming further maintains that
the procedures and results of all studies should be record-
ed, using online repositories or the like as needed to pre-
serve space in journals, regardless of whether or not the
results were desirable. This way, all studies can be in-
cluded in future meta-analyses, as a meta-analysis missing
select studies is biased.

Will Cummings theories shape the new frontier
of statistical analysis in psychology research? While that is
difficult to predict, there are fields, including medicine,
that regularly report CIs when publishing findings, even if
they do not interpret them (Cumming, 2014, p. 26). In
my opinion, this is a step in the right direction for im-
proved accuracy in research findings.

Work Cited

Cumming, G. (2014). The New Statistics: Why and
How. Psychological Science (Sage Publications Inc.),
25(1), 7-29. doi:10.1177/0956797613504966
Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the New Statistics:
Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analyses.
New York, NY: Routledge

Cumming argues that, because obtaining statistically significant re-
sults is the key to publication and research funding, the analysis and
reporting of data is biased, and research that is published is a biased
selection that is not representative of all research.
In August of 2010, Sebastian Seung
(Computational Neuroscientist at MIT) and Tony
Movshon (Professor of Neuroscience and Physiology at
NYU) clashed at Columbia University to discuss the
Human Connectome Project (HCP). HCP is dedicated
to mapping the wiring of the human brain, as Francis
Crick and James
Watson have done for
DNA, and is consid-
ered by many to be
the next step in
broadening our un-
derstanding of human
behavior. Throughout
the debate, Sebastian
Seung, a longtime
advocate for the
HCP, defended the
projects worth and
potential as Tony
Movshon, slightly
more skeptical than
Seung, sought to por-
tray the many chal-
lenges it faces.

The debate,
entertaining and thought provoking as it was, raised
many questions regarding the feasibility of HCP. How
will HCP account for the countless nuances inherent in
the brain, from the micro to macro level? Will HCP
have the necessary technology to analyze and combine
these properties? Finally, will the huge budget and
lengthy time-lapse necessary to complete the project be
justified by its end? These, and other questions, must be
answered before such a project is launched.

Back in February of 2010, when the New York
Times announced the unveiling of HCP, the project
seemed exciting and full of science-fiction-like over-
tones, demonstrating a clear disconnect between what is
reported by the media and what is taking place in the
By: Batya Weinstein
A REVIEW OF THE HUMAN CONNECTOME PROJECT: IS MAPPING THE
HUMAN BRAIN FEASIBLE?
labs. This idea, exciting as it may be, is by no means
clear-cut. As evidenced by the Seung/Movshon debate,
there is a large discourse and discord in the scientific
community as to whether HCP is feasible or even neces-
sary. Are we required to map the human brain in order
to further our understanding of the neural correlates of
memory, cognition, con-
sciousness, neurological
and psychiatric disor-
ders?

In order to map
the human brain one
must first understand the
various levels it contains.
There is the macro-level
that describes the brains
larger systems, and a mi-
cro-level which refers to
the brain at its neuronal
level. One axiom that the
connectome follows
when mapping the macro
-level is known as func-
tional specialization
(Sporns, 2012). That is,
the specific construction
of a brain region tells us about what that brain region
does. The 2
nd
axiom of macro-connectomics is function-
al integration which posits that various brain regions
communicate with each other to produce a full picture
of experience and behavior (Sporns, 2012). When talk-
ing about microconnectomics, we are talking about
tracking the connections at the synaptic level and deci-
phering the many pathways by which the neurons pro-
ject throughout the entire brain (Sporns, 2012).

The technology that the researchers use in the
project is called diffusion tractography, which is a tool
to measure anatomical connections and pathways in the
brain. Researchers also use the fMRI, which tracks oxy-
genation levels that correspond with individual brain
Photo Credits: Google Images

region involved in specific tasks. These two levels of
the brainthe macro and the micro work in harmo-
ny; in order to understand the full spectrum of human
behavior we must analyze them in concert with each
other (Sporns, 2012).

A blatant challenge HCP faces, is that the brain
varies tremendously between one individual and anoth-
er (DeFelope, 2010). Additionally, the neural connec-
tions made as a child are wired differently as an adult
due to learning and/or natural degeneration (Sporns,
2013). Therefore, when mapping the human brain, we
must consider the malleable functions and develop a
system that can encompass vast changes over time.

Opponents argue that the wiring of the brain at
the neuronal level is not predictive of behavior or dis-
ease. Noam Chomsky, renowned linguist at MIT, cites
the C. Elegans as a perfect example of why HCPs goals
will prove futile. The C. Elegans is a small worm that
has 302 neurons compared to other animals (J.G.
White, 1986). Despite being fully mapped we still
cant predict its behavior.

In answering the question as to whether we
have the technology capable of analyzing the different
levels of the brain, Stephen Volz, doctoral candidate at
Brooklyn College referenced a satirical fMRI study that
aimed to prove the unpredictability of fMRI statistical
analysis. The fMRI study in question was performed on
dead salmon fish that were shown pictures of humans.
The fish were tasked with reading the emotion of the
human in the picture that they were presented. The
fMRI statistical analysis revealed activation. The fMRI
was a false positive. Stephen Volz then asksDespite
the many challenges a project of this scope faces, how
can we attempt to map the human brain when our tech-
nology and methodology is still very much in its infan-
cy?
Richard Passingham, experimental psychologist
at the University of Oxford opines that the wiring of
the brain might not be predictive of disease and points
to neuronal computations as playing a role. He writes,
There isno guarantee that Schizophrenia or Autism
will turn out to be caused by disordered wiring...
There is a possibility that the wiring is normal but the
receptors are not. Yet, he cites the benefit of the con-
nectome study (as is the benefit in all testable theories).
He writes, it is clearly worth examining the gross
wiring in patients with neurological or psychiatric dis-
ease, if only to rule out explanations in terms of wir-
ing.

A 2010 editorial in nature neuroscience echoes
the many limitations of the HCP and warns against mis-
representing the science of connectomics to the public.
They write, Such grand claims are dangerous because,
although a better understanding of brain connectivity is
a vital tool for understanding brain function, the imme-
diate gains for therapy from such projects are far from
clear. To avoid misrepresentation of connectomics and
a potential backlash against the field, it is critical for
neuroscientists describing their work as connectomics,
their institutions and funding agencies to accurately
A blatant challenge HCP faces is that the brain varies tremendously be-
tween one individual and another.
Photo Credits:
Google Images

communicate the scale and scope of their work.

As evidenced by the Seung vs Movshon de-
bate, there is much discussion regarding the connecto-
me in the scientific community. On the one hand, you
have proponents that argue that the brain should be
studied in terms of its connectionit is the complex
neuronal wiring throughout the brain that will give us
insight; yet, we have opponents to that idea who in-
stead argue that mapping the wiring of the brain is
costly and not wholly relevant in terms of understanding
what exactly is going on in the brain.

By being able to locate and pinpoint the trajectory
of various neurological disorders we would finally be able
to find cures for the devastating but fascinating neurologi-
cal and psychological disorders. Perhaps, in the distant fu-
ture, we will have a neural code, a blueprint of the brain
that maps every neuron, circuit, and system. Yet, to obtain
this kind of knowledge, there must be an intellectually
By being able to locate and pinpoint the trajectory of various
neurological disorders we would finally be able to find cures for
the devastating but fascinating neurological and psychological dis-
orders.
honest discussion between the scientific community and
the NIH with regard to putting funding towards projects
that are feasible that comprehensively address the multi-
plicity of the human brain.

Work Cited

"A Critical Look at Connectomics." Editorial. n.d.: n. pag. Print.
Defelipe, J. (2010)"From the Connectome to the Synaptome: An
Epic Love Story." Science 330.6008 1198-201. Print.
Katz, Yarden (2012, Nov) Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial
Intelligence Went Wrong. The Atlantic
Madrigel, Alexis. Scanning Dead Salmon in fMRI Machine High-
lights Risks of Red Herrings, WIRED
Markoff, John. "Obama Seeking to Boost Study of Human Brain."
The New York Times. The New York Times, 17 Feb. 2013. Web.
28 Apr. 2014.
Passingham, Richard. (2013) What we can and cannot tell about the
wiring of the human brain. Neuroimage 80
Sporns, Olaf. (2012) Human Connectomics.Current Opinions in
Neurobiology. 22:144-163
Sporns, Olaf. (2013)"The Human Connectome: Origins and Challeng-
es." NeuroImage 80: 53-61. Print.
White, J.G. (1986)The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nema-
tode Caenorhabditis elegans Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society Biological Sciences. Vol 314 no.1165
New technologies are introduced eve-
ry day which transforms many aspects of our
lives with healthcare being no exception.
Telepsychiatry (which is psychotherapy over
the phone), introduced decades ago, has been
an increasingly accepted method to reach cli-
ents in hospitals, prisons and other healthcare
facilities where patients are unable to meet
with their therapist in person. However, it
does not stop there. Clients, who happen to
be out of town or in a need of an emergency
session, are able to use this method to connect
with their therapist anywhere, anytime, at any
place. That being said, it should come as no
surprise why many are switching from the old-
fashioned therapy sessions, where one has to
worry about running late, finding parking or
missing an appointment because of a blizzard,
to the latest method of online communication:
Skype where one can sit in the comfort of
their own home, in PJs, sipping tea. Who
wouldnt want that?

Nevertheless, as intriguing as this might sound, it
is important for clients to weigh the pros and the cons of e
-therapy, and ultimately decide if this is something benefi-
cial for them.

The advantages of online therapy are numerous,
with the most obvious being the convenience and remote
access offered to clients. Unfortunately, some clients
have limited mobility and are unable to travel or even
leave their homes. Others have very demanding schedules
and still others are simply hesitant or uncomfortable seek-
ing help in person due to the initial shame or the stigma
attached to visiting a shrink. By eliminating the need
for the client to attend a specific location between a
9am 5pm workday, e-therapy makes it possible for
those in need of therapy to actually receive it.

Just recently, the Z-100 Elvis Duran Morning
Show raised the topic of e-therapy and asked their lis-
teners to share their experiences on the topic. Before
the listeners called in, their very own co-host Bethany
Watson briefly shared her experience with e-therapy,
relating, I really needed to speak to my therapist one of
the days she was out of town on a business trip. I called

...an important issue to keep in mind is that therapy is not only about what is said, but
also subconscious cues such as tone of voice, body language, and facial expression.
THE NEW TREND OF MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELING E-
THERAPY: IS SKYPING YOUR THERAPIST A GOOD THING?
By Irena Pergjika

her office and thankfully her secretary was able to reach
her and arrange for a session over Skype. I didnt even
know she offered such service but was greatly pleased to
find that out! I didnt even have to leave my house or
make an effort to dress up I love having that option
available!

Even though many seem to love e-therapy and
its many benefits, many professionals in the field have
expressed their concern with e-therapy.

The New York Times recently ran an article on
online therapy, interviewing professionals in the field.
Dr. Lynn Bufka expressed her concern with online ther-
apy and the inability to make eye contact with the cli-
ent, So patients can think youre not looking them in
the eye. You need to acknowledge that upfront to the
patient, or the provider has to be trained to look at the
camera instead of the screen. Internet connection can
be an obstacle as well, because sometimes calls and in-
ternet speed drop without prior warning. You have to
prepare vulnerable people for the possibility that just
when they are saying something thats difficult, the
screen can go blank. So I always say, I will never dis-
connect from you online on purpose. You make ar-
rangements ahead of time to call each other if that hap-
pens, said Dr. DeeAnna Merz Negel, a psychologist
licensed in both New York and New Jersey.

Lastly, an important issue to keep in mind is
that therapy is not only about what is said, but also
subconscious cues such as tone of voice, body language
and facial expression. Unfortunately, through vide-
oconferencing, the therapist is sometimes unable to
pick up on these cues, which can play a very important
role in therapy. Psychologists who consider using such
service must take into consideration the confidentiality
and privacy, HIPPA compliance, dropped calls and
other possible communication interruptions during the
therapy session as well as licensure board rules based
on the state in which they are practicing. Guidance
comes from a statement of the American Psychological
Association on Services by Telephone, Teleconfer-
ence, and Internet," suggesting that Psychologists
considering such services must review the characteris-
tics of the services, the service delivery method, and
the provisions for confidentiality. Psychologists must
then consider the relevant ethical standards and other
requirements, such as licensure board rules." Further
advice can be found at The California Board of Psy-
chology and APA Division of Psychotherapy.

Work Cited

Hoffman, J. (n.d.). When your therapist is only a click away.
Rtrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/fashion
therapists-are-seeingpatientsonline.htmlpagewanted=all&_r=0

Anderson , S. K. (n.d.). To Skype or Not to SkypeThat is theQu
tion. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog
theethicaltherapist/201005/skype-or-not-skype-is-the-question
Woman talking to therapist via a computer. The Tech Addiction
Blog.N.p., n.d.Web. 27 Apr. 2014.

<http:techaddictionblog.wordpress.com/tag/etherapy/>.
"Therapists Are Seeing Patients Online." Psych Central. N.p.,
n.d.Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http://psychcentral.com/blog
archives/2011/09/24/skype-away-online-therapy-is-still
exciting>.
DSM V: CONTROVERSY?
By: Sara Babad
Prior to the launch of the new DSM (Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), the director
of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH),
Thomas Insel, MD, released a statement on his blog that,
at face value, appeared to discredit the forthcoming DSM-
V; and in some ways, it does (Insel, April 2013). Howev-
er, with a closer look, it is evident that his new classifica-
tion system, Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), is meant
to augment the diagnostic manual and
not replace it. Insels new system is
meant to be used as a research frame-
work, at least initially, while the DSM
still function as a very valuable clinical
tool. While the two systems may
eventually meet, and perhaps super-
sede one another, NIMH assures eve-
ryone that that reality is a long way
away or is it?

The American Psychological
Association (APA) spent ten years re-
vising the DSM-IV-TR with the goal of
expanding the scientific basis for psy-
chiatric diagnosis and classifica-
t i on ( www. DSM5. or g/DSM-
5Overview). The Diagnostic Manual is
a tool used by therapists in America to
diagnose patients, but it was woefully
outdated. The World Health Organization (WHO) had
recently published their new diagnostic manual, used in
Europe, the International Statistical Classification of Dis-
eases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), and is cur-
rently working on an 11
th
edition, due in 2017
(www.who.int). Almost a decade since its last update, the
APA spearheaded an effort to revamp its own manual to
incorporate more research from the past decade.
Shortly before its May 2013 release, Insel released
a statement on his blog decrying the new DSM as a
modest improvement over previous editions and
introduced a new system of classification, RDoC,
which will be based on the underlying biology and
cognition of pathology, instead of just symptoms. In
truth, the new DSM does include only minor changes
including the exclusion of Asbergers, the addition of
Mood Dysregulation Disorder, and the reorganization
and clarification of some of the diag-
nostic criterion for schizophrenia.
Insel further denounced the DSM as
at best, a dictionary, creating a set
of labels and defining each (Insel,
April 2013).

Having questioned the validity of the
new, and past, DSM, Insels post
caused a stir in the psychology com-
munity. While his argument was
based on the fallacy of clustering
clinical symptoms as a means of de-
fining disease, others soon followed
with even more critiques (Insel,
April 2013). In a June 2013 article,
CBS News reported on the NIMHs
response to the DSM and some oth-
er dissenters who feel that the new
DSM over diagnoses people without
making any scientific or nosology
improvements (Jaslow& Castillo, June 2013). Indeed,
Craddock and Owen (2010), who were part of the
DSM-V work group on psychotic disorders, wrote an
article about the direction in which mental health re-
search needs to be moving in regards to psychosis,
stressing a dimensional model. Classical categorical
models group psychotic symptoms into distinct
groups or illnesses, whereas dimensional models
explain psychosis as existing on a continuum.
Insels new system of classification, RDoC,
Credits: Googe Images
The strange thing about the assault Insel launched is that the NIMH helped fund
the research, development, and writing of the DSM-V.

VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
was intended to reform the doctors diagnose by incorpo-
rating imaging, cognitive research, and genetics, among
other disciplines so that underlying biology, and not just
external symptomatology, are considered in classifica-
tion. Moreover, RDoC proposes a dimensional model
and an increased emphasis on neuroscience research. The
new system, by Insels own admission, is not yet ready
to be used as a clinical tool and will, for now, remain as a
research tool. Even this narrow focus, however, harms
the DSMs credibility. Insel further stated that NIMH
funded research will move away from DSM categories as
criteria for admission and move towards studies based on
biomarkers for depression and other
biological markers (Insel, April 2013).

The strange thing about the as-
sault Insel launched is that the NIMH
helped fund the research, development,
and writing of the DSM-V. The DSM-V
website clearly states that the APA and
the NIMH believed it was important to
work together to update the DSM and
that a joint sponsorship between the two
jump-started the revision process with a
conference back in 1999. And since that
point, the NIMH had worked closely
with the DSM-V committee to develop
the new manual (www.DSM5.org/DSM-
5Overview). With this information in hand, it becomes
difficult to understand Insels position, a conundrum he
solved a month later by posting a new statement on his
blog together with the President of the APA, Jeffrey A.
Lieberman, M.D.

On May 13, 2013, 5 days before the release of
the DSM-V, Insel and Lieberman jointly reassured the
world that, while Insel would not recant his previous
statements, both the APA and the NIMH agree that the
DSM-V represents the best information currently availa-
ble for clinical diagnosis of mental disorders (Insel, May
2013). RDoC is intended as a framework for research-
ers, though it is intended to lead to a rethinking of tradi-
tional diagnostic categories. Nothing additional was stat-
ed, but Insel did clarify that the DSM-V, like previous
versions, has retained its reliability and utility, and that
patients will not in any way be affected by the gradual
PAGE 19
introduction of RDoC into the research world.

This statement implies that RDoC is here to stay,
but that it will not affect clinical practice for quite some
time. However, in February 2014, Insel released yet an-
other statement on his blog announcing that RDoC will
now be used to refocus clinical research, (Insel, February
2014) in the form of new funding rules. Now, in order to
receive funding, even experimental medicine trials must
make some hypothesis and generate some answers as to the
underlying biology of the disorder being studied. This be-
came effective immediately in
order to rectify the fact that
treatment development has
stalled (Insel, February, 2014).
This new statement indicates that
RDoC may be making an appear-
ance often. Considering that Insel
never recanted his aspersions on
the DSM-V, it seems likely that
he will continue to push for
RDoC in every possible sector of
psychology, be it research or clin-
ical. However, it remains to be
seen how successful this new tax-
onomy will be and whether it
will in fact be an improvement
over the clinically useful DSM-V.

Work Cited:
Insel, Thomas, April 29, 2013, www.nimh.nih.gov/about/
director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml
Insel, Thomas, May 13, 2013, www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-
news/2013/dsm-5-and-rdoc-shared-interests.shtml
Insel, Thomas, February 27, 2014, www.nimh.gov/about/
director/2014/a-new-approach-to-clinical-trials.shtml
Craddock, N. & Owen, M. J. (2010). The Kraepelinian dichotomy
going, goingbut still not gone. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 92-
95. Doi: 10.1192/bjp.109.073429
http://www.cbsnews.com/news/controversial-update-to-psychiatry-
manual-dsm-5-arrives/
Jaslow, Ryan, & Castillo, Michelle. June 3, 2012. Controversial up-
date to psychiatry manual, DSM-V, arrives. http://
www.cbsnews.com/news/controversial-update-to-psychiatry-manual
-dsm-5-arrives/
World Health Organization Website. http://www.who.int/
classifications/icd/revision/en/
DSM-V websi te. http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/
DSMVOverview.aspx
Credits: Google Images

By: Amanda Lanter
Abstract:
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, DSM, categorizes depression as a mood disor-
der. Although there are different forms of depression,
some common features include low mood and a sudden
loss of interest in friends and food. Depression is charac-
terized by a sad mood that is severe enough to impact a
persons level of functioning. One must meet five out of
nine of the diagnostic criteria to be diagnosed with de-
pression. Depression can be caused by genetic, biologi-
cal, environmental, and psychological factors. Family
support, therapy, and medication are various methods of
treatment proven to be effective in helping adolescents
who suffer from depression. However, depression can
lead to adverse effects even while under treatment, in-
cluding drinking, suicide, and substance abuse. De-
pressed adolescents should receive medical and psycho-
logical help in order to avoid negative behavior that can
harm both themselves and those around them.

Introduction:
Research shows that a large number of teenagers
suffer from depression; about four out of one hundred
teens become seriously depressed (Sobhi, 2007). This is
because adolescents by nature tend to be more judgmen-
tal and self-critical than adults. Additionally, females
have a higher incidence of developing depression than
males. At first glance one may not notice the signs of a
depressed teenager. In fact, most teenagers do not re-
ceive proper treatment for this disorder. The causes and
symptoms of depression can be determined by its defin-
ing factors and can be treated in various ways.

Causes of Depression:
It is difficult to pinpoint exactly what initiates
depression. Depression can be caused by a number of
factors, including genetics, environment, and psychologi-
cal factors. Endogenous depression is defined as being
caused by something internal. Although a person may
have a genetic predisposition for depression, he or she
may not suffer from it. Depression may also be caused
by a chemical imbalance in the brain. To be more specif-
ic, depression may result if there is an imbalance of neu-
rotransmitters such as serotonin, epinephrine, and nore-
pinephrine in the brain (Sobhi, 2007). Food allergies and
nutrimental deficiencies such as the lack of vitamin B12
and folic acid can be a cause of depression as well (Sobhi,
2007). The seemingly harmless processes of maturation
can even cause depression, since there is an increase in
sex hormones. Additionally, when teenagers begin to
mature, they become overly concerned with their self-
image and their attempts to fit in. This makes them
more likely to suffer from low self-esteem which leads to
a negative outlook on life which ultimately causes de-
pression. Such adolescents tend to be highly self-critical
and feel like their lives are out of control (Beidel, Bulik,
& Stanley 2010).

Depression can be caused by an adolescents life
event, whether their involvement is by choice or forced
upon them. Some of these events can be emotionally
challenging to adolescents and may trigger depression.
These events can take the form of the death of a family
member or close friend, or the divorce of ones parents.
Teenagers who are embarrassed by their environment,
e.g. homeless children or those living in poor and/or
violent homes, are more likely to become depressed.
Children who live in both verbally and physically abusive
homes are more prone to depression, as well as those
who have learning disabilities or eating disorders. This
type of depression is known as exogenous depression,
Adolescent Depression: Causes and Effects
VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
PAGE 21
depression caused by something on the outside (Beidel,
Bulik, & Stanley 2010). There are several other factors
that affect the chances of becoming depressed such as
gender and a lack of familial social support.

Body image is another cause of major depression.
Girls relate to the media and admire the models seen on
advertisements and TV. In most western societies, the
models are very thin and childlike. Therefore, develop-
ing girls become increasingly upset with their body image
as they go through puberty. This puts them at a high risk
for eating disorders. These societal pressures make body
image a known trigger of depression (Kerr 2010).

There are several models explaining the etiology
of depression. The psychodynamic model was based on
Freuds Psychoanalysis Theory which proposes that eve-
rything originates from the subconscious. If a person
becomes depressed after he or she experiences a loss, the
biological model states that it is physiologically caused.
Specifically, depression occurs due to an imbalance in the
levels of serotonin. In addition, the biological model
claims that if depression runs in a family then a family
member is three times more likely to develop depres-
sion. The next model is known as the attachment model.
The attachment model states that if there is a break in the
mother-infant bond as a child, then there is a higher
chance that the child will develop depression.

The cognitive model states that maladaptive neg-
ative thoughts cause a person to develop depression.
According to this, depressed people are pessimistic
thereby believing that they will not get better. Finally,
the learned helplessness model claims that when a person
does not have control over the negative things in his life,
then he will become depressed. After trying several
times to get out of the bad situation, they dont even
bother when given an opening (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley
2010).

What is Depression?
Depression can impact someones functioning by
causing persistent low moods, loss of appetite, change in
sleeping patterns and anhedonia. Anhedonia is defined as
a lack of interest in things usually found enjoyable. The
symptoms can be even more severe with feelings of
worthlessness, slowed body movement, and agitated
physiological symptoms. However, the severity of de-
pression varies from person to person. To be diagnosed
into any level of depression you must meet certain crite-
ria. The main criterion is that the depression lasts at least
two weeks. People with moderate depression may be
diagnosed with Dysthymia, which is chronic and cannot
be diagnosed for two years. These individuals are pessi-
mistic, have a hard time making decisions and have a neg-
ative outlook on life. Most people with Dysthymia do not
even realize that they have a disorder (Beidel, Bulik, &
Stanley 2010).

There are several subsections of depression, such
as Depression with Seasonal Pattern and Post-Partum De-
pression. Depression with seasonal onset sets in during
the winter months and usually disappears around spring-
time. This form of depression is associated with a per-
sons exposure to the sun. Post Partum depression oc-
curs in a small percentage of women after they give birth.
Several factors play a role in the chances of developing
post partum depression, such as family history. Another
type of depression is bipolar disorders, which are periods
of depression interrupted by periods of mania (Beidel,
Bulik, & Stanley 2010).

Symptoms of Depression:
It is difficult to diagnose depression in adolescents
since it is normal for adolescents to have mood shifts from
happy to sad. However, there are things to look for such
as a severe change in behavior, pessimism, and a loss of
interest in activities that once gave them pleasure. On the
inside, they feel guilty and hopeless. These adolescents
are always looking at the negative and are unable to solve
problems in a positive light. They become irritable, rest-
less and agitated. Some even begin to commit criminal
acts, use alcohol, or take illegal drugs. Others cannot
Girls relate to the media and ad-
mire the models seen on advertise-
ments and TV.
PAGE 22
even get out of bed (Reutter 2009). In more severe cas-
es, a depressed adolescent may have suicidal thoughts.

Treatment for Depression:
As soon as symptoms of a depressed teenager
appear, medical attention should be sought. Initially,
doctors may provide a blood test to rule our any diseases,
like hypoglycemia, which can mimic symptoms similar to
those of depression (Sobhi 2007). Each patient should
undergo a psychiatric evaluation. If one is diagnosed with
depression there are various types of treatment, from
medication to psychological therapy. Talk therapy is the
treatment used by the psychodynamic model since it be-
lieves that it is effective to talk about the persons pain or
loss. The attachment model is similar in that they use
talk therapy to create a bond between therapist and pa-
tient. If the therapy is successful, then these people will
be able to go on and create or maintain trusting relation-
ships. Cognitive therapy is used to help change a persons
maladaptive thoughts. They learn what triggers their
depression and how to solve problems that present them-
selves. Sometimes therapists incorporate books and arti-
cles into the healing process so that the patient can ac-
quire knowledge about his or her condition. On the oth-
er hand, when the brains serotonin levels are too low,
S.S.R.Is, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, are
used as antidepressants. Prozac, Zoloft and many others
are well known S.S.R.Is. All of the antidepressants cor-
rect for the decreased amount of neurotransmitters in the
brain. The medicine can take about four weeks to start
working, making them less addictive then antianxiety
medication. Over the counter remedies may be used for
less severe cases of depression. Exercise is also helpful in
treating depression (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010). It is
important that parents take an active role and ensure that
their child receives the help that they need (Sobhi 2007).

The International Journal of Psychological Studies
LYING ON THE COUCH
produced the results of a study that was conducted to de-
termine if solution-focused group counseling can decrease
depression among teenage girls. Twenty girls in Sahne,
who did not take medication, were chosen at random af-
ter they were examined by the Beck Depression question-
naire. They were assigned to either the control or experi-
mental group. The independent variable in the experi-
mental group was a solution-focused therapy with eight
hours of counseling while the control group was taught
something else. The solution-focused group counseling
was proven to be effective in treating depression
(Javamir, Kimiaee, and Abadi 2013).

Negative Outcomes of Depression:
Although depression can be treated successfully,
it is not always the case. One of the most horrific out-
comes of depression is suicide, which is the third leading
cause of adolescent deaths. Those treated with antide-
pressants are found to have more emotional distress lead-
ing to suicide (Sobhi 2007). Suicide can be divided into
three sections: the thought process, the attempt, and the
success. Even thought males are more likely to actually
commit suicide, females are more likely to attempt sui-
cide. Suicide is one of the effects of depression that not
only hurts the victims but also their friends and families
(Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010). Several researchers have
studied the correlation between having been bullied and
suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Some have found that
bullying is not the direct cause of suicide; rather it aggra-
vates the already existing problem such as depres-
sion. Doctor Klomek, in her article Bullying and Sui-
cide, discusses various aspects of suicide including its
prevalence in a specific gender. The doctor writes,
Among girls, victimization at any frequency increased
the risk of depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide at-
tempts. On the other hand, only frequent victimization
increased the risk of depression and suicidal ideation in
boys (Klomek 2011).

There are things to look for such as a severe change in behavior,
pessimism, and a loss of interest in activities that once gave them
pleasure.
VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
PAGE 23
According to the Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 3.5-11% of adolescent students have attempt-
ed suicide. It is very important to understand the etiolo-
gy of suicide, since it is important for its prevention.
Studies show that major depression and depression relat-
ed cognitive processes as factors that lead to suicide. The
Oregon Adolescent Depression Project studied the cor-
relation between lifetime prevalence rates and incidences
of suicide. They found that the prevalence rates were
higher for females. They also found that past suicide at-
tempts were associated with past psychiatric disorders.

There are also some negative effects that are less
severe yet equally important. Depression can cause in-
creased substance and alcohol abuse. For example, a
study was conducted on the risk factors associated with
smoking, and one of these factors was depression. The
study looked at smokers across the entire smoking con-
tinuum, from experimenting low-level smokers to fre-
quent smokers. The experimenters believed that smoking
is a way of self-medicating. The study found that even
though there was a predicted relationship between de-
pression and smoking, one does not really exist. For fe-
males there were no relation between depression and
smoking as for males, it only affected those on the
extreme ends of the smoking continuum (Weinstein
2013).

Conclusion:
Adolescent depression is a severe problem that
should be taken seriously. Teenage depression can be
triggered by many different factors which include genet-
ic, biological, environmental and psychological influ-
ences. Regardless of the nature of the trigger, attention
and help should be sought immediately. By being aware
of the signs and symptoms of depression, adolescents can
receive the help they need before its too late. Long-term
depression, suicide, alcohol and substance abuse, can then
be successfully prevented.

Work Cited:
Beidel, D. C., Bulik, C.M., & Stanley, M.A. (2010) Abnormal Psy-
chology New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Javanmiri, L., Kimiaee, S., & Hashem Abadi, B. (2013). The Study of
Solution-Focused Group Counseling in Decreasing Depression among
Teenage Girls. International Journal Of Psychological Studies, 5(1),
105-111. doi:10.5539/ijps.v5n1p105
KERR, K. L. (2010). Sociocultural Influences on Body Image and
Depression in Adolescent Girls. Priscilla Papers, 24(2), 21-22.
Klomek, A., Sourander, A., & Gould, M. S. (2011). Bullying and
Suicide. Psychiatric Times, 28(2), 27-31.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1994). Psychosocial
risk factors for future adolescent suicide attempts. Journal Of Con-
sulting And Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 297-305. doi:10.1037/0022-
006X.62.2.297
Reutter, V. (2009). Teen Depression: Signs, Symptoms and Getting
Help. School Library Journal, 55(2), 51.
Sodhi, V. (2007). Teenage Depression. Hinduism Today, 29(3), 62.
Weinstein, S. M., & Mermelstein, R. J. (2013). Influences of Mood
Variability, Negative Moods, and Depression on Adolescent Ciga-
rette Smoking. Psychology Of Addictive Behaviors, doi:10.1037/
a0031488
One of the most horrific outcomes
of depression is suicide, which is
the third leading cause of adoles-
cent deaths.

According to the
World Health Organization,
an estimated 350 million
people worldwide suffer
from some form of depres-
sion. While the causes of
depression and severity of
symptoms can vary widely
across individuals, most peo-
ple will experience some
form of depression within
their lifetime. Although nu-
trition may not come to
mind when contemplating
depression, new research is
showing that diet may play a
larger role in the develop-
ment of depression than pre-
viously understood.

Serotonin, the neurotransmitter commonly
known to affect mood, requires the dietary essential ami-
no acids tryptophan and phenylalanine for its production.
Other neurotransmitters that are important for proper
brain functioning require the vitamins B6, B12, and folic
acid, as well as the minerals zinc, copper, iron and mag-
nesium. The Mediterranean
By: Tiffany Collings and Hadasa Levilev

Diet has been linked
with lower rates of depres-
sion, possibly due to the large
amounts of fruits, vegetables,
whole grains, and nuts con-
sumed, which supply great
quantities of the above-
mentioned nutrients. In con-
trast, the typical Western
diet has been associated with
higher rates of depression, as
it is often lacking in the mi-
cronutrients and B-vitamins.
A recent research study found
that those who consumed fast
food on a regular basis were
more likely to exhibit symp-
toms of depression when compared to
those who ate whole, unprocessed
foods. Other studies have shown that those diets high in
plant foods and fish and low in processed foods and red
meats are associated with lower rates of depression. The
catch 22 in all of this is that one who has already devel-
oped depression may be more likely to eat unhealthy
foods, which worsens and triggers their symptoms to
begin with. Encouraging those who suffer from depression
to consider diet and lifestyle changes may be a way to help
them towards recovery.

Becoming more knowledgeable about the link
between diet and depression can help the psychiatric com-
munity better understand and treat the underlying causes
of depression while empowering patients with a holistic
dietary approach to treatment. Food can be a powerful
drug, and the future of psychiatric treatment may very
well lie on ones dinner plate.

Article by Tiffany Collings and Hadasa Levilev, nutrition
students and founders of My Favorite Granola Bar. My
Favorite Granola Bar is made with all natural ingredients
The typical Western diet
has been associated with
higher rates of depression,
as it is often lacking in the
micronutrients and B-
vitamins.
Depression: Nutritional Underpinnings
PAGE 25
VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2
and no refined sugars. Check them out in the Brooklyn
College cafeteria and like them on Facebook
at Facebook.com/myfavoritegranolabar

For inquiries contact:
myfavoritegranolabar@gmail.com
www.myfavoritegranolabar.com

Work Cited

Felice N. Jacka, PhD, Arnstein Mykletun, PhD, Michael Berk,
PhD, Ingvar Bjelland, MD, PhD and Grethe S. Tell, PhD.
"The Association Between Habitual Diet Quality and the
Common Mental Disorders in Community-Dwelling
Adults: The Hordaland Health Study." Psychosomatic Medi-
cine (2011): 483-490.
Francesco Sofi, Francesca Cesari, Rosanna Abbate, Gian Franco
Gensini, Alessandro Casini. "Adherence to Mediterrane-
an diet and health status: meta-analysis." BMJ (2008):
337.
Ladea, TA Popa and M. "Nutrition and depression at the forefront
of progress." Journal of Medicine and Life (2012): 414-419.
Mooreville M, Shomaker LB, Reina SA, Hannallah LM, Adelyn
Cohen L, Courville AB, Kozlosky M, Brady SM,
Condarco T, Yanovski SZ, Tanofsky-Kraff M, Yanovski
JA. "Depressive symptoms and observed eating in
youth." Appetite (2014): 141-9.
Snchez-Villegas A1, Toledo E, de Irala J, Ruiz-Canela M, Pla-Vidal
J, Martnez-Gonzlez MA. "Fast-food and commercial
baked goods consumption and the risk of depression."
Public Health Nutrition (2012): 424-32.
T. S. Sathyanarayana Rao, M. R. Asha, B. N. Ramesh, and K. S.
Jagannatha Rao. "Understanding nutrition, depression
and mental illnesses." Indian Journal of Psychiatry (2008):
77-82.

Photo Credit: Google Images
Food can be a powerful drug,
and the future of psychiatric
treatment may very well lie on
ones dinner plate.

We are all under pressure in our everyday
lives, whether from our boss at work, paying the
mortgage and bills, or daily duties. In one way or an-
other, we find ourselves running in circles. We glide
through our lives without taking note of our stress lev-
els and delude ourselves into believing that stress is
normal. The mere belief that
life is meant to be stressful
allows stress to creep in and
harm our bodies. Prolonged
increases in blood pressure
resulting from stress may
cause permanent damage to
blood vessels and the heart.
Aside from physical harm,
stress can also wreak psycho-
logical damage and impair
social interactions. Let's try
to better understand stress
and learn to detect and
counteract what it does to
the body.

What causes stress?
Stress has various triggers. Deciding what to
wear, catching the train or bus, handing in a report,
meeting a deadline, resolving problems, or financial
concerns, among other scenarios, can trigger stress in
our daily lives.

How does the body handle stress?
Humans have formed a defense mechanism to
cope with stress known as the fight-or-flight response. In
fight-or-flight, the body triggers a set of physical and
physiological mechanisms to ameliorate the stressful
situation; for example, a lion charging towards you,
or, in the modern-day equivalent, a car speeding to-
wards you. In the first instance, one may choose to
fight the lion, in which case the adrenal glands will
promptly release adrenaline to boost blood pressure
and heart rate, the pupils will dilate to take in more
information, and the digestive system will partly shut
down, diverting most of the bodys blood to the mus-
cles. All of this happens in order to prepare the body
for the task at hand - fighting the lion. In the case of a
speeding car approaching, the same physiological re-
sponse will be triggered.

Humans socially
escalated stress response
does not shut off in a timely
manner; it lingers for a pro-
longed period of time. This
is one reason those who are
stressed get stomach ulcers.
Contrary to popular belief,
however, stress is not the
primary cause of an ulcer;
rather, it is the conduit by
which an ulcer arises.
Among the physiological
responses of the fight or flight
mechanism is depression of
the immune system, which
allows naturally occurring
bacteria of the digestive tract to propagate on the pro-
tective lining of the stomach. If left unchecked for a
period of time, the bacteria begin to break down the
lining of the stomach, leading to the formation of an
ulcer. One who develops an ulcer, in turn, becomes
more stressed, demonstrating how tough it can be to
break away from this positive feedback loop process.

Do causes of stress differ between wom-
en and men?
This will likely come as a surprise to a number
of readers. We are all aware of our differences, but
who would expect stress to be included among them?
Men play a role in society that is forced on them from
birth. They are expected to support their families as
breadwinners and hide their true emotions from the
rest of the world. A mans inability to communicate his
By: Irena Pergjika
Photo Credits: Google Im-
Stress and How to Cope

feelings can become a major stressor in his life. This
much pressure and stress can lead to anxiety and ulti-
mately depression (discussed further below). Having to
struggle silently through his ordeal is a lot for one indi-
vidual to handle, and it is for this reason that psycholo-
gists and support groups play an important role in mens
mental health today.

On the other side of the social spectrum, wom-
en have to play many roles, among them student, em-
ployee, spouse, mother, and housewife. A woman is
slated to work at a job, maintain a household, and feed
her family members, and look out for the health of all
those under her wing. This balancing act can be over-
whelming and bring a great deal of stress to a woman's
life. Women have very little time to address their own
issues, which leads to internalization of woes. Without a
positive outlet for negative emotions and stress, the situ-
ation mirrors that of the plight of men. The inability to
relieve stress overrides the gender roles, and ultimately
leads to similar manifestations of stress.

Personality and Stress
There are three personality types: type A, B,
and C. Type A individuals are competitive,, impatient,
controlling and aggressive. Type A individuals would do
anything to get what they want and will not accept any-
thing less. They have difficulty coping with stress and
become aggressive over trivial matters. Our lovely poli-
ticians, UFC fighters, and Donald Trump fit very well in
the Type A category. Type B individuals are a bit more
relaxed, less competitive, and do not become as frus-
trated as Type As. They are also more tolerant of oth-
ers. Type B individuals are most likely to occupy profes-
sions in psychology, teaching, social work, or the like.
Most individuals fit into the Type B category. Type C
individuals are prone to panic, no matter how trivial a
trigger may seem to others. They tend to have difficulty
expressing their feelings and emotions, exaggerate eve-
rything, feel hopeless, and tend to suppress their anger.
Type C individuals are more likely to suffer from de-
pression, anxiety and lack of social life.

Stress and Psychology
Since stress prohibits one from functioning
without having to worry every minute of the day, anxi-
ety sets in, which inevitably results in depression. Some
opt to stay at home and check out of their social life,
afraid to confront the reality awaiting them outside.
This can very easily take a turn for the worse, which,
left untreated, can lead to a deep depression. At that
point, medication is the only route back to reality.
Stress also clouds judgment and impairs concentration,
making it to difficult to think clearly. Many patients
who suffer from PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder)
deal with copious amounts of stress on a daily basis.
This condition is characterized by panic attacks brought
upon by flashbacks of traumatic events.

Humans have formed a defense mechanism to cope with
stress known as the fight-or-flight response.

How to deal with stress?
Eliminating stress may be difficult, since we are
so used to its presence. However, here are some point-
ers that have helped me improve my life and reduced
my stress level:

1. Accept it - Accept that stress is an issue. Denial
doesn't help. The sooner you accept your stress, the
sooner you open the door to healing.
2. Exercise - Exercise draws your attention away
from stressful topics while helping maintain your
body's health. Whether it is a run in the park, a spar
inside a boxing ring or even a ride down a biking
trail, your mind will wonder far away from stress
and will react positively to the new surroundings.
3. STOP being so negative Life isnt perfect, but
in the words of the famous Salvador Dali, "Have no
fear of perfection... you will never reach it." In-
stead, focus on the positive in your life, and explore
further than you ever have. Do not allow the nega-
tive thoughts to trample on your happiness and for-
ever bury who you are.
4. Get organized - Life is busy. There are a hundred
and one things that ought to be done, RIGHT
NOW! Being disorganized creates a space for stress
to invade your life. Create a schedule that focuses
on the important aspects of your life, such as school
or work. Plan out an effective timetable to help you
study for a test in advance, instead of just the night
before. Mark down important deadlines on your
calendar so that you have plenty of time to design a
thoughtful and innovative presentation for a work
conference. This is vital to easing your stress, so get
a pen and paper and start organizing!
5. Some things can't be changed Accept it. It is
not in your power to change everything, so accept
it and move on.
6. Communication. By communicating more effec-
tively with those around us, we can learn to avoid
stressful situations. By practicing the art of negoti-
ating we can gain much more ground, while making
both ourselves and others happy.
7. Sleep: Yes, you heard me, sleep. On average, most
adults need 7 to 8 hours of sleep per night. If you
go to bed early, your body and mind will work nat-
urally to wipe out the stresses of the day so that
you'll feel fully rejuvenated when you wake up.
This might improve your mood, health and well-
being. With this easy step, your life could very well
be, yes, you guessed it, stress free.
8. Manage your time - This goes back to being or-
ganized. Don't leave anything for the last minute!
Divide your time accordingly, and watch your ef-
fort levels drop.

A recap of the many things stress
ushers into our life:
Depression
Anxiety
Sexual dysfunction
Lost or change in appetite
Loss of sleep
Fatigue Overcoming

The 1960s was a time of hope, beauty, and
the evolution of a new generation. President John F.
Kennedy exemplified all the qualities necessary to lead
this country to greatness during this vital and danger-
ous time of our history. He was young, charismatic,
diplomatic, and intelligent. He was a president who
showed that he could not be bullied by Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev, the CIA, or American military
generals/admirals. He was a leader for the people in
that everything which was done was purely for the
good of the people.

Many historians agree that he saved humanity
from 'World War III' a number of times. The world
was on the brink of destruction. JFK literally had the
whole world on his shoulders. However, while JFK
was fighting for the continuation of mankind, an evil
monster was brewing; and that monster was Vice
President Lyndon Banes Johnson. LBJ was a rascal, a
jackal -someone who wanted desperately to become
the president of the United States. On many occasions
he described JFK to be his obstacle into becoming
president. It is very well known that LBJ threatened
JFK into becoming the Vice President, which gave LBJ
half the chance to become the president of this coun-
try.

Roger Stone, who was an aide to Richard Nix-
on, was writing a book in which he was pinning the
death of JFK on LBJ. He quotes former president
Richard Nixon saying, Both Johnson and I wanted to
be president, but the only difference was I wouldnt
kill for it. Even former attorney general, the brother
of JFK, Robert Kennedy, was quoted as saying LBJ
was, "mean, bitter, vicious, animal in many ways...I
think his reactions on a lot of things are correct... but I
think he's got this other side of him and his relation-
ship with human beings which makes it difficult unless
you want to 'kiss his behind' all the time."

Many historians and researchers ask the question:
what if JFK was never killed on November 22,1963? Well,
if JFK was alive, then I can say for sure, the Vietnam war
would not have continued till 1975, as it did. During the
time of his death JFK wanted to pull 1,000 military mem-
bers and completely leave Vietnam by the time of 1965.
LBJ actually reversed Kennedy's disengagement policy
from Vietnam (NSAM 273) with his own (NSAM 263) to
expand the war. Top government officials wanted the war
to happen and wanted us to be involved for a very long
time.

Furthermore, if JFK had not been assassinat-
ed, then him and his brother, Robert Kennedy, would
have completely cracked down on organized crime and
would have taken the CIA under their control. During this
time, there was a power struggle. Sadly, JFK did not get
out alive. LBJ was truly an egotistical maniac who only
wanted power and was no better than Joseph Stalin. Even
though legislation such as civil rights and the great society
were passed, he was still no good for the people of Ameri-
ca. LBJ was only good for the top powers of the govern-
ment.
By: Rodshel Ustayev
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MINDS/
POLITICS OF JFK AND LBJ

PAGE 30
Johnson described himself to a friend by saying,
I'm just like a fox. I can see the jugular in any man and
go for it, but I always keep myself in rein. I keep myself
on a leash, just like you would an animal. It is all laid
out in perfect language. Even LBJ himself says he was an
animal. This disease was responsible for his political suc-
cess and personal demise. He was an obsessed man in
that he wanted more power, money, glory, women and
most importantly to become president of America. He
was known to verbally assault his staff. It has always been
said that he was crude, vulgar, obnoxious, conceited,
a n d a r r o g a n t .

LBJ is an amazing psychological study. He suf-
fered from narcissism, paranoia, and bi-polar disorder.
These mentally psychological handicaps led him to the
presidency. But by the end of his life, he was broken and
full of guilt. I believe he understood what he did before
his death and probably suffered from nightmares about
Kennedy's assassination. Death was too kind for this
monster.

In regards to JFK and why he operated the way
he did, we can see why this tragedy happened. Kennedy,
was a very smart man who was also a womanizer, which
was his ultimate down fall. He genuinely cared for the
people of the United States. However, he was sick with a
hormonal disorder called, Addisons disease. With this
disease he was hooked on meth-amphetamines by Dr.
Feelgood. The steroids changed his personality. Kennedy
became very cocky and fearless. Steroids have that im-
pact on humans. Therefore, in his condition JFK was
'sucker-punched' to Texas where he was fatally shot. He
lost his ability to think rationally and acted on impulse.
It is incredible how time flies by so quickly
LYING ON THE COUCH
through our lives. JFK once said, Whatever we are able
to do in this country, whatever success we are able to
make of ourselves, whatever leadership we are able to
give, whatever demonstration we can make that a free
society can function and move ahead and provide a bet-
ter life for its people--all those things that we do here
have their effect all around the globe. My only hope is
that we as humans can come together in peace and un-
derstand that what we do bares consequences upon other
people and nations. However, loneliness, will always be
our human fundamental psychological nuance. Loneli-
ness, is why we memorialize our dead. It is in the brief-
est of moments when our loved ones fight for their lives
and then they are gone, forever. Leaving us with noth-
ing. So, fighting for peace and making war is a constant
reminder that in the end we are left, infinitely and utter-
ly alone.

Work Cited:
LBJ: The Mastermind of JFK's Assassination
Power Beyond Reason: The Mental Collapse of Lyndon Johnson
http://www.mcmanweb.com/lbj.htmlS
"President JFK and VP Lyndon Johnson." App 1. N.p., n.d. Web.
28 Mar. 2014. <http://app1.kuhf.org/_images/jfk_moon
JFK_speech_w_vp_flag.jpg>.
Newman, Arnold. "Photo portrait of President Lyndon B. Johnson
in the Oval Office, leaning on a chair." Wikipedia. N.p., n.d. Web.
31 Mar. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg>.
President Lyndon B. Johnson
Im just like a fox. I can see the
jugular in any man and go for it,
but I always keep myself in rein. I
keep myself on a leash, just like
you would an animal.
Parents of children who are born with disorders
that cause them to act or behave differently then what is
socially acceptable often face a unique set of challenges.
One of the challenges is dealing with an uninformed
public who dont understand the unusual behavior ex-
hibited by these children. To understand how a parent
feels when their child with special needs is out there in
the world, I interviewed Mrs. Cee (Name changed), a
mother of a boy with autism spectrum disorder. Mrs.
Cee kindly agreed to share her view of what its like to
raise a child with a pervasive developmental disorder

Ariella Nagel: How did you discover that your son has
autism?

Mrs. Cee: I found out when my son was approximately
18 months old. He 'lost' any words he had previously
learned and he would not eat solid foods. He was not
able to tolerate pieces of food in his mouth. This was a
sensory issue. He actually lived on the drink Pediasure
and pureed foods for a few years. He was evaluated at
an early intervention center. At the time, the diagnosis
was sensory integration disorder (sensory signals are not
organized into appropriate responses). Later on, my
sons pediatrician gave the diagnosis of pervasive devel-
opmental disorder (a milder form of autism). He did
not tell it to me, rather I saw it put down on my sons
medical form. Today, the terminology used for this
condition is autism spectrum disorder.

AN: What actions did you take when you found out
that your son has this disorder?

MC: Actually, I was not clear as to what exactly the
diagnosis involved. All I could think of was a TV show I
had seen in which a child was said to be autistic. That
child would sit in a chair all day and rock while making
unintelligible noises. She couldn't speak. I knew my son
was not that severe. At that point, I researched sensory
integration disorder. Every site that came up on the in-
ternet connected it with autism. My husband and I real-
ized that we must search and do the most for our son in
order to help him. There was not as much available then
as there is today. I read many books on the topic and
started getting my son help through therapy and by
reaching out to others in similar situations.

AN: What is the situation like when you take your son
out in public? What are your feelings about it?
MC: Over the years, there have been many heart-
wrenching situations to cope with. My son had many
unusual behaviors and some are pervasive There are
certain things he does to help steady himself because it
is difficult for him to handle some everyday situa-
tions. His language is limited and it is hard to reason
with him. He does not have an understanding of the
world and has difficulty in social situations. He has diffi-
culty dealing with certain loud noises; I am never really
sure which ones will upset him. He will bend over and
put his fingers into his ears to help block out the
noise. He cannot walk without continuously keeping
his fingers in his ears. People look and stare. I have had
some disturbing comments made.

I remember a time when my son was a little
boy (about 5 or 6 years old). We were shopping in a
store which we regularly went to. One day when we
were there, my son pointed at a food item that he want-
ed but cannot have. As much as I tried to explain it to
him and try to get his mind off of it, nothing worked.
He had a tantrum. He stood in one place and started
An Interview by Ariella Nagel
A Parents Perspective: My Autistic Son

screaming. I was about to leave the store when one of
the owners -who knows me since I am a regular custom-
er -approached me and asked me why I cannot control
my son. The look on his face was very unpleasant. I fi-
nally got out of the store, but I was not able to shop
there for at least 6 months after that incident. I was very
hurt and as always, I feel very sad for my son. I have had
situations where people have laughed at him and most
times, I think, people cannot imagine what the situation
is.

There are times when I get nervous thinking
what could happen. However, I have always been deter-
mined and pushed myself to go and take him out with
me whenever possible. Most times it helps me to imag-
ine myself alone with just my son. I tune out everyone
else and I dont look at who is around me when I have a
problem. With a disability like autism, the person does
not look like he/she has a disability and people cant
understand how it could be. An example of this hap-
pened recently when I was on the train with my son. A
man walked over to him to ask for directions. My son
did not understand what he wanted and had a faraway
look about him. Although the man did not get upset
with my son, he was very confused. It is hard to know if
I should explain my sons behavior or just answer for
him. Usually I just answer for him because I am not so
comfortable with giving explanations especially when
my son when he is right there next to me.

AN: Were there any difficult incidents in public? How
did you handle them?

MC: There have been some overwhelming times. I have
gotten panicky in several situations. There were times
that I had to take my son out of the environment we
were in. However, mostly I try to do as I mentioned
to block out the world and do whatever I have to do so
that I can manage. The situation which I mentioned in
the fruit store was one such difficult time. There was
one other instance in which my son became terribly
upset. It was at a bus stop. There were two differently
numbered buses which stopped at that location. I was
able to take either bus to where I was going. Some-
how, only one of the buses stopped there every time I
was with my son. However, not surprisingly, we final-
ly reached a time when the second numbered bus
stopped there. Even though my son had practically no
speech at that time, he was very visually aware of his
surroundings. He refused to go on the bus because the
number was different. He cried uncontrollably and had
a tantrum. A gentlemen came over to us to berate me
for not controlling my child and then he turned to my
son to tell him that he is not listening to his mother and
should behave. I had to pick up my son and walk away.

AN: Were there situations where he was treated won-
derfully by others? How did you react when this was
the case?

MC: I always appreciate it when people treat my son as
they would any other individual. A neighbor and friend
of mine, whenever we meet him, is very cordial and
friendly to my son. He asks him how he is, in a pleasant
way, while speaking very kindly. He does not differen-
tiate between my son and others. I always hope that
people will not talk down to my son or speak to him in
a childish way. That has happened at times, and so I am
very grateful when he is treated just like anyone else.
My son now attends a day habilitation program that is
run by a wonderful organization that has helped me so
much throughout the years. The people who work
there are very caring and kind. The program focuses on
job skills, social skills, community integration and out-
ings, and learning how to take care of oneself. I am very
grateful that such programs exist. Recently, I have no-
ticed that there are many more opportunities available
for people with developmental disabilities. I feel com-
forted by the fact that many young people are interested
in careers relating to this field.
I always appreciate it when
people treat my son as they
any other individual.
By: Angela Rodriguez-Heller
who still sleeps in his parents bed. The psychologist
would consider this particular behavior abnormal since
most children sleep in their own beds. But what if the
child is not from the United States? What if children
sleeping with their parents is prevalent in their country?
Would the psychologist still consider this behavior abnor-
mal? Among Western psycholo-
gists, the answer is possibly yes. I
say possibly because there are
psychologists out there who are
aware of their own biases,
among them cultural bias. Ac-
cording to Yingst (2014)
cultural bias involves a prej-
udice or highlighted distinction
in viewpoint that suggests a
preference of one culture over
anothercan be described as
discriminative. There is a lack of
group integration of social val-
ues, beliefs, and rules of con-
ductintroduces one group's
accepted behavior as valued and
distinguishable from another lesser valued societal
group has been found to be a factor in determining
where particular persons live, and what they have availa-
ble as educational and health care opportunities (p. ).

In other words, one with cultural bias believes
that what one observes or believes in ones own culture
must be true in other cultures. To illustrate, I am going to
provide a scenario of two imaginary towns called
Pleasantville and Depresstown. In Pleasantville, every-
one believes that evil does no good and that all individuals
can achieve happiness. All the citizens grew up in Pleas-
antville with this doctrine. Someone from Depresstown
moves into Pleasantville and meets their new neighbor.
Imagine becoming a psychologist and conduct-
ing experiments to test your theories. Any research arti-
clewhether on psycholinguistics, psychopathology, or
attachments styles and relationshipsmust include an
abstract, introduction, methods section, description of
results, and discussion. As a researcher, you will have to
choose a population on which to base
your analysis and then generalize your
findings.

In the discussion section of
their paper, researchers reflect on
the topic of their study as well as the
methods they used, and interpret
their findings. If their results are sig-
nificant, that is, p is less than alpha
(in psychological research, typically
set at 0.05), they would reject the
null hypothesis and conclude that the
alternative hypothesis is true; if the
results are not significant, the alter-
native hypothesis is rejected and the
null hypothesis is retained. Once the
researchers have determined the status of their results,
they have to determine if their results truly reflect typi-
cal participants responses in order for them to general-
ize. A generalization, or inference, is made using data
obtained from the sample to the population on which
the sample is based. One of the goals in conducting ex-
periments is to make a generalization to the population
of interest to the researchers. When researchers gen-
eralize their findings to a specific population, readers
may come to the conclusion that all individuals in that
population will have the same or similar responses. I
find this especially so for research conducted in a coun-
try which is not the readers home country. For exam-
ple, a clinical psychologist is interested in studying chil-
dren with particular disorders may come across a child
http://blog.internations.org/wp-content/
uploads/2012/02/cultural_awareness.jpg
...One with cultural bias believes that what one observes or believes
in ones own culture must be true in other cultures.
Generalization and Cultural Bias: An Opinion Piece
LYING ON THE COUCH
not have a reference to any particular religion.

In order to yield true findings in research and
assessments, psychologists would have to take note that
other cultures have different beliefs. They would have to
be careful with generalizing findings from their own cul-
ture to others as well as not labeling a behavior as abnor-
mal if that behavior is typical in that particular culture,
unless that behavior is causing distress, in which it can
mean that there is a clash of cultures. As more and more
people from various backgrounds enter the United States,
I believe more psychologists and therapists are becoming
aware of the x amount of cultures there are around the
globe. Hopefully this trend will continue. I would love to
see replications of experiments that are conducted here in
other countries to know if the results hold true in that
culture.

Work Cited:
Yingst, T. E. III. Cultural Bias. Encyclopedia of Child Be-
havior and Development. Retrieved February 19, 2014
from http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/
chapterdbid/179932.html

PAGE 34
Their neighbor notices that something is off with this
newcomer: they are not smiling. This person was taught
through learning based on research that everyone experi-
ences happiness and smiles. How come my neighbor
does not smile? According to research, everyone smiles.
Those results were significant, this citizen wonders.

Here is a good place to end the scenario. But I
want to point something out: the results from the exper-
iments conducted in Pleasantville were generalized to
everyone, including individuals from Depresstown. People
who read that study believed that everyone was happy
and smiled. They did not realize that not everyone was
happy and smiled. I believe this is a common occurrence
in research literature, mainly when specific groups of
participants are used in experiments. When critiquing
research papers for my classes, I always mention that
more experiments can be conducted to include popula-
tions to see if the findings from previous studies are con-
sistent with the results of current studies. For instance,
since specific brain areas are activated when children
begin to read, are those areas still active for children who
do not read, especially in cultures that honor oral tradi-
tions? If fMRI studies were conducted to answer this
question, would researchers still experience cultural bias
if they discover that those areas are not active in children
who grew up in oral cultures? In my opinion, they would
because the researchers would like to generalize their
findings in some way, intentional or not.

As I am writing this, it has dawned on me that
generalizing can be a philosophical issue in the psycho-
logical world. It can become problematic when it comes
to others accepting what psychologists have written as
true. To remedy this issue, psychologists can conduct
and compare experiments in different cultures. Another
suggestion is to use different methods that are culturally
appropriate. For example, instead of using an American
assessment on Jewish children that has a story on Santa
Claus, substitute that story with a neutral one that does
...Psychologists would have
to take note that other cul-
tures have different beliefs.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-sr7iACRNlcQ/UWfo4RibQrI/
AAAAAAAAB0U/bib0Rq64tVE/s320/
holding.hands.around.the.world.1.png
Whether we are casual movie viewers or avid
comic book readers, most of us who know Bruce
Wayne, Gothams billionaire socialite-philanthropist,
are also familiar with his tragic upbringing. He is
known for the traumatic experience he faced as an in-
nocent child and his eventual evolution into his alter
ego, Batman - the Caped
Crusader of Gotham.
Additionally, those who
have knowledge of his
adventures are aware of
Batmans enemies and
eventually learn of their
backstories as well.
However, one of Bat-
mans nemeses continues
to dwell in the shadows
relative to his true iden-
tity. The villain being
referred to is what some
analysts and fans have
identified as being the
living antithesis of Batman. This character is none oth-
er than the maniacal clown himself, the Joker. Since
his debut in the first pages of the Batman comic book
published in the spring of 1940, up until the summer
blockbuster film The Dark Knight released on July
18th, 2008, the Joker continues to evoke feelings of
fear, curiosity, - and even appreciation - in nearly eve-
ry one of his incarnations.

The true origin of the Joker, including simple
details such as his name, continues to be a mystery.
This has prompted many writers and cartoonists to
throw in their two cents as to how the mad clown
came to be. Arguably, the most accepted story of the
Jokers birth is in the graphic novel entitled Batman:
The Killing Joke, published in the March of 1988 by
the famous writer, Alan Moore. The storys climax
involves the then anonymous Joker falling into a vat of
chemicals to evade capture by the Gotham police, una-
ware of the potential consequences. After some time,
the man slowly emerges to a horrible sight: his skin had
been bleached white, his hair was tinted green, and his
lips were now colored bright red and permanently fixed
into an eerie grimace.

No matter which incarnation of the Joker is
used as a case study, the Joker is
philosophized about and even
psychoanalyzed by mental health
professionals and fans alike. The
best personification of the Joker
to be used would be the one
from Christopher Nolans film,
The Dark Knight. The role of
the Joker was played by the late
Heath Ledger, who posthu-
mously won the Academy
Award for Best Supporting Ac-
tor. At first glance, the viewer
can clearly see the shattered
psyche of the Joker in his physi-
cal appearance. The smeared
clown makeup and unkempt hair both showcase the
slippery mental slope that the Joker stands on.

Throughout various scenes in the film, the Jok-
er claims that he isnt insane, but is instead just ahead
of the curve. This expressed mindset can offer us a
perspective of his philosophy as being one that is akin to
moral nihilism, the belief that morality does not innate-
ly exist in mankind, and that any established moral val-
ues are - more or less - abstractly conceived. Instead of
branding himself as insane, the Joker claims that he is as
an agent of anarchy and chaos. According to the DSM-
By: Hind El Guizouli
See, I'm not a monster.
I'm just ahead of the
curve.
Ahead of the Curve: an analysis of Batmans
Greatest Nemesis, the Joker

V, an assessment of the Jokers psychological profile
would result in him being diagnosed with Antisocial
Personality Disorder. This is because the Joker exhibits
the hallmarks of the disorder as described in the Diag-
nostic and Statistical Manual, such as the Failure to con-
form to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors
that are grounds for arrest as well as Irritability and
aggressiveness, often indicated by repeated physical
fighting or assaults.

The Dark Knight also displays additional traits
attributed to the Joker that assist in aligning his behavior
with the disorders symptoms. For example, his charac-
teristic deceitfulness is highlighted in scenes where the
Joker utters his catchphrase, You wanna know how I
got these scars? In one instance, his answer to the ques-
tion reveals a tragic story of his mothers abuse at the
hands of his drunk and violent father, whom the Joker
claims is the one who gave him the trademark smile by
the blade of a knife. However, later on in the film, the
Joker tells a completely different story. This time, it
features a gambling wife whose face was disfigured by
sharks. Not being able to afford surgery, the Joker scars
his face as well, so that his wife would not feel ashamed
of herself. This backfires, and his wife, horrified at what
he has done, leaves him for good. These stories create
conflict within the viewers as they become unsure of
which story is true, or whether both stories are com-
plete works of fiction. This has the effect of increasing
the Jokers untrustworthiness to a point where anything
that the Joker says is put into doubt. In addition, the
Joker displays moments of both behavioral and mental
impulsivity, as he is willing to take out anyone who
stands in his way by any means necessary.

The Joker also exhibits a disregard for self-
preservation. In one scene, the Joker allows a loaded
gun to be pressed against his forehead, with the ultimate
decision of him living or dying literally resting on the
outcome of a coin flip. In another, the Joker urges the
Dark Knight to hit him with his motorcycle head on, in
order to break Batmans fundamental rule to never take
a human life. Last, but not least, the Jokers lack of
guilt or empathy is shown by his calculated maneuvers
as he attempts to overthrow the laws of Gotham City.
His indifference to the consequences of his actions, in
addition to his twisted rationalization for killing and
stealing from others, makes him good candidate for the
diagnosis.

Interestingly enough, many people argue that
both Batman and the Joker are essentially two sides of
the same coin - that they are mirror images of one an-
other. Both Batman and the Joker operate on the ex-
treme fringes of the law, one for ending corruption and
guarding Gotham City, while the other consistently
challenges the foundations of law, justice, and morality.
Surely, the Jokers characterizations, history, and sym-
bolism, will continue to live on for many generations to
come regardless of who the audience may be.

Work Cited:

Diagnostic criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder:
http://behavenet.com/node/21650

The Killing Joke: http://www.comicvine.com/the-
killing-joke/4045-40503/
You see, madness, as you
know, is like gravity. All it
takes is a little push!

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