Project Report Design of Bioreactor Landfill For Allahabad City

Project Report
Design of Bioreactor Landfill for Allahabad City

Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of B. Tech. Degree
Under the supervision of

Dr. Nekram Rawal

Department Of Civil Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad

Submitted By:
Avaneesh Kumar Yadav 20101067
Nirbhay Narayan Singh 20106038
Akhilesh Kumar Pal 20101050

CONTENTS

CANDIDATES DECLARATION 1
CERTIFICATE 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

CHAPTER
1: Introduction 4
1.1 General 4
1.2 Scope of Present Study 4
1.3 Study Area 5
1.4 Present Management Scenario of MSW at Allahabad city 5
1.5 Objectives 6
2: Literature Review 7
2.1 Bioreactor Landfill 7
2.2 Bioreactor Landfill Types 7
2.2.1 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill 7
2.2.2 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill 7
2.2.3 Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill 7
2.3.1 Leachate 8
2.3.2 Leachate Pollution Index 8
2.4 Parameters Testing Methodology 9
2.4.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 9
2.4.2 Chlorides 14
2.4.3Chemical Oxygen Demand 16
2.4.4 Copper 18
2.4.5 Iron 19
2.4.6 Nitrogen 21
2.4.7 Most Probable Number 24
2.4.8 ph 25
2.4.9 Sulphate 27
2.4.10 Total Dissolved Solid 29
2.4.11 Arsenic 30
2.5 Settlement of MSW 31
2.6 Mechanisms That Cause Large Settlements 31
2.6.1 Mechanical/Primary Compression 31
2.6.2 Biodegradation 32
2.6.3 Physical Creep Compression (Including Ravelling/Void Filling) 32
2.7 Mechanisms That Cause Small Settlements 32
2.7.1 Interaction 32
2.7.2 Consolidation 32
2.8 Methodology for Primary and Mechanical Compression 32
2.9 Leachate Quantity 34
2.10 Gasses in Landfill 35
2.11 Liner System 35
2.11.1 Single Liner System 35
2.11.2 Single Composite Liner System 35
2.11.3 Double Liner System 36
2.12 Design of Landfill Liners 38
2.13 Geo-Membranes 39
2.13.1 Specifications 39
3.14 Daily Cover 39
3.15 Final Cover 39
3.16 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around A Landfill 40
3.17 Surface Water Drainage System 40
3.18 Post Closure Use of Landfills 41
3: Result and Analysis 42
3.1 Census Data for Allahabad City 42
3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City 42
3.3 LPI Parameters Details 44
3.3.1 BOD 44
3.3.2 Chloride 44
3.3.3 COD 45
3.3.4 Copper 46
3.3.5 Iron 46
3.3.6 Kjeldahl Nitrogen 47
3.3.7 MPN Value 47
3.3.8 ph 48
3.3.9 Sulphate 48
3.3.10 Total Dissolved Solids 49
3.3.11 Arsenic 49
3.4 Calculation of LPI 51
3.5 Computation of Primary and Mechanical Compression 51
3.6 Leachate Volume 55
3.7 Volume Lost Through Evaporation 56
3.8 Gasses Generation in Landfill 59
3.9 Design of Leachate Collection System 60
3.10 Design of Leachate Collection Pond 61
3.11 Leachate Recirculation System 62
3.12 Design of Gas Collection System 62
3.13 Daily Cover 64
3.14 Final Cover 65
3.15 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around A Landfill 65
3.16 Surface Water Drainage System 65
3.17 Calculation of Bioreactor Size 65
3.18 Layout of Landfill Bottom 66
4: Conclusions 67
4.1 Future Scope of the Study 68
Appendix 1 Iron Absorbance Std. Curve
Appendix 2 Sample Collection Date
Appendix 3 MPN Table
Appendix 4 Sub-Index Value Curve
Appendix 5 Typical Value for Geo Membrane

Tables
Table 3.1 Census data for Allahabad City 42
Table 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City 43
Table 3.3 LPI Parameters Details 51
Table 3.4 LPI Calculation 51
Table 3.5 Settlement Details 53
Table 3.7 Rainfall Data for Allahabad City 55
Table 3.8 Temperature and Humidity data for Allahabad City 55
Table 3.9 Temperature vs. Saturation Vapour pressure ew 57
Table 3.10 Calculation of Evaporation 58
Table 3.11 Calculation of Leachate Quantity 58
Table 3.12 Composition of elements in waste 59

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CANDIDATES DECLARATION

We hereby submit the project entitled Design of Bioreactor Landfill for
Allahabad City as approved by the project supervisor Dr. Nekram Rawal, Assistant
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT Allahabad. We hereby declared that all
the informations in this project work are correct. We also declare that, to the best of our
knowledge and belief, this work has not been submitted earlier for the award of any other
Degree and Diploma.

(Avaneesh Kumar Yadav) (Nirbhay Narayan Singh) (Akhilesh Kumar Pal)
(20101067) (20106038) (20101050)

Place: MNNIT Allahabad
Date:

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled Design of Bioreactor Landfill for
Allahabad City submitted by Avaneesh Kumar Yadav , Nirbhay Narayan Singh and
Akhilesh Kumar Pal in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (CIVIL ENGINEERING) to Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology Allahabad is the record of students own work and it was carried out
under my supervision.

Date: (Nekram Rawal)
Assistant Professor CED
MNNIT Allahabad

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to all the people behind the screen who helped us to
transform an idea into a real application. We would like to thank our internal guide Assistant
Prof. Nekram Rawal for his technical guidance, constant encouragement and support in
carrying out our project at college.
We are very thankful to Asst. Prof. Sumedha Chakma for providing valuable suggestion and
helping us to complete this project. We are thankful to Mr. Anil Shrivastav and Ms. Preeti for
providing us raw data of existing landfill. We are thankful to Prof. R. C. Vaishya for helping
us for testing of samples. We are also grateful to Mr. Brij Kishore and Mr. Ashish who helped
us in laboratory to carry out the experiments.
We would like thank all the other staff members, both teaching and non-teaching, who have
extended their timely help and eased our task.
Last but not the least, we are also thankful to our friends and colleagues for their support and
help throughout the project.
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of the task would be
great but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible with their constant
guidance and encouragement crowns all the efforts with success.

Avaneesh Kumar Yadav 20101067
Nirbhay Narayan Singh 20106038
Akhilesh Kumar Pal 20101050

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Looking forward to the future, managing wastes need to be improved for the betterment of
environment and life. Source reduction and recycling efforts with landfill disposal would be
important roles for the integrated waste management strategies for the foreseeable future.
Improper management of MSW causes hazards to inhabitants. Increasing population, rapid
economic growth and rise in living standard accelerates the generation rate of municipal solid
waste (MSW) in Indian cities and so for the Allahabad city. The current total quantity of MSW
generation is 500 ton/day, and the average generation rate of MSW estimated as 0.31
kg/capita/day for Allahabad city. There is urgent need to take proper management of solid
waste at Allahabad city since most of the waste is dump in low lying areas.
Bioreactor landfill is the latest technology for managing the municipal solid waste (MSW). The
MSW are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities, that are normally solid and
that are discarded as useless or unwanted materials. MSW includes all solid wastes generated
in the community except for the industrial and agriculture wastes. Over the past decade, India
has enjoyed tremendous growth in its economy. The quantity of MSW produced depends upon
the living standards of its residents. The degree of commercialization, urbanization, and
industrialization, in fact, has resulted in a vast increase in the amount of refuse generated per
person

1.2 Scope of Present Study
A bioreactor landfill thus proposed in the study so that it will enhance the rate of bio-
degradation of MSW under controlled conditions as compared to a traditional landfill.
Bioreactor Landfill is operated by increasing the moisture content of waste by leachate
recirculation and providing additional moisture (if required) to attain optimal waste moisture
content. Liquid recirculation accelerates the decomposition of MSW by distributing moisture,
nutrients, enzymes, and bacteria throughout the waste mass more homogeneously than natural
infiltration alone. Additionally, landfill capacity can be increased since during degradation of
waste, volume decreases thereby providing additional landfill space in existing landfill sites.
Also, the bioreactor process accelerates gas generation that can offer a revenue stream and
decrease the contaminant concentration in the leachate.

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1.3 Study Area
Allahabad is a major city of east Uttar Pradesh State, situated at 25.25_ North latitude and
81.58_ East longitude. It is about 627 km from Delhi and about 815 km from Calcutta.
Allahabad is an ancient city of India, considered holy because it is built on the confluence
(Sangam) of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.The city has a population of about
1117094 inhabitants (AMC 2011). Allahabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) is responsible for
the management of the MSW generated in the city.
The cities were divided into the four categories based upon the population of the city (Year
2011). The characteristics of the Cities are defined as:

Very Big City Population more than 20 lacs
Big City Population in between 15 lacs and 20 lacs
Medium City Population in between 10 and 15 lacs
Small City Population less than 10 lacs
From above considerations Allahabad comes under medium city.

1.4 Present Management Scenario of MSW at Allahabad city
Solid waste management is a major concerned for Allahabad city and grave problem where
every nooks and corners have some quantity of municipal solid waste .The city of Allahabad
lacks planned solid waste management system. The building wastes generated by construction
activity containing bricks, cement concrete, stones, tiles, wood, also food and other household
wastes are dumped together on street side and roadside, thereby creating nuisance, pollution
and obstruction to traffic. In Allahabad there is no segregation of waste takes place, also
systematic and scientific system of primary collection of waste does not exist. In the absence
of proper segregation practices at source, rag pickers pick up parts of this waste in soiled and
hazardous conditions. There is no proper landfill site available and waste is dumped in a mixed
form in an unscientific manner on open waste land or low lying areas even near the river Ganga
and Yamuna at six different sites. Illegal dumping of the MSW is also very common in the city.
This results not only causing ground water contamination but also air pollution from the
improper dumping of the solid waste.

Inadequate solid waste management in Allahabad City has resulted in the accumulation of
waste on open lands, in drains and in the residential areas, causing a nuisance and foul-smelling
pools, environmental pollution through leachates from heaps (water and soil pollution) and

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burning of waste (air pollution), clogging of drains. This situation is believed to result in poor
environmental conditions, which in turn present an alarming threat to health. There is thus a
need for improved waste management system of the city. As per data available, every year
Nagar Nigam Allahabad spends on an average 18% of its total budget on solid waste
management. In Allahabad Nagar Nigam the entire operation of solid waste management is
performed in four heads namely, cleaning, collection, transportation and disposal. In the city
cleaning and collection operations are performed by Public Health Department of Nagar
Nigam, while transportation and disposal of solid wastes are being performed by public health
department of Nagar Nigam.

1.5 Objectives
Estimation of future production of MSW in the design period of 30 years.
Testing and analysis of leachate by collecting samples.
Determination of settlement rate of MSW, gas production and leachate production.
Selection of the bioreactor type and size from the existing study.
Design of bioreactor landfill components.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Bioreactor Landfill
A bioreactor landfill is typically thought of as sanitary landfill that uses enhanced
microbiological processes to transform and stabilize the readily and moderately decomposable
organic waste constituents in a short period of time (typically 5 to 10 years) in comparison to
a conventional landfill (typically 30 to 50 years or more). According to the Solid Waste
Association of North America (SWANA), a bioreactor landfill is a controlled landfill or landfill
cell where liquid and gas conditions are actively managed in order to accelerate or enhance bio
stabilization of the waste. The bioreactor landfill significantly increases the extent of organic
waste decomposition, conversion rates, and process effectiveness over what would otherwise
occur with the landfill.

2.2 Bioreactor Landfill Types
2.2.1 Anaerobic Bioreactor Landfill: In an anaerobic bioreactor landfill, moisture is added to
the waste mass in the form of recirculated leachate and other sources to obtain optimal moisture
levels.Biodegradation occurs in the absence of oxygen (anaerobically) and produces landfill
gas (LFG). Landfill gas, primarily methane, and carbon-dioxide can be captured to minimize
greenhouse gas emissions and for energy generation. The Anaerobic Bioreactor uses anaerobic
bacteria for the degradation of waste. It is generally accepted that to optimize anaerobic
degradation, moisture conditions at or near field capacity, or about 35 to 45 percent moisture
is required.
2.2.2 Aerobic Bioreactor Landfill: In an aerobic bioreactor landfill, leachate is removed from
the bottom layer, piped to liquids storage tanks, and recirculated into the landfill in a controlled
manner. Air is injected into the waste mass, using vertical or horizontal wells, to promote
aerobic activity and accelerate waste stabilization. The aerobic bioreactor uses aerobic bacteria
for degradation. In landfills, aerobic activity is promoted through injection of air into the waste
mass. The aerobic process does not generate methane and typically requires less than two years
for full degradation.
2.2.3 Hybrid (Aerobic-Anaerobic) Bioreactor Landfill: The hybrid bioreactor landfill
accelerates waste degradation by employing sequential aerobic-anaerobic treatment to rapidly

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degrade organics in the upper sections of the landfill and collect gas from lower sections.
Operation as a hybrid results in the earlier onset of methanogens compared to aerobic landfills.

2.3.1 Leachate
Leachate is any liquid that in passing through matter, extracts solutes, suspended solids or any
other component of the material through which it has passed. Leachate from a landfill varies
widely in composition depending on the age of the landfill and the type of waste that it contains.
It can usually contain both dissolved and suspended material. The generation of leachate is
caused principally by precipitation percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in
contact with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes contaminated and if it
then flows out of the waste material it is termed leachate.
2.3.2 Leachate Pollution Index
A technique to quantify the leachate pollution potential of solid waste landfills on a
comparative scale using an index known as the leachate pollution index (LPI) developed. The
LPI is a quantitative tool by which the leachate pollution data of the landfill sites can be
reported uniformly. It is an increasing scale index. The formulation process involved selecting
variables, deriving weights for the selected pollutant variables, formulating their sub-indices
curves and finally representing the pollutant variables to arrive at LPI.

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2.4 PARAMETERS TESTING METHODOLOGY
2.4.1 BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
The biochemical oxygen demand determination is a chemical procedure for determining
the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic organisms in a water body to break the
organic materials present in the given water sample at certain temperature over a
specific period of time. BOD of water or polluted water is the amount of oxygen
required for the biological decomposition of dissolved organic matter to occur under
standard condition at a standardized time and temperature. Usually, the time is taken as 5
days and the temperature is 20C.The test measures the molecular oxygen utilized during a
specified incubation period for the biochemical degradation of organic material
(carbonaceous demand) and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic material such as
sulfides and ferrous ion. It also may measure the amount of oxygen used to oxidize
reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand).
Apparatus Required
BOD Incubator
Burette & Burette stand
300 mL glass stopper BOD bottles
500 mL conical flask
Pipettes with elongated tips
Pipette bulb
250 mL graduated cylinders
Wash bottle
Chemicals Required
Calcium Chloride
Magnesium Sulphate
Ferric Chloride
Di Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate
Potassium Di Hydrogen Phosphate
Di sodium hydrogen phosphate
Ammonium Chloride
Manganous sulphate
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium iodide

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Sodium azide
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Starch indicator
Sodium thiosulphate
Distilled or deionized
Procedure
For testing the given sample, first the reagents are required to be prepared.
Preparation of Reagent
Manganous Sulphate Solution
Dissolve Manganese Sulphate
480g of (or)
400g of (or)
In freshly boiled and cooled distilled water, filter the solution and make up to 1000
mL (One litre). In this experiment, we are using Manganese sulphate Mono
hydrate.
Take 364g of and transfer it to the beaker. To dissolve the content,
place it in the magnetic stirrer
Note: The solution should not give blue color by addition of acidified potassium
iodide solution and starch.
Alkaline Iodide Sodium Azide Solution
To prepare this reagent we are going to mix three different chemicals
Dissolve either
500 g of Sodium Hydroxide (or)
700 g of Potassium Hydroxide
135 g of Sodium Iodide (or)
150 g of Potassium Iodide
To prepare this reagent, take 700 g of potassium hydroxide and add 150 g of
potassium iodide and dissolve it in freshly boiled and cooled water, and make up to
1000 mL (One litre).
Dissolve 10 g of Sodium Azide in 40 mL of distilled water and add this
with constant stirring to the cool alkaline iodide solution prepared.
Sodium Thiosulphate stock solution Weigh approximately 25 g of sodium

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thiosulphate and dissolve it in boiled distilled water and make up to
1000 mL. Add 1 g of sodium hydroxide to preserve it.
Starch Indicator
Weigh approximately 2 g of starch and dissolve in 100 mL of hot distilled water. In
case if you are going to preserve the starch indicator add 0.2 g of salicylic acid as
preservative.
Sulphuric Acid
Calcium Chloride solution
Weigh accurately 27.5 g of anhydrous calcium chloride and dissolve it in distilled
water.
Take 100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
Transfer it to the 100 mL standard flask and make up to 100 mL using distilled water.
Magnesium Sulphate solution
Weigh accurately 22.5 g of magnesium sulphate and dissolve it in distilled water. Take
100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
Ferric Chloride solution
Weigh accurately 0.15 g ferric chloride and dissolve it in distilled water. Take
100 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
Phosphate buffer solution
Weigh accurately 8.5g of Potassium Di Hydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4) and dissolve
it in distilled water.
Then add exactly 21.75 g of Di Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate (K2HPO4) and
dissolve it. To the same beaker 33.4 g of Di sodium hydrogen phosphate ( Na2HPO4
7H2O), is weighed and added.
Finally to the beaker containing all the salts, add accurately 1.7 g of Ammonium
Chloride (NH4Cl) and dissolve it.
The pH should be 7.2 without further adjustment.
Dilution Water
High quality organic free water must be used for dilution purposes.The required volume

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of water (five liters of organic free distilled water) is aerated with a supply of clean
compressed air for at least 12 hours. Allow it to stabilize by incubating it at 20C for at
least 4 hours.
Add 5mL calcium chloride solution
Add 5mL magnesium sulphate solution
Add 5mL ferric chloride solution and
Add 5mL phosphate buffer solution
This is the standard dilution water. Prepare dilution water 3 to 5 days before
initiating BOD test to ensure that the BOD of the dilution water is less than 0.2
mg/L.
Testing Of Sample
Take four 300 mL glass stoppered BOD bottles (two for the sample and two for
the blank).
Add 10 mL of the sample to each of the two BOD bottles and the fill the
remaining quantity with the dilution water. i.e., we have diluted the sample 30
times.
The remaining two BOD bottles are for blank, to these bottles add dilution water
alone.
After the addition immediately place the glass stopper over the BOD bottles and
note down the numbers of the bottle for identification.
Now preserve one blank solution bottle and one sample solution bottle in a BOD
incubator at 20C for five days.
The other two bottles (one blank and one sample) needs to be analysed
immediately.
Avoid any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles. Remember no bubbles!
Add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the BOD bottle by inserting the calibrated
pipette just below the surface of the liquid.
Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
(The pipette should be dipped inside the sample while adding the above two
reagents. If the reagent is added above the sample surface, you will introduce
oxygen into the sample.)
Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen.
When this floc has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly by

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turning it upside down.
Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface
of the sample.
Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.Titration needs to be
started immediately after the transfer of the contents to Erlenmeyer flask.
Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium
thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand.
Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to an Erlenmeyer
flask.
Titrate the solution with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the yellow
color of liberated Iodine is almost faded out. (Pale yellow color)
Add 1 mL of starch solution. and continue the titration until the blue color
disappears to colourless.
Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added , which gives the
D.O. in mg/L. Repeat the titration for concordant values.
After five days, take out the bottles from the BOD incubator and analyse the
sample and the blank for DO.
Add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the BOD bottle by inserting the calibrated
pipette just below the surface of the liquid.
Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or floc will appear.
Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely with oxygen.
When this floc has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly by
turning it upside down.
Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface
of the sample.
Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.
Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer of the contents to
Erlenmeyer flask.
Rinse the burette with sodium thiosulphate and then fill it with sodium
thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand.
Measure out 203 mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to an Erlenmeyer
flask.Titrate the solution with standard sodium thiosulphate solution until the

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yellow color of liberated Iodine is almost faded out. (Pale yellow color)
Add 1 mL of starch solution and continue the titration until the blue color
disappears to colourless.
Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added, which gives the
D.O. in mg/L. Repeat the titration for concordant values.

2.4.2 CHLORIDES
Chlorides are widely distributed as salts of calcium, sodium and potassium in water
and wastewater. In potable water, the salty taste produced by chloride concentrations is
variable and dependent on the chemical composition of water. The major taste producing
salts in water are sodium chloride and calcium chloride. The salty taste is due to
chloride anions and associated cations in water. In some water which is having only 250 mg
/L of chloride may have a detectable salty taste if the cat-ion present in the water is
sodium. On the other hand, a typical salty taste may be absent even if the water is
having very high chloride concentration for example 1000 mg /L.
Apparatus Required
Burette with Burette stand and porcelain tile
Pipettes with elongated tips
Conical flask (Erlenmeyer Flask)
Standard flask
Beaker
Wash bottle
Chemicals Required
Silver nitrate
Phenolphthalein Indicator
Sodium chloride
Potassium chromate
Procedure
Preparation of Reagents
Standard Sodium Chloride Solution
Switch on the Electronic balance, keep the weighing pan, and set the reading
to zero.
Weigh 1.648g of Sodium chloride

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Transfer the contents to the beaker containing distilled water. Using glass
rod, dissolve the contents thoroughly.
Transfer the contents in the beaker to a 100 mL standard flask; fill
distilled water up to 100 mL mark.
Transfer it to 100mL standard flask using funnel
Standard Silver Nitrate (0.0282 N)
Weigh 4.791g of Silver nitrate and transfer it to the beaker with distilled water.
Transfer the contents in the beaker to a 100 mL standard flask, fill
distilled water up to 100 mL mark.Standardize it against 0.0282 N NaCl
solution. Store it in an amber bottle
Potassium Chromate Indicator
Weigh 25 g of Potassium Chromate. Transfer it to the beaker contains
distilled water. Add few drops of Silver Nitrate solution until slight red
precipitate is formed.
Allow it to stand for 12 hours. After 12 hours filter the solution using filter
paper and dilute the filtrate to 1000 mL using distilled water.
Testing Of Water Sample
Before starting the titration rinse the burette with silver nitrate solution. Fill
the burette with silver nitrate solution of 0.0282 N. Adjust to zero and fix the
burette in stand.
Take 20 mL of the sample in a clean 250mL conical flask
Add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate indicator to get light yellow color
Titrate the sample against silver nitrate solution until the color changes from
yellow to brick red. i.e., the end point.
Note the volume of Silver nitrate added.
Repeat the procedure for concordant values.

Blank Titration
Take 20 mL of the distilled water in a clean 250mL conical flask
Add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate indicator to get light yellow color
Titrate the sample against silver nitrate solution until the color changes from
yellow to brick red. i.e., the end point.
Note the volume of silver nitrate added for distilled water.

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2.4.3 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the
amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount
of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers), making COD a useful
measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates
the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. COD is the measurement of the
amount of oxygen in water consumed for chemical oxidation of pollutants. COD
determines the quantity of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter in water or
waste water sample, under specific conditions of oxidizing agent, temperature, and time.
This method covers the determination of COD in ground and surface waters, domestic
and industrial wastewaters. The applicable range is 3-900 mg/L.
Apparatus Required
COD Digester
Burette & Burette stand
COD Vials with stand
250 mL conical flask (Erlenmeyer Flask)
Pipettes
Pipette bulb
Tissue papers
Wash Bottle
Chemicals Required
Potassium dichromate
Sulfuric acid
Ferrous ammonium sulphate
Silver sulphate
Mercury sulphate
Ferroin indicator
Organic free distilled water
Procedure
For testing the given sample, first the reagents are required to be prepared.
Standard Potassium Dichromate Reagent - Digestion Solution
Weigh accurately 4.913 g of potassium dichromate, previously dried at 103C
for 2 - 4 hours and transfer it to a beaker.

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Weigh exactly 33.3g of mercuric sulphate and add to the same beaker. Measure
accurately 167 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid using clean dry measuring
cylinder and transfer it to the beaker. Dissolve the contents and cool to room
temperature. (If not dissolved keep it over night).
Carefully transfer the contents to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000
mL using distilled water.This is the standard potassium dichromate solution to be
used for digestion.
Sulphuric Acid Reagent - Catalyst Solution
Weigh accurately 5.5g silver sulphate crystals to a dry clean 1000 mL beaker.
To this carefully add about 500 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid, allow to stand
for 24 hr.
Standard Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate solution
Weigh accurately 39.2g of ferrous ammonium sulphate crystals and dissolve it in
distilled water. Take 1000 mL standard measuring flask and place a funnel over it.
Carefully transfer the contents to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000
mL mark using distilled water.
Testing Of Sample
Take three COD vials with stopper (two for the sample and one for the blank).
Add 2.5 mL of the sample to each of the two COD vials and the remaining COD
vial is for blank; to this COD vial add distilled water.
Add 1.5 mL of potassium dichromate reagent - digestion solution to each of the
three COD vials.
Add 3.5 mL of sulphuric acid reagent - catalyst solution in the same
manner.
CAUTION: COD vials are hot now.
Cap tubes tightly. Switch on the COD Digester and fix the temperature at 150 C
and set the time at 2 hours.
Place the COD vials into a block digester at 150C and heat for two hours.
The digester automatically switches off. Then remove the vials and allow it to
cool to the room temperature.
Fill the burette with the ferrous ammonium sulphate solution, adjust to zero
and fix the burette to the stand.

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Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes bluish green in colour.
Titrate it with the ferrous ammonium sulphate taken in the burette.
End point of the titration is the appearance of the reddish brown colour.
Note down the volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution added for the
blank (A) is 14.1 mL.
Transfer the contents of the sample vial to conical flask.
Add few drops of ferroin indicator. The solution becomes green in colour.
Titrate it with the ferrous ammonium sulphate taken in the burette.
End point of the titration is the appearance of the reddish brown colour.
Note down the volume of ferrous ammonium sulphate solution added for the
sample.

2.4.4 COPPER
Copper is an essential element, however, this heavy metal is an inhibitor of microbial
activity at relatively low concentrations. The objective of this study was to evaluate the
inhibitory effect of copper (II) towards various microbial trophic groups responsible for the
removal of organic constituents and nutrients in wastewater treatment processes.
Materials
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) membrane
4, 7-dipheny1-2, 9-dimethy1-1, 10-phenanthroline (bathocuproine)
o-nitrophenyloctylether (-NPOE).
Colorimeter
Volumetric pipets with bulbs
Test tubes
Test tube rack.
Procedure
Calibrate the colorimeter with standard solution.
A 5 cm
3
of aqueous sample containing copper ions was placed in a glass
sample tube (30cm
3
volume)
0.5cm
3
of 6.510
-2
mol dm
-3
hydroxyl ammonium sulfate, 0.13mol dm
-
3
potassium chloride and acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.9) was added.
A sheet of PVC membrane consisting of 0.7wt% bathocuproine and 65.0wt%

- 19 -

-NPOE was put into the solution
Solution was stirred with a magnetic stirrer for a definite time at 60C.
The membrane removed from the solution was rinsed with small amount of
water, and wiped to remove the water droplets.
The absorbance of the colored membrane was measured at 480nm by
spectrophotometer.
The copper ion concentration in the sample solution was determined using a
calibration curve.

2.4.5 IRON
Any solution which is colored or can be made colored by adding a complexing agent can
be analyzed using a visible spectrophotometer, such as the Spec 20. Solutions
containing iron ions are colorless, but upon addition of ortho-phenanthroline, the iron
(II) ions in the sample react immediately to produce a complex ion, which is orange in
color. The more iron (II) ions in a sample will result in a deeper orange color while less
iron (II) ions result in a fainter orange color. This follows the Beer-Lambert Law of
spectroscopy. From data obtained from a series of iron (II) standards, it is possible to be
able to determine the amount of iron in an unknown sample.
Equipment
Spectrophotometer
Cuvettes and rack

Procedure
Part I: Preparation of standards
Dissolve 0.7022 grams of ferrous ammonium sulfate, hexa hydrate into deionized
water. Dilute to 1.00 L. This solution is 100 mg/L of Fe
2+
(same as 100 ppm).
Prepare standard solutions of the following concentrations: 0.0, 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, and
1.6 ppm. Use a pipet to transfer 0.0, 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, and 1.6 mLs of the 100 ppm
stock solution into five separate 100 mL volumetric flasks. To each of the flasks,
add 5 mL of a 0.25% ortho-phenanthroline solution with a graduated cylinder.
Carefully dilute to the 100 mL mark by adding deionized water.
Clean a set of six cuvettes and dry the outside. Label the cuvettes: 0 ppm, 0.2
ppm, 0.6 ppm, 1.2 ppm, 1.6 ppm.

- 20 -

Rinse each cuvette with a SMALL amount of the appropriate solution and fill to
about the half-way point.

Part II: Forming the standard curve.

Turn the spectrophotometer on and allow it to warm up for 20 minutes.
Adjust the wavelength to 510 nm.
With the sample compartment empty and the lid closed, set the instrument to 0%T
using the Zero Control Knob. (left front)
Using a Kimwipe, wipe any finger prints from the cuvette containing the Blank
(0ppm) and place this cuvette into the sample compartment being sure to align the
index marks. Close the cover.
Set the instrument to 100%Transmittance using the 100%T/0A knob (right front).
Press the MODE button one time to change the mode from transmittance to
absorbance.
Record the absorbance of the 0 ppm solution (it should be 0.000 A).
Insert each of the cuvettes containing standards into the sample holder, reading the
absorbance values for each one. Record the values in your data table.
Construct a graph of solution concentration (x-axis) vs. absorbance (y-axis).
Draw a least squares or best fit straight line through the data points.(See
Apendix 1)

Part III: Determination of unknown sample.

Obtain an unknown sample from the instructor or prepare your own unknown
sample using a collected water sample.
If using a collected water sample, add 5 mL of the 0.25% ortho-phenanthroline
solution to a 100 mL volumetric flask. Dilute to the line with the collected water.
If using a collected water sample, use collected water without the 0.25% ortho-
phenanthroline solution as the blank. Re-zero the spectrophotometer with this
new blank.
Obtain an absorbance reading for the unknown sample.

- 21 -

From the standard curve, determine the concentration of iron in this unknown
sample.

2.4.6 NITROGEN
Nitrogen compounds are of interest to wastewater treatment plant operators
because of the importance of nitrogen in the life cycles of plants and animals.
Nitrogen is a nutrient and occurs in many forms including ammonia, organic,
nitrate and nitrite each of which may be tested for in a variety of ways. Raw
wastewater nitrogen is normally present in the organic nitrogen and ammonia
forms, with small quantities of the nitrite and nitrate forms. Depending on the
amount of nitrification which occurs within the plant, the effluent may contain
either ammonia or nitrate nitrogen. Under normal circumstances, the nitrite form
of nitrogen will not be present in large quantities due to its rapid oxidation or
conversion to nitrate.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) is an analysis to determine both the organic
nitrogen and the ammonia nitrogen.The analysis involves a preliminary digestion
to convert the organic nitrogen to ammonia, then distillation of the total ammonia
into an acid absorbing solution and determination of the ammonia by an
appropriate method.
Equipment
Kjeldahl digestion apparatus
Heating unit capable of heating a 250 mL sample from 25C to boiling within 5
minutes
Fume hood or exhaust fume ejector
Equipment for distillation and measurement of ammonia nitrogen
REAGENTS
Kjeldahl digestion reagent consisting of:
Concentrated Sulfuric acid
Potassium Sulfate
Mercuric Oxide
Phenolphthalein indicator
Sodium hydroxide - Sodium thiosulfate reagent

- 22 -

Borate buffer solution
Sodium hydroxide 6 N
Kjeldahl Digestion Procedure
Select an appropriate volume of sample to be placed in the 500 to 800 mL Kjeldahl
digestion flask.

Expected TKN mL of sample
Concentration (mg/L) to use

0to1 500 (use 800 mL flask)
1to10 250
10to20 100
20to50 50
50to 100 25

Dilute if necessary to 300 mL with ammonia free distilled water.

CAREFULLY add 50 mL of digestion reagent. If large amounts of organic matter are
present, an additional 50 mL of reagent must be added per gram of organic matter.
(This may be estimated from volatile solids information).

Mix thoroughly. (Incomplete mixing can cause bumping during the digestion and
may result in glassware breaking or loss of sample).

Add several glass beads of boiling chips to the flask.

Place flask on digestion apparatus and heat to boiling and continue boiling until you
see the formation of dense white fumes (SO
2
).

Continue to digest the sample for 30 minutes more. As the digestion continues,
colored or turbid samples will turn clear or straw colored.

- 23 -

Cool the flask and dilute the sample with 300 mL of ammonia free distilled water.
Mix.

Add 0.5 mL phenolphthalein indicator.

Tilt the digestion flask and CAREFULLY add a sufficient amount of sodium
hydroxide - thiosulfate reagent to form an alkaline layer (pink zone) in the bottom of
the flask. Usually 50 mL of reagent is needed for every 50 mL of digestion reagent
used.

Connect the flask to the distillation apparatus, mix thoroughly and distill 200 mL of
distillate into a boric acid absorbing solution.

Pipette 50 mL of distillate or a suitable aliquot diluted to 50 mL with ammonia free
distilled water into a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask.

Neutralize the boric acid absorbing solution by:

Adding 2 mL Nessler reagent.

Adding Sodium hydroxide to pH near 7 followed by the addition of 1 mL of Nessler reagent

Cap the Erlenmeyer flask with a clean rubber stopper and mix thoroughly.

Allow 10 minutes for color development. (Sample, blank, and standards must be
maintained at the same temperature and color development time.)

NOTE: If ammonia nitrogen is extremely low, allow 30 minute development.

Measure percent transmittance of the sample using a distilled water blank as reference
(%T = 100) at the selected wavelength. (Since the wavelength used is dependent on
the ammonia concentration, the wavelength must be determined experimentally and
then remain constant for standards and samples.)

- 24 -

Concentration (mg/L) Wavelength (nm)

0.4 to 5.0 mg/L 400 to 425
approaching 10 mg/L 450 to 500

Read the nitrogen concentration in ug from the calibration curve and calculate the
ammonia nitrogen.

2.4.7 MOST PROBABLE NUMBER
Human fecal pathogens vary in kind (viruses, bacteria, protozoa) and in number, it would be
impossible to test each water sample for each pathogen. Instead, it is much easier to test for
the presence of nonpathogenic intestinal organisms such as E. coli. E. coli is a normal
inhabitant of the intestinal tract and is not normally found in fresh water. Therefore, if it is
detected in water, it can be assumed that there has been fecal contamination of the water. The
presence of this organism in a water supply is evidence of recent fecal contamination and is
sufficient to order the water supply closed until tests no longer detect E. coli.
Material
Measuring Flask
Test Tube
Durham Tubes
Autoclave
Incubator
Cotton
Beef Extract
Lactose
Peptone

Procedure
Prepare lactose broth by dissolving 3g. Beef extract, 5g. Lactose, and 5g. Peptone in I
L of distilled water.
Add 1o ml of prepared broth in each of the 9 test tubes. Insert one fermentation tube

- 25 -

in inverted position in each of these tubes. Plug each tube with cotton and sterilize in
auto clave.
Inoculate the water sample 10 ml. each in 3 of the above tubes, 1 ml each in next 3
tubes and 0.1 ml each in remaining 3 tubes.
Incubate these tubes at 35C 0.5C.At the end of 24 hr. take out the tubes from
incubator. Shake each gently and examine for any gas formation
Note the no. of positive tubes. Find out 24 hr. presumptive MPN rom statistical table
given in appendix 3.

2.4.8 pH
Determination of pH is one of the important objectives in biological treatment of the
wastewater. In anaerobic treatment, if the pH goes below 5 due to excess
accumulation of acids, the process is severely affected. Shifting of pH beyond 5 to 10
upsets the aerobic treatment of the wastewater. In these circumstances, the pH is
generally adjusted by addition of suitable acid or alkali to optimize the treatment of the
wastewater. pH value or range is of immense importance for any chemical reaction. A
chemical shall be highly effective at a particular pH. Chemical coagulation,
disinfection, water softening and corrosion control are governed by pH adjustment.
Dewatering of sludges, oxidation of cyanides and reduction of hexavalent chromium
into trivalent chromium also need a avorable pH range. It is used in the calculation of
carbonate, bicarbonate, CO2 corrosion, stability index and acid base equilibrium. Lower
value of pH below 4 will produce sour taste and higher value above 8.5 a bitter taste.
Higher values of pH hasten the scale formation in water heating apparatus and also reduce
the germicidal potential of chlorine. High pH induces the formation of
trihalomethanes, which are causing cancer in human beings.
Apparatus Required
pH meter
Standard flasks
Magnetic Stirrer
Funnel
Beaker
Wash Bottle

- 26 -

Tissue Paper
Chemicals Required
Buffers Solutions of pH 4.01, 7.0 and 9.2
Potassium Chloride
Distilled Water
Procedure
Calibrating The Instrument
Using the buffer solutions calibrate the instrument.
Step 1
In a 100 mL beaker take pH 9.2 buffer solution and place it in a magnetic
stirrer, insert the teflon coated stirring bar and stir well.
Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check
for the reading in the pH meter.
If the instrument is not showing pH value of 9.2, using the calibration
knob adjust the reading to 9.2.
Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe
gently with soft tissue.
Step 2
Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check for
the reading in the pH meter.
If the instrument is not showing pH value of 7.0, using the calibration knob
adjust the reading to 7.0Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled
water and then wipe gently with soft tissue.

Step 3
Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the stirred buffer and check for
the reading in the pH meter.
If the instrument is not showing pH value of 4.0, using the calibration knob
adjust the reading to 4.0.

- 27 -

Take the electrode from the buffer, wash it with distilled water and then wipe
gently with soft tissue.
Now the instrument is calibrated.
Testing Of Sample
In a clean dry 100 mL beaker take the water sample and place it in a
magnetic stirrer, insert the Teflon coated stirring bar and stir well.
Now place the electrode in the beaker containing the water sample and check
for the reading in the pH meter. Wait until you get a stable reading.
The pH of the given water sample is __
Take the electrode from the water sample, wash it with distilled water and then
wipe gently with soft tissue.

2.4.9 SULPHATE
Sulphates is widely distributed in nature and may be present in natural waters in
concentration ranging from few hundred to several thousand mg/L.Sulphates occur
naturally in numerous minerals, including barite, epsomite and gypsum.These dissolved
minerals contribute to the mineral content of drinking-waters.Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
may contribute large amounts of sulphates through pyrite oxidation. Sulfate is the second
most abundant anion in seawater. Its high concentration owes to the high to moderate
solubility of the salts that it forms with the major cations in seawater, namely, Na, Mg
2+
,
and Ca
2+
.
Apparatus Required
UV-Visible Spectrometer
Sample tubes
Standard flask
Beaker
Spatula
Measuring Cylinder
Wash Bottle
Tissue Paper
Chemicals Required
Isopropyl Alcohol

- 28 -

Glycerol
Concentrated Hydrochloric acid
Sodium Chloride
Barium chloride
Sodium sulphate
Distilled water
Procedure
Preparation of Reagents
Conditioning reagent
Measure exactly 25 ml glycerol and pour it to a dry clean beaker.
Then, measure 15 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid and add it to the same
beaker.
To the same beaker, add exactly 50 mL of 95 % isopropyl alcohol and mix well.
Accurate weigh 37.5 g sodium chloride and dissolve it in distilled water.
Then mix all the contents and make up the final volume to 250 mL using
distilled water.
Standard sulphate solution
Weigh accurately 1.479 g anhydrous sodium sulphate and dissolve it in distilled
water.
Transfer it to the 1000 mL standard flask and make up to 1000 mL using
distilled water.
Preparation of Blank, Standards and sample for Testing
Take six 50 mL glass stoppered standard flask (four for standards, one for the
sample and one for the blank).
Add 10 mL of the standard sulphate solution to the first standard flask, 20 mL to
the second, 30 mL to the third and 40 mL to the fourth.
To the fifth standard flask add 20 mL of the sample water.
The sixth standard flask is for the blank, to this standard flask add distilled water alone. To
measure the sulphate content select the fixed wavelength measurement method. Double
click fixed wavelength measurements, the system information are transferred and then
the following window will appear. Click parameter option and select absorbance, fast
response and enter starting value of the wave length in nanometers. For this experiment

- 29 -

load 420 nm as the starting value. Click add and enter the sample number, here it is
100.Then load the number of cycles the analysis has to be made. Enter 1 for this case.
Click ok. The details of the entries will be displayed as shown. Note that the absorbance is
not zero so to reset the reading to zero, take distilled water in the two sample tubes and
place them in the chambers of the spectrometer. Now click the button auto zero the
instrument resets and shows 0.0000 as reading.

2.4.10 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID
The term total dissolved solids refer to materials that are completely dissolved in water.
These solids are filterable in nature. It is defined as residue upon evaporation of filterable
sample. The term total suspended solids can be referred to materials which are not
dissolved in water and are non-filterable in nature. It is defined as residue upon
evaporation of non-filterable sample on a filter paper.
Apparatus Required
Evaporating Dish
Water Bath
Oven
Desiccators
Analytical Balance
Graduated Cylinders
Dish Tongs
Procedure
To measure total dissolved solids, take a clean porcelain dish which has been washed
and dried in a hot air oven at 180C for one hour.
Now weigh the empty evaporating dish in analytical balance
Mix sample well and pour into a funnel with filter paper. Filter approximately 80
-100 mL of sample.
Using pipette transfer 75mL of unfiltered sample in the porcelain dish.
Switch on the oven and allowed to reach 105C. Check and regulate oven and
furnace temperatures frequently to maintain the desired temperature range.

Place it in the hot air oven and care should be taken to prevent splattering of
sample during evaporation or boiling.

- 30 -

Dry the sample to get constant mass. Drying for long duration usually 1 to 2 hours
is done to eliminate necessity of checking for constant mass.

Cool the container in a desiccator. Desiccators are designed to provide an
environment of standard dryness. This is maintained by the desiccant found
inside. Don't leave the lid off for prolonged periods or the desiccant will soon be
exhausted. Keep desiccator cover greased with the appropriate type of lubricant
in order to seal the desiccator and prevent moisture from entering the desiccator
as the test glassware cools.
We should weigh the dish as soon as it has cooled to avoid absorption of moisture
due to its hygroscopic nature. Samples need to be measured accurately,
weighed carefully, and dried and cooled completely.
Note the weight with residue.

2.4.11 ARSENIC
Chronic arsenic poisoning results from drinking contaminated well water over a long
period of time. Many aquifers contain high concentration of arsenic salts. The World
Health Organization recommends a limit of 0.01 mg/L (10ppb) of arsenic in drinking
water. This recommendation was established based on the limit of detection of available
testing equipment at the time of publication of the WHO water quality guidelines. More
recent findings show that consumption of water with levels as low as 0.00017 mg/L
(0.17ppb) over long periods of time can lead to arsenicosis. From a 1988 study in China,
the US protection agency quantified the lifetime exposure of arsenic in drinking water at
concentrations of 0.0017 mg/L, 0.00017 mg/L, and 0.000017 mg/L are associated with a
lifetime skin cancer risk of 1 in 10,000, 1 in 100,000, and 1 in 1,000,000 respectively.
The World Health Organization asserts that a level of 0.01 mg/L poses a risk of 6 in
10000 chance of lifetime skin cancer risk and contends that this level of risk is
acceptable.
Apparatus
As-1 Reagent (11 ml)
As-2 Reagent (145 grams)
Test Strips (100)
Reaction Bottles
Measuring Spoons

- 31 -

Color Matching Card
Carrying Case

Procedure
Take 25 ml sample in the bottle given with the kit.
Add Arsenic Reagent 1 (one Pouch) & 2 spoons of powdered reagent.
Shake the mixture for 1 minute, now add one pouch of Arsenic Reagent 2 and
put the bottle's cap fitted with a strip having mercuric bromide indicator at its
tip immediately.
Strip should neither touch the bottle nor the solution.
Shake the bottle gently & put for 15 minutes for comletion of the reaction.
Now remove the strip and match its colour with the scale given with the kit.
Note down the corresponding reading.

2.5 Settlement of MSW
MSW settles under its own weight and as external loads are placed on the landfill. External
loads include daily soil cover, additional waste layers, final cover, and facilities such as
buildings and roads. MSW settlement is mainly attributed to-
(1) physical and mechanical processes that include the reorientation of particles, movement of the
fine materials into larger voids, and collapse of void spaces;
(2) chemical processes that include corrosion, combustion and oxidation;
(3) dissolution processes that consist of dissolving soluble substances by percolating liquids and
then forming leachate; and
(4) Biological decomposition of organics with time depending on humidity and the amount of
organics present in the waste.

2.6 MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE LARGE SETTLEMENTS
2.6.1 Mechanical/Primary Compression Mechanical/primary compression is due to
distortion,
Bending, crushing and reorientation of materials caused by the weight of overburden and
compaction. This settlement occurs rapidly and is typically complete within approximately one
month from the time the filling is complete. At the Landfill, mechanical and primary
compression due to fills was estimated to range from 10 to 20 percent of new fill thicknesses
based on empirical data collected during a soil fill placement. The actual primary compression
depends on fill geometry, density of landfill and overburden, and landfill composition.

- 32 -

2.6.2 Biodegradation: Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material by bacteria
is theprocess known as biodegradation. For anaerobic decomposition of cellulose, which is the
primarymechanism of biodegradation, bacteria convert carbon-based solid material and water
intoprimarily carbon dioxide and methane. This conversion results in a loss of solid mass. Most
settlement after landfill construction is due to this mechanism.

2.6.3 Physical Creep Compression (Including Ravelling/Void Filling): This mechanism is
caused by:
(1) Erosion and sifting of finer materials into voids between larger particles;
(2) Material moving into voids as a result of biodegradation; and
(3) Continued elastic compression.
Void filling is partly related to a weakening of the support of the solids due to such things as
Biodegradation and corrosion, which causes a reduction of the rigidity of landfill materials
This form of settlement equals about2 percent of the fill height per log cycle of time. For the
landfill, physical creep compression was estimated to contribute from 0 to 7 feet of additional
settlement over the next 90 years.

2.7 MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE SMALL SETTLEMENTS
2.7.1 Interaction: Examples of interaction include methane supporting combustion,
spontaneous
Combustion and organic acids causing corrosion. This mechanism is closelyassociated with
the occurrence of the other mechanisms. By itself, interaction is not expected torepresent a
significant amount of settlement over a large areal extent. It could result in largelocalized
settlements; although with a properly maintained and operated LFG collection systemand cover
in place, the source of oxygen to support combustion will be significantly reduced.

2.7.2 Consolidation: Consolidation settlement is caused by excess water squeezing from pore
spaces in low permeable soil formations. If landfill is not saturated then settlement due to
consolidation is not expected.

2.8 Methodology for Primary and Mechanical Compression
The waste mass consists of layers of refuse of finite thickness. Addition of a new waste layer
causes settlement, attributable theweight of the overlaying layers, and stress increases

- 33 -

instantaneouslybecause of construction of a new layer.The strain [(t)] resulting from an
instantaneous response to surcharge loading can be expressed by
(t) = C log((0 + )/0 ) (1)

where C = compression ratio (coefficient of compressibility);
0 = initial vertical stress; and
= change in vertical stress
Because the unit weight of a solid waste deposit in a landfillincreases with depth, the
overburden pressure at different heightsHi is computed by
(2)
Thus, the strain in each lift of the multilayer fill can be expressed bythe equation
(3)
where C = coefficient of compressibility;
Hi = initial thickness ofthe compacted lift (assumed initially same for all the lifts);
i= unit weight of lift i; and
j = increment of unit weight imposed by lift j on lift i; and pi and mi stand for primary and
mechanical strain, respectively.
The primary compression (S(t)pi) can be obtained by
S(t)pi = Hj pi(t) (4)
Similarly, the mechanical compression (S(t)mi ) attributable to creep, is obtained by
S(t)m = H mi(t) (5)
where H = initial height of the landfill after primary compression.
Eqs. (4) and (5) give the temporal change of primary andmechanical compressions attributable
to overlaying layers. Theseequations can be used to compute primary and mechanical
settlementwhile assuming constant density, or spatial and temporal
variation of density.
Model Parameters:
Coefficient of Compressibilityand DensityIn Eq. 3, the coefficient of compressibility (C) is
used for bothprimary and mechanical strain. The value C is found from the relationship

- 34 -

(6)

where C = compressive index; eo = initial void ratio of the solidwaste; and t = time after landfill
closure (years).The compressive index C is primarily dependent on the voidratio and is
obtained from the slope of the void ratio versus log-timecurve. The following range is provided
for estimating the compressiveindex:
C= (0.15 to 0.55)eo for primary compression;
(0.03 to 0.09)eo for secondary compression
The value of C is different for primary and mechanical compression. The coefficient of
compressibility for primarycompression lies in the range 0.10.5, whereas secondary
compressionlies in the range 0.0120.08.
The variation of refuse density with depth (z) is computed by the method of Manna et al. using
Eq. (7)
Pz = Pm+(Pm P0) ((z/z + )) (7)
where Po = starting value of the density;
Pm= maximum density value corresponding to infinite load; and
= numerical coefficient.
Once the density is known by Eq. (7), the unit weight of thesolid waste is calculated by
multiplying the acceleration due togravity (g) with density. The temporal variation of the unit
weightis then obtained by
(8)
Where (t) = required unit weight at time t (days) and
i = initial unit weight of the refuse.
Density varies from 600694 kg/m
3
during activefilling, whereas the maximum density
observed is in the range11861653 kg/m
3
.
2.9 Leachate Quantity
The quantity of leachate generated in a landfill is strongly dependent on the quantity of
infiltrating water. This, in turn, is dependent on weather and operational practices. The amount
of rain falling on a landfill to a large extent controls the leachate quality generated. Precipitation
depends on geographical location.Significant quantity of leachate is produced from the active

- 35 -

phases of a landfill under operation during the monsoon season. The leachate quantity from
those portions of a landfill which have received a final cover is minimal.
The leachate generation during the operational phase from an active area of a landfill may be
estimated in a simplified manner as follows:
Leachate volume = (volume of precipitation) + (volume of pore squeeze liquid)
(Volume lost through evaporation) (volume of water absorbed by the waste).
2.10 Gases in Landfill
Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
hydrogen sulphide, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen. Carbon dioxide and methane are the
principal gasses produced from the anaerobic decomposition of the organic solid waste.

2.11 Liner System
Liner systems comprise of a combination of leachate drainage and collection layer(s) and
barrier layer(s). A competent liner system should have low permeability, should be robust and
durable and should be resistant to chemical attack, puncture and rupture. A liner system may
comprise of a combination of barrier materials such as natural clays, amended soils and flexible
geo-membranes.

Three types of liner systems are usually adopted and these are described hereafter:
2.11.1 Single Liner System: Such a system comprises of a single primary barrier overlain by
a leachate collection system with an appropriate separation/protection layer. A system of this
type is used for a low vulnerability landfill. It is suitable for LPI less than 7.
2.11.2 Single Composite Liner System: A composite liner comprises of two barriers, made
of different materials, placed in intimate contact with each other to provide a beneficial

- 36 -

combined effect of both the barriers. Usually a flexible geo-membrane is placed over a clay or
amended soil barrier. A leachate collection system is placed over the composite barrier. Single
composite liner system are often the minimum specified liner system for non-hazardous wastes
such as MSW. For LPI between 7and 25 it is best suited liner type.

2.11.3 Double Liner System: In a double liner system a single liner system is placed twice,
one beneath the other. The top barrier (called the primary barrier) is overlaid by a leachate
collection system. Beneath the primary barrier, another leachate collection system (often called
the leak detection layer) is placed followed by a second barrier (the secondary barrier). This
type of system offers double safety and is often used beneath industrial waste landfills. It allows
the monitoring of any seepage which may escape the primary barrier layer. For LPI greater
than 25, it is taken into consideration.

Since LPI for the MSW waste for Allahabad is 19.86.Hence we will go for composite type
liner. The advantages of a composite liner system are immense and often not widely
recognised. The way that a composite liner works is sketched in figure and iscontrasted with
individual geo-membranes and soil liners. To achieve goodcomposite action, the geo-
membrane must be placed against the clay with good hydraulic contact. To achieve intimate
contact, the surface of a compacted soilliner on which the geo-membrane is placed should be
smooth-rolled with a steel drum roller. All oversize stones in the soils should be removed prior

- 37 -

to rolling.Also, the geo-membrane should be placed and backfilled in a way that minimizes
wrinkles.

On a basis of review of liner systems adopted in different countries , it is recommended that
for all MSW landfills the following single composite liner system be adopted (waste
downwards) as the minimum requirement :
(a) A leachate drainage layer 30 cm thick made of granular soil having permeability (K) greater
than 10
-2
cm/sec.
(b) A protection layer (of silty soil) 30 cm thick.
(c) A geo-membrane of thickness 2.0 mm.
(d) A compacted clay barrier or amended soil barrier of 1 m thickness having permeability (K)
of less than 10
-7
cm/sec.

- 38 -

2.12 DESIGN OF LANDFILL LINERS
The selection of material to be used a soil barrier layer will usually be governed by the
availability of materials, either at site or locally in nearby areas. The hierarchy of options will
usually be as follows:
(a) Natural clay will generally be used as a mineral component of a liner system where suitable
clay is available on site or nearby.
(b) If clay is not available, but there are deposits of silts (or sands), then formation of good
quality bentonite enhanced soil/amended soil, may be economical.

Compacted Clays: Wherever suitable low permeability natural clay materials are available,
they provide the most economical lining material and are commonly used. The basic
requirements of a compacted clay liner is that it should have permeability below a pre-specified
limit (10
-7
cm/sec) and that this should be maintained during the design life. Natural clay
available in-situ is usually excavated and re-compacted in an engineered manner. If clay is
brought from nearby areas, it is spread in thin layers and compacted over the existing soil. The
quality of the in-situ clay may be good enough to preclude the requirement of acompacted clay
liner, only if it has no desiccation cracks and is homogeneous aswell as uniformly dense in
nature.
Amended Soils: When low-permeability clay is not available locally, in-situ soilsmay be
mixed with medium to high plasticity imported clay, or commercial clayssuch as bentonite, to
achieve the required low hydraulic conductivity. Soil bentonite admixtures are commonly used
as low permeability amended soil liners.Generally, well-graded soils require 5 to 10 percent by
dry weight of bentonite,while uniformlygraded soils (such as fine sand), may typically require
10 to 15percent bentonite. The most commonly used bentonite admixture is sodium bentonite.
Calcium bentonite may also be used, but more bentonite may be neededto achieve the required
permeability, because it is more permeable than sodiumbentonite.
A competent barrier made of compacted soils - clays or amended soils is normally expected
to fulfil the following requirements:
(a) Hydraulic conductivity of 10-7 cm/sec or less;
(b) Thickness of 100 cm or more;
(c) Absence of shrinkage cracks due to desiccation;
(d) Absence of clods in the compacted clay layer;
(e) Adequate strength for stability of liner under compressive loads as well as alongside slopes;
and

- 39 -

(f) Minimal influence of leachate on hydraulic conductivity.
Clays of high plasticity with very low values of permeability (usually well below the prescribed
limit), exhibit extensive shrinkage on drying, as well as tend to form large clods during
compaction in the relatively dry state. Their permeability can also increase on ingress of certain
organic leachates. Well compacted inorganic clays of medium plasticity, either natural or
amended, appear to be most suitable for liner construction.
2.13 Geo-membranes
A High Density Poly ethylene (HDPE) geo-membrane of minimum thickness of 1.5 mm is to
be laid over the compacted clay/amended soil with no gaps along the surface of contact.
2.13.1 Specifications
The geo-membrane is normally expected to meet the following requirements:
(a) It should be impervious.
(b) It should have adequate strength to withstand subgrade deformations and construction
loads.
(c) It should have adequate durability and longevity to withstand environmental loads.
(d) The joints/seams must perform as well as the original material.
3.14 Daily Cover
The advantages of using daily cover are primarily in preventing windblown litter and odors,
deterrence to scavengers, birds and vermin and in improving the sites visual appearance. It is
also advocated as a means of shedding surface water during the filling sequence, thereby
assisting in leachate management by reducing infiltration.
3.15 Final Cover
A landfill cover is usually composed of several layers, each with a specific function. The final
cover system must enhance surface drainage, minimize infiltration, vegetation and control the
release the landfill gases. The landfill cover system to be adopted will depend on the gas
management plan i.e. (a) controlled passive venting; (b) uncontrolled release; or (c) controlled
collection and treatment/reuse.

- 40 -

3.16 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around a Landfill
Groundwater samplers are used for groundwater monitoring through a certain set of wells
around a landfill.
A minimum of 4 sets of ground water monitoring wells (one up-gradient and three down
gradient) for sampling in each acquifer are considered desirable at each landfill site as per
recommendations of Manual on MSW Management by MoOD, Govt. of India.

3.17 Surface Water Drainage System
Surface water management is required to ensure that rainwater run-off does not drain into the
waste from surrounding areas and that there is no water logging/ ponding on covers of landfills.
The final cover should be provided a slope of 3 to 5% for proper surface water drainage.

- 41 -

3.18 Post Closure Use of Landfills
After the closure of landfill site, it can be used in a number of ways some of which are
mentioned as following-
Parks
Golf Courses
Residential buildings (after proper geotechnical investigations)
Recreational Areas
Retail sites

- 42 -

CHAPTER 3
Result and Analysis

3.1 Census Data for Allahabad city
We have collected the census data from websites of Census data and forecast the population
for Allahabad in 2021.For forecasting we have used Arithmetic Increase Method as it is
best suitable method for an old city. Following are the data and calculation:
Table 3.1 Census data for Allahabad City
Year Population Increase in population
(x)
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
513036
650070
844546
975393
1117094
137034
194476
130847
141701
Total 604058
Average Increase Per Decade X=604058/4
=151014.5

Using Incremental Increase Method
Population in 2045 using Incremental Increase Method
P2045 = 1594871
P2035 = 1460899
P2025 = 1321244
3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City:
We went to Allahabad Waste Processing Co. Pvt. Ltd. To collect the monthly MSW data
for a year to estimate the per capita per day waste generation for present year and after a
decade. Following are the data and calculation showing estimation of waste generation:

- 43 -

Table 3.2 MSW Data for Allahabad City
Month MSW(Mt.)
April 7763.900
May 8494.650
June 10136.870
July 9724.055
August 9763.550
September 10250.220
October 10993.108
November 9753.600
December 12196.640
January 12084.520
February 12892.430
March 13163.718

0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
Garbage(Mt.)
- 44 -

From this data,
Total year MSW production = 127217.261 Mt.
Total avg./Month = 10601.43842 Mt.
Total avg./Day = 353.3812806 Mt.
Total avg./capita/day = 353.3812806*1000/1117094 = 0.316 kg
Total MSW/day production after a decade = 0.316*1594871 = 503.979 Mt.
3.3 LPI parameters details
3.3.1 BOD
Sample 1 = 203.2 mg/l
Sample 3 = 467 mg/l

Variation of BOD in samples

3.3.2 Chloride
Sample 1 = 1079.45 mg/l
Sample 3 = 3374.84 mg/l
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
B.O.D. (mg/l)
Average
- 45 -

Sample 4 = 3710.23 mg/l

Variation of Chlorides contains in samples

3.3.3 COD
Sample 3 = 689 mg/l

Variation in COD of Samples

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Chloride (mg/l)
Average
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 2 3 4
C.O.D. (mg/l)
Average
- 46 -

3.3.4 Copper

Variation of Copper content in samples

3.3.5 Iron
Variation of Iron content in samples
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Copper (mg/l)
Average
- 47 -

3.3.6 Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Variation of Nitrogen content in samples

3.3.7 MPN Value
Sample 1 = 75 per 100 ml.
Variation of MPN value
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Iron (mg/l)
Average
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Kjeldal Nirogen (mg/l)
Average
- 48 -

3.3.8 pH of the samples are
Sample 1 = 7.82
Sample 2 = 7.63
Sample 3 = 9.63
Sample 4 = 8.72
Variation of pH in samples

3.3.9 Sulphate Content in samples
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
M.P.N. per 100 ml
Average
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
pH
Average
- 49 -

Variation of Sulphate content in samples

3.3.10 TDS
Sample 3 = 168 mg/l
Sample 4 = 212 mg/l
Variation of TDS content in samples

3.3.11 Arsenic
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Sulphate (mg/l)
Average
0
50
100
150
200
250
T.D.S. (mg/l)
Average
- 50 -

Sample 4 = 0 mg/l
Variation of Arsenic content of samples

0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
Arsenic (mg/l)
Average

- 51 -

3.4 Calculation of LPI
Table 3.3 LPI Parameters Details
Parameter Sample 1
Sample
2
Sample
3
Sample
4 Mean S.D. Max Min Limit
Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 0.025 0.025 0 0.015 0.010607 0.025 0 0.2
BOD (mg/l) 203.2 294.3 467 480.5 361.25 117.1172 480.5 203.2 30
Chloride (mg/l) 1079.45 2272.5 3374.84 3710.23 2609.255 1031.016 3710.23 1079.45 600
COD (mg/l) 307.69 474.67 689 804.3 568.915 191.6684 804.3 307.69 250
Copper (mg/l) 1.5486 0.0731 1.7492 0.183 0.888475 0.764713 1.7492 0.0731 1.5
Iron (mg/l) 0.5114 0.5671 2.3182 1.9321 1.3322 0.804855 2.3182 0.5114 3
Kjelda Nirogen
(mg/l) 18.62 33.2 42.5 43.7 34.505 10.03125 43.7 18.62 100
MPN per 100
ml 75 210 460 1100 461.25 393.8016 1100 75 5000
pH 7.82 7.63 9.63 8.72 8.45 0.796021 9.63 7.63 5.5-9
Sulphate (mg/l) 5.16 6.21 11.6 9.13 8.025 2.525079 11.6 5.16 1000
TDS (mg/l) 114.8 176.8 168 212 167.9 34.79813 212 114.8 2100

Table 3.4 LPI Calculation
Number Parameter Weight(Wi)
Pollution
Level
Sub Index
Value (Pi) WiPi
1 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.061 0.015 5 0.305
2 BOD (mg/l) 0.061 361.25 7 0.427
3 Chloride (mg/l) 0.048 2609.255 15 0.72
4 COD (mg/l) 0.062 568.915 10 0.62
5 Copper (mg/l) 0.05 0.888475 5.2 0.26
6 Iron (mg/l) 0.045 1.3322 5 0.225
7
Kjeldahl Nitrogen
(mg/l) 0.053 34.505 5 0.265
8 MPN per 100 ml 0.052 461.25 50 2.6
9 pH 0.055 8.45 4.5 0.2475
10 TDS (mg/l) 0.05 167.9 100 5
Sum 0.537 10.6695

Hence LPI = 10.6695/0.537 = 19.86
3.5 Computation of Primary and Mechanical Compression
Primary and mechanical compression were computed considering two cases: assuming
(1) constant density throughout the landfill and
(2) spatial and temporal variation in landfill density.
In the first scenario, primary compression, density is assumed to be the same throughout the
cell and taken as the starting value of 600 kg=m
3
; the coefficient of compressibility (C) is

- 52 -

taken as 0.2. For mechanical compression, considering t = 15 years,spatial variation of
density is computed using and assumed not to vary temporally throughout computation; the
coefficient of compressibility (C) is taken as 0.02.The starting value of the density Po is taken
as 600 kg/m
3
; the maximum density Pm is taken as 1; 350 kg/m
3
; and a numeric coefficient
is taken as 12.4. These values were taken after thorough sensitivity analysis and are used by
many researchers, as shown in following tables.

In the second scenario, primary compression, Eq. 2.8 is used to calculate temporal variation
of density. Furthermore, for mechanical compression, spatial and temporal variation of
density is calculated using Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8. primary compression, the values C, Po, Pm, are
the same as in mechanical compression, as previously described.

- 53 -

Starting value of density P0 = 600 kg/m
3

Maximum density Pm =1350 kg/m
3

Coefficient of compressibility (C) = 0.2
For mechanical compression, considering t = 15 years
=12.4
We calculated settlement considering variable and constant density.
Results are shown in following table
Table 3.5 Settlement Details
Year Settlement (m)
variable density
Settlement (m)
constant density
Difference
2 0.104 0.104 0
5 0.6275 0.6035 0.024
10 1.8423 1.7269 0.1154
15 3.291 3.0466 0.2444
19 4.5604 4.1958 0.3646
23 5.904 5.4087 0.4953
27 7.3078 6.6741 0.6337
30 8.3945 7.6527 0.7418
Settlement (%) 27.98 25.51
Total MSW at the end of 30 yrs.
=30*365*717.691*1000
=7858716450 kg
Total amount of primary settlement in 30 years with max landfill depth of 15 m considering
the variable density= 15*27.98/100 = 4.2 m
Total amount of mechanical compression in the same period =1.5 m
Hence, total settlement = 5.7 m
By using Park & Lee Equation for settlement due to biodegradation (S(t)):
S(t)= H*E*{1-e
(-kt)
}
Where, H = Initial height of the waste=15 m
E = Total expected strain=0.159
k = First order decay constant= 1.14*10
-3
per day
t =Time since the start of the decay (day)
Hence, S(t) = 15*0.159*{1-e
(-1.14*10^-3*30*365)
}

- 54 -

= 2.38m

Therefore, adopting total settlement = 4.2+1.5+2.38 m
=8.08m

- 55 -

3.6 Leachate volume = (volume of precipitation) + (volume of pore squeeze liquid)
(Volume lost through evaporation) (volume of water absorbed by the waste).
Volume of pore squeeze liquid = 45% of weight of MSW
Volume of water absorbed by the waste = 45% of weight of MSW
Table 3.7 Rainfall Data for Allahabad City
Rainfall(mm) in year
Month 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
January 0.6 0.0 3.6 0.9 43.7
February 10.0 0.5 19.2 4.5 0.0
March 0.0 14.4 0.0 0.0 0.8
April 3.1 3.2 0.5 9.3 9.2
May 38.5 26.8 7.5 12.2 0.1
June 322.4 3.1 8.5 237.3 23.1
July 446.9 172.7 201.7 171.0 385.4
August 326.1 64.8 160.6 282.3 246.1
September 67.5 177.8 126.4 266.4 363.5
October 20.3 33.6 45.5 0.0 2.7
November 1.7 15.9 5.3 0.0 0.0
December 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Table 3.8 Temperature and Humidity data for Allahabad City
Month Avg. Ppt. (mm) Avg. Temp (C) Humidity
January 9.58 15.9 68

- 56 -

February 6.84 18.4 59
March 3.04 24.5 40
April 5.06 20.7 29
May 17.02 34.0 32
June 118.88 33.6 45
July 275.54 29.9 78
August 215.98 29.7 80
September 200.32 29.7 79
October 20.42 26.4 68
November 4.58 21.7 60
December 1.2 17.3 64

3.7 Volume Lost through evaporation
To calculate losses through evaporation, we will use following equation(Meyer
Formula),
E =0.36(1+(u9/16))(ew - ea)
Where
E = evaporation
u9 = mean wind speed at 9m above ground
= u* (9)
(1/7)

ew = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of mercury
ea = actual vapour pressure
= Relative Humidity * ew

- 57 -

Table 3.9 Temperature vs. Saturation Vapour pressure ew
Temperature C Saturation Vapour
pressure ew (mm of Hg)
A(mm/C)
0 4.58 0.30
5 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35 42.81 2.35
37.5 48.36 2.62
40 55.32 2.95
45 71.20 3.66

- 58 -

Table 3.10 Calculation of Evaporation

Month ew ea u (kmph) u9 (kmph) E(mm)
January 12.85 8.738 4.32 5.9184 2.0278
February 16.2 9.558 4.32 5.9184 3.2755
March 23.0 13.728 4.32 5.9184 4.5726
April 34.32 9.953 8.23 11.2751 14.9537
May 41.1 13.152 8.23 11.2751 17.1514
June 40.93 18.419 8.23 11.2751 13.8147
July 31.61 24.656 8.23 11.2751 4.2675
August 31.4 25.12 8.23 11.2751 3.8539
September 31.4 24.806 4.32 5.9184 3.4548
October 26.4 17.952 4.32 5.9184 4.1662
November 19.2 11.52 0.72 0.9864 2.9352
December 14.83 9.491 4.32 5.9184 2.6330

Table 3.11 Calculation of Leachate Quantity

Month Avg. Ppt.
(P)(mm)
MSW (Mt.) E(mm) Leachate
Quantity per
Cell(m
3
)
January 9.58 12084.520 30.417 -312.555 (0)
February 6.84 12892.430 49.1325 -634.3875 (0)
March 3.04 13163.718 68.589 -983.235 (0)

- 59 -

April 5.06 7763.900 224.3055 -3288.68 (0)
May 17.02 8494.650 257.271 -3603.765(0)
June 118.88 10136.870 207.2205 -1325.1075 (0)
July 275.54 9724.055 64.0125 3172.9125
August 215.98 9763.550 57.8085 2372.5725
September 200.32 10250.220 51.822 2227.47
October 20.42 10993.108 62.493 -631.095 (0)
November 4.58 9753.600 44.028 -591.72 (0)
December 1.2 12196.640 39.495 -574.425 (0)

3.8 Gasses generation in Landfill
CaHbOcNd + pH2O qCH4 + rCO2 + dNH3
Where,
p = (4a - b 2c + 3d)/4
q = (4a + b 2c + 3d)/8
r = (4a - b + 2c + 3d)/8
Table 3.12 Composition of elements in waste
Element Min (%) Max (%) Avg. (%) Proximate Analysis
C 5.2 21.21 11.1 3.01+0.562VM-0.044Ash
H 0.64 2.66 1.2 0.468+0.057VM-0.005 Ash
O 17.22 28.84 23.03 96.11-0.6453VM-0.948 Ash
N 0.30 1.10 0.57 0.282+0.0216VM-0.002 Ash
S 0.10 0.367 0.21 0.125+0.0003VM+0.0005 Ash

- 60 -

Volatile Mat. 9.3 35.5 18.2
Ash 18.58 69.87 48.72

Hence,
a = 11.1/12 =0.925
b = 1.2/1 = 1.2
c = 17.22/16 = 1.07625
d = 0.57/14 = 0.0407
Quantity of CH4 = 0.3281*16 = 5.24 g per 100 g of MSW
Quantity of CO2 = 0.5968*44 = 26.25 g per 100 g of MSW
3.9 Design of Leachate Collection System:
Maximum monthly amount of leachate generated (in July) = 3172.9125 m
3

Corresponding average daily amount of leachate = 3172.9125/30
= 105.7638 m
3

Average discharge of leachate = 105.7638/ (24*3600)
= 0.001224 m
3
/sec
Assuming velocity of flow of leachate in the landfill = 0.2 m/sec
Hence, Diameter of main drain pipe to be used is calculated as-
Q = A*V
.001224 = 3.14*D
2
*0.2/4
D = 8.83 cm

- 61 -

Since we are providing perforated pipes (PVC or HDPE) having perforations at 120 degrees

Hence, actual diameter of main drain pipe required = 8.83*3 =26.49 cm = 27 cm.
The collecting manhole is provided in the form of a trench of 15 cm width & 10 cm depth
having cross sectional area =150 cm
2
which is greater than required area of
(.001224*10000/0.2) = 61.2 cm
2
which is all right.

3.10 Design of Leachate Collection Pond
Accounting natural moisture content of MSW, precipitation and evaporation, it is calculated
that leachate would be produced only in the months of July, August and September.
Hence, the minimum capacity of leachate collection system = 3173+2373+2227 = 7773 m
3
Providing 40m* 40m * 5mdimension of leachate collection pond having leachate storage
capacity of 8000 m
3.
This pond will be dug below the level of landfill bottom so that leachate may drain into it under
gravity and energy required in pumping the leachate could be saved.
At the bottom of the pond, Double Liner System will be installed to ensure no percolation of
leachate into the ground water table.

- 62 -

3.11 Leachate Recirculation System
In the months other than July, August and September, leachate needs to be recirculated to
maintain the optimum moisture content of MSW for its enhanced biodegradation. The leachate
is sprayed over the MSW using suitable techniques like sprinkler system, etc.
Optimum moisture content of MSW =45% by weight
The design of recirculation system should be in accordance with the maximum deficiency in
moisture content which is found to be in the month of May. If the leachate stored in the leachate
collection pond is not sufficient, moisture supply from other external sources such as
nonhazardous sewer lines is recommended.

3.12 Design of Gas Collection System
From previous calculations-
Weight of methane = 52.4 kg per ton of MSW
Volume of methane can be calculated using ideal gas equation as-
P*V = n*R*T
Where, P = 1 atm (Pressure inside gas collecting vertical wells)
R = Gas constant = 0.0821 ltr-atm/K/mole
T = 40
0
C (Average Temperature inside the landfill)
Hence, 1*V 1= (52400/16) * 0.0821 * 313
V1 = 84158.6575 ltr
V1 = 84.159 m
3
per ton of MSW
Similarly,

- 63 -

Volume of CO2 can be calculated as-
V2 = (262500/44) * 0.0821 * 313
= 153307.7557 ltr
= 153.308 m
3
per ton of MSW
Therefore, total volume of gas = 84.159 + 153.308
= 237.467 m
3
of MSW
Assuming 75 % of removal efficiency of LFG.
Total design volume of LFG = 0.75 * 237.467 = 178.1 m
3
per ton of MSW
Time required to fill one cell of landfill = Design Period/ total no. of cells
= 30/8 = 3.75 years
But, in a bioreactor landfill, significant volume of LFG is obtained between 3 to 15 years as
shown in the graph-

Therefore, as per recommendations of Manual on Municipal Solid Waste by MoUD,
controlled passive gas collection system should be used for collection and removal of LFG.

- 64 -

For LFG volume ranging from 200 to 300 m
3
per ton of MSW, 15 to 20 cm diameter wells
are recommended to be drilled at a spacing between 30 to 75 m. For 1 MW energy output from
a landfill site, 15 to 20 such wells are required.
The cover system and placing of passive vents are shown as follows

3.13 Daily Cover:
Soils used as daily cover will give a pleasing uniform appearance from the site boundary. To
achieve this a thickness of about 150 mm is usually adequate and should be adopted. About
300 mm needs to be used to avoid paper, etc. being seen from close proximity.

- 65 -

3.14 Final Cover:
A landfill cover is usually composed of several layers, each with a specific function. The final
cover system must enhance surface drainage, minimize infiltration, vegetation and control the
release the landfill gases. The landfill cover system to be adopted will depend on the gas
management plan i.e. (a) controlled passive venting; (b) uncontrolled release; or (c) controlled
collection and treatment/reuse.

3.15 Ground Water Monitoring Wells around a Landfill
A minimum of 4 sets of ground water monitoring wells (one up-gradient and three down
gradient) for sampling in each aquifer are considered desirable at each landfill site as per
recommendations of Manual on MSW Management by MoUD, Govt. of India.

3.16 Surface Water Drainage System
The final cover should be provided a slope of 3 to 5% for proper surface water drainage.
3.17 Calculation of Bioreactor Size:
Area required considering depth of the waste 15m with 8.08m settlement and density as 1350
kg/m
3

= 7858716450/1350*(15+8.08)

- 66 -

= 252122.4664 m
2

= 25.21 hectares
Since organic waste = 45% approx.
Hence corrected area = 25.21*0.45 = 11.34 hectares
From the consideration of safe design, rounding off the calculated area to 120000 m
2
(i.e.12
hectares).
Corresponding size of the bioreactor landfill to accommodate the entire MSW generated in the
design period= 400m * 300m* 15m
3.18 Layout of Landfill Bottom:
Slope of cross drains for leachate collection=1.5%
Slope of Longitudinal main drains=2.5%
No of cells in the landfill=6
Dimension of each cell= 400*50 m

- 67 -

CHAPTER 4
Conclusions
A Bioreactor Landfill is an effective engineering solution for MSW disposal which minimizes
the environmental hazards involved in operation of conventional Dry Tomb Landfills. The
major results of this project are as follows-
(1) The population of Allahabad city for next 30 years (2015-2045) is calculated by
incremental increase method using census data of last four decades (1971-2011) and it is found
to be 1594871 at the end of the year 2045.
(2) Using monthly and annual data (from AWP) of MSW production for Allahabad City,
Average MSW production per day (in 2011) = 353.38 Mt
Average MSW production per day (in 2045) = 503.979 Mt
(3) Average Moisture content of the MSW = 45 %
Design period of Landfill = 30 Years
(4) By analysis of leachate samples at 15 days intervals, various parameters such as BOD,
COD, MPN pH, Sulphate etc. were calculated and LPI value came to be equal to 19.86 which
is greater than 7.378 up to which leachate need not to be treated before disposal.
It clearly indicates that the leachate from existing landfill site is potentially hazardous to
soil as well as ground water near landfill area.
Hence, we have provided Composite Liner System for prevention of leachate percolation
into ground water. Also, instead of treating the leachate for purification, we shall recirculate it
which would increase the rate of biodegradation of the MSW.
(5) Total settlement of MSW due to Primary Settlement, Mechanical Compression and
Biodegradation is calculated and it is equal to 8.08 m.
Area of 15 m height landfill required to accommodate the MSW in entire design
period=12 hectares
Hence, Size of the bioreactor landfill = 400m x 300mx 15 m
The entire landfill is divided in 8 cells of each 300m x 50m x 15 m.
Once the first cell is filled completely (in about 3.75 years), another cell is used to
accommodate the further quantity of MSW.
(6) Leachate will be generated only in the months of July, August and September and total
quantity of leachate generated in these months = 7773 m
3

Hence, the size of Leachate Collection Pond = 40m x 40m x 5m

- 68 -

Double Liner System is provided at the bottom of the leachate collection pond.
(7) Volume of Methane = 84.159 m
3
/ton of MSW
Volume of Carbon dioxide = 153.308 m
3
/ton of MSW
Assuming 75 % efficiency of Gas collection, total quantity of gases for which gas collection
system is designed = 178.1 m
3
/ton of MSW
(8) Daily cover is provided in form of 150 mm impervious clay layer.
(9) Final cover is provided as per Manual on MSW management by MoUD.
(10) Four sets of Ground water monitoring wells are provided in a cluster of 3 wells each
and shown at respective place.
(11) Design of various components of bioreactor landfill such as leachate collection system,
leachate recirculation system, LFG collection system etc. have been done at respective places.
(12) Post closure use of bioreactor landfills includes parks, golf courses, recreational areas,
residential buildings, retail sites etc.
Thus, it may be concluded that a Bioreactor landfill not only reduces the risk of
ground water contamination due to leachate percolation and reduces Green House Effect by
trapping Methane and Carbon Dioxide, but also reduces the operational costs of landfill by
generating revenue from Landfill Gas.
4.1 Future Scope of the Study
A lot of work still needs to be done for exact prediction of LFG movement inside
the landfill, estimation of Settlement rate and study of leachate characteristics with time
variation.
Design of various components of landfill have been done in respective places.

- 69 -

Apendix 1

Appendix 2
Sample Collection Date
Sample 1 = 22 Sep. 2013
Sample 2 = 22 Oct. 2013
Sample 3 = 8 Nov. 2013
Sample 4 = 23 Nov. 2013

y = 0.0884x + 0.0428
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
S
a
m
p
l
e

C
o
n
c
.

(
m
g
/
l
)
Absorbance
Iron Absorbance Std. Curve

- 70 -

Apendix 3

- 71 -

Appendix 4 Subindex Value Curve

- 72 -

- 73 -

Appendix 5 Typical value for geo membrane

References
1. Allahabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) 2003, Allahabad Nagar Nigam, Uttar
Pradesh, India, unpublished data.
2. Mathur S. and Chakma S. (2002), MSW Management through Bioreactor Landfill,
National Seminar on Advances in Civil Engineering: Perspectives of Developing
Countries, HBTI, Kanpur, vol. 2, pp.546-552.
3. Timothy G., Kumar D. and Jae Hac KO, 2008, BIOREACTOR LANDFILL
OPERATION A Guide for Development, Implementation and Monitoring, Version
1.0.
4. Characterization, Design, Construction and Monitoring of Bioreactor Landfills
February 2006,ITRC 444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 445, Washington, DC 20001
5. Shaw, P. and Knight A., Landfill: Bioreactor Landfills: But Does It Save Money,
Waste Age, Jul. 1 2000.(www.wasteage.com)
6. Municipal Solid Waste Rules, 2000
7. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
8. AWP Naini, Allahanad
9. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management( Minisrty of Urban Development
India(moud.gov.in))
10. Rakesh Chandra Vaishya,S. Chakma 2014 Modeling Chemical Compositions of
Municipal Solid Waste
11. Allahabad Meteorological Department (www.imd.gov.in)
12. Internet

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