I INTRODUCTION

Soil Management, the basis of all scientific agriculture, which

involves six essential practices: proper tillage; maintenance of a
proper supply of organic matter in the soil; maintenance of a
proper nutrient supply; control of soil pollution; maintenance of
the correct soil acidity; and control of erosion
II TILLAGE

The purpose of tillage is to prepare the soil for growing crops. This
preparation is traditionally accomplished by using a plow that cuts
into the ground and turns over the soil. This removes or kills any
weeds growing in the area, loosens and breaks up the surface
layers of the soil, and provides a bed of soil that holds sufficient
moisture to permit the planted seeds to germinate. Traditional
tillage may harm the soil if used continuously over many years,
especially if the fertile topsoil layer is thin. Today, many farmers
use a program of minimum or reduced tillage to conserve the soil.
In this form of tillage, dead plant material that remains on the
ground after the crop is harvested is left on or near the surface of
the soil, rather than being plowed deeply into the ground as in
traditional tillage. The dead plant material at the surface of the soil
helps to keep moisture within the ground, and protects the soil
from erosion.

Plows, which are chief mechanical implements used for tillage in

all parts of the world, may be designed for a number of purposes
ranging from the simple cutting of a furrow through the ground to
the complete reversal, or turning over, of soil, usually to a depth of
15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in). In certain areas and for certain purposes the
plow is replaced as a primary tillage instrument by various types of
harrows, tools that scrape or scarify the surface of the ground
without digging deeply into it. In most areas, such implements are
employed merely to break up and pulverize the soil after plowing.
Harrows or tools of the same general design are almost universally
used for the cultivation of ground between rows of growing crops.

Deep plowing and subsequent harrowing are necessary in areas

where the soil is compact and impermeable to water and plant
roots. Excessive tillage may result in the deterioration of soil
structure, particularly if performed in wet soil. This problem is
more acute in finely textured soils than in sand and loamy soils,
which normally require less tillage. Climate also plays its part in
determining not only the amount but also the time of tillage. In
humid areas, tillage should be limited to times when no great
amount of rainfall is expected, for newly-tilled fields are
susceptible to water erosion. In arid or subhumid areas, on the
contrary, land should be tilled before periods of anticipated rainfall
so that the ground can absorb the maximum amount of water.

Among the secondary but important benefits of tillage is the

aeration resulting from pulverization. This aeration not only
provides a freer circulation of oxygen and water but also results in
increased biological activity in the soil, including that of organisms
that fix atmospheric nitrogen. Tillage contributes to the health of
plants by inhibiting plant diseases and by discouraging the
development of various types of insects that harm plants.

The type of tillage affects the loss of soil through erosion by wind
and water. When furrows are plowed in an uphill-and-downhill
direction, water tends to flow down the furrows, carrying away
small particles of the top layers of soil as it flows. By plowing
across the slope, the water stays in the furrows and sinks into the
soil rather than running off. Tillage of this type is commonly
known as contour plowing because the furrows follow the natural
contours of the land.
The kind and amount of cultivation between the rows of growing
crops is determined essentially by the character of the soil. Heavy,
waterlogged soil benefits by the stirring up and aeration that
cultivation provides. On the other hand, hard, caked soils may
require cultivation to permit them to absorb the moisture that the
crops need. For soils that are in good physical condition, however,
the primary purpose of cultivation of row crops is to permit
weeding (see Weed Control).
III MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIC MATTER

Organic matter is important in maintaining good physical

conditions in the soil. It contains the entire soil reserve of nitrogen
and significant amounts of other nutrients, such as phosphorus and
sulfur. Soil productivity thus is affected markedly by the organic-
matter balance maintained in the soil. Because most of the
cultivated vegetation is harvested instead of being left to decay,
organic materials that would ordinarily enter the soil upon plant
decomposition are lost. To compensate for this loss, various
standardized methods are employed. The two most important of
these methods are crop rotation and artificial fertilization.

Crop rotation consists of growing different crops in succession on

the same land, rather than utilizing a one-crop system or a
haphazard change of crops. In the rotation system, crops are
alternated on the basis of the amounts and types of organic matter
that each crop returns to the soil. Because frequent tillage hastens
the oxidative loss of organic matter, rotations usually include one
or more sod crops that require little or no tillage. Deep-root
penetration on the part of certain leguminous crops, such as alfalfa,
provides better drainage as a result of the channels left after the
roots decay (see Legume).

The rotation system employs special types of crops such as cover

crops and green-manure crops. Cover crops are those crops planted
to protect the soil in the winter and, if a leguminous crop is used, to
fix nitrogen in the soil (see Nitrogen Fixation). Green-manure
crops are grown solely to be plowed under and serve to increase
the organic-matter content of the soil. Although no yield is
expected of a green-manure crop, it is supposed to increase the
yield of subsequent crops planted in the same fields.

The older method of increasing the organic content of the soil is

the use of such fertilizers as manure and compost. The manuring of
soil with animal wastes has been practiced for many thousands of
years and serves as a source of various complex organic
compounds that are important in the growth of plants. Compost,
which usually consists of mixtures of dead vegetable and animal
matter, has a purpose similar to that of manure and is often treated
with chemical fertilizers to increase its effectiveness. For a
discussion of the various types of fertilizing materials, see
Fertilizer

V SOIL POLLUTION

The increasing amounts of fertilizers and other agricultural

chemicals applied to soils since World War II ended in 1945, plus
industrial and domestic waste-disposal practices, led by the mid-
1960s to increasing concern over soil pollution. Soil pollution is
the buildup in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents, which have
adverse effects on plant growth and animal health. As of now, soil
pollution is not widespread. Although the application of fertilizers
containing the primary nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium, has not led to soil pollution, the application of trace
elements has. The irrigation of arid lands often leads to pollution
with salts. Sulfur from industrial wastes has polluted soils in the
past, as has the accumulation of arsenic compounds in soils
following years of spraying crops with lead arsenate. The
application of pesticides has also led to short-term soil pollution.
See Environment
VIII MECHANICAL CONTROL OF EROSION

further reading
These sources provide additional information on Soil Management.

The mechanical loss of fertile topsoil is one of the gravest

problems of agriculture. Such loss is almost always caused by
erosion resulting from the action of water or wind. According to
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, more than half of all fertile
U.S. topsoil has been damaged to some extent by erosion. For a
discussion of the problem and the various methods for combating
erosion, see Conservation; Drainage

Contributed By:

Mohsin Vaid & Mubin Memon