Home > Basic of Wear

Basic of Wear
Basics of Wear
Mechanisms of Wear
Mild Adhesion
Severe Adhesion
Abrasion
Erosion
Contact Fatigue
Corrosion
Fretting
False Brinnelling
Cavitation
Polishing
Electro Corrosion
Electrical Discharge
Summary
Special Thanks
Mechanisms of Wear
Early investigators could not do much to investigate wear because it is usually a very gradual process, and they did
have accurate means to quantify it. Although friction and wear influence each other, the relationship is complex and
involves many other factors including the chemical environment and temperature, each of which influences the othe
simple correlation between friction and wear data is therefore hardly ever found.

Modern research has shown that there are 12 main types of wear.
These are:
Mild Adhesion
Severe Adhesion
Abrasion

Erosion
Polishing
Contact Fatigue
Corrosion
Fretting Corrosion
Brinelling
Electro-Corrosion
Electrical Discharge
Cavitation Damage
1. Wear can be prevented by:
2. Recognizing the type of wear.
3. Making changes in the lubricant, design or operation.
Most common regimes:
Adhesive Wear
Fatigue
Abrasive Wear
Corrosive Wear
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Mild Adhesion
Generally, removal of surface film material due to adhesion and subsequent loosening during relative motion. Mild
Adhesion transfer and loosening of surface films only.

Other names Susceptible Machine Parts
Normal/Common All
Mild Adhesion - How to detect it
Unaided Eye Microscopically
Low rates of wear Smooth micro plateaus among original grinding marks
No damage Slight coloration due to films
Deeper original grinding
marks still visible
Slight coloration due to films

Mild Adhesions - Solutions

Prevention

Mechanical - None

LUBRICANT - None
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Severe Adhesion
Cold welding of metal surfaces due to intimate metal to metal contact.

Earlier, we stated that when two surfaces are brought together under load, asperities of the two surfaces adhere to
other. The conditions at the interface of these junctions are similar to those of a cold weld. A strong bond is formed
without much interdiffusion of atoms and recrystallization as would occur in a hot weld.

During sliding, these junctions are sheared. Shearing may occur at the interface or within one of the two asperities.
junctions shear at the interface, but occasionally shearing will occur in one of the two materials. This will result in a
fragment being transferred from one surface to the other. It would seem that shearing should always occur at the
interface since it should have the greatest weakness. However, the junction plane, for example, may be parallel to t
sliding direction so that it may not have the smallest cross-sectional area. Then the break may occur in the softer
material occasionally in the harder material should it contain a local weak spot. Some junctions may be stronger tha
base metal itself because of plastic yielding and work hardening. In the normal process of adhesive wear, there will
some transfer of particles from one surface to the other. Some particles may be transferred back to the original surf
or break off as loose wear particles.

The adhesive wear theory expresses the total volume of wear particles generated V, per unit sliding length L, as:

V/L=K P/H
With:
K=wear coefficient
P=load
H=hardness of the softer materials
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Scuffing Piston rings and cylinder
Galling Rolling and sliding bearings
Smearing Gears
Cutting Tools
Chains
Valve Trains
Metal Seals

Severe Adhesion - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Rough, torn, melted or plastically deformed metal,
bands or streaks
Rough, irregular surface
High temperature oxidation
Metal from other surface adhering to other surface by spot te
or microprobe analysis
High friction, high rates of wear
Possible seizure
Conditions Promoting Wear
High loads, speeds and/or temperatures
Use of stainless steels or aluminum
Insufficient lubricant
Lack of anti-scuff additives
No break in
Abrasive wear interrupting film allowing adhesion
Oil Analysis
Large metallic wear fragments of irregular shape

Severe Adhesion - Solutions

Prevention


MECHANICAL
Reduce load, speed and temperature
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Improve oil cooling
Use compatible metals
Apply surface coatings such as phosphating
Modify surface, such as ion implantation
LUBRICANT
Use more viscous oil to separate surfaces
Use "extreme pressure" (anti-scuff) additives such as a sulfur-phosphorous or borate compounds
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Abrasion
Cutting and deformation of material by hard particles (3-body) or hard protuberances (2-body).



Abrasive wear occurs when either a rough, hard surface or a soft surface with hard particles embedded in its surface
slides over a softer material. A plowing action takes place. When abrasive wear is the result of loose wear particles a
contaminants, it is called three-body abrasive wear. Intentional abrasive wear is produced by grinding wheels, files
sandpaper.

The abrasive wear theory expresses the total volume of wear particles generated V, per unit of sliding length L as:

V/L=K P/H

Wear coefficients for abrasive wear are generally larger than for adhesive wear.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Cutting All surfaces in relative motion
Scratching
"Wire wool" damage The most common industrial wear problem
Gouging
Scoring
Abrasion - How to detect it


Unaided Eye Microscopically
Scratches or parallel furrows in the direction of motion, similar to
"sanding"
Clean furrows, burrs, chips
High rates of wear Embedded abrasive particles

In sliding bearings with soft overlay embedde
particles
Conditions Promoting Wear
Hard particles contaminating oil
Insufficient metal hardness
Hard metal with rough surface against soft metal
Oil Analysis
High metal content in oil and high silicone (10ppm) by emission spectroscopy
Burrs by via microscopic evaluation
Abrasion - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering, clean oil handling practices, improved seals, flushing and
frequent oil changes
Minimize shot peening, beading, or sand blasting of surfaces because abrasives cannot be completely remov
Increase hardness of metal surfaces
LUBRICANT
Use oil free of abrasive particles
Use more viscous oil
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Erosion
Cutting of materials by hard particles in a high velocity fluid impinging on a surface.

This type of wear results from sharp particles impinging on a surface such as the cutting of materials by hard partic
a high velocity fluid impinging on a surface. This action is very much like that of sandblasting.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Solid particles impact erosion Journal bearings near oil holes
Valves
Nozzles

Erosion - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Smooth, broad grooves in direction of fluid flow Short V-shaped furrows by scanning electron microscopy
Matte texture, clean metal Embedded hard particles
Similar to sandblasting
Conditions Promoting Wear
High velocity gas or liquid containing solids impinging on a surface
Oil Analysis
High wear rates by emission spectrograph
Chips and burrs via microscopic evaluation
Contamination in oil
Erosion - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering, clean oil handling practices, improved seals, flushing and
frequent oil changes
Increase hardness of metal surfaces
Reduce impact angle to less than 15 degrees
LUBRICANT
Use oil free of abrasive particles
Use more viscous oil
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Contact Fatigue
Metal removed by cracking and pitting, due to cyclic elastic stress during rolling and sliding.

This type of wear is produced when repeated sliding or rolling occurs over a track. The most common example is the
action of a ball or roller bearing race. As the rolling element passes over a given spot on the raceway, it is stressed
load is applied and released. Even though these stress reversals may be within the elastic limits of the material, cra
will eventually occur. Depending on the stress pattern and material properties, these cracks may be initiated at or b
the surface in the bodies in contact. With time, a relatively large piece of material will be released, leaving an uneve
hole or pit. This type of wear will also occur on gear teeth.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Fatigue wear Rolling and sliding bearings
Frosting Valve train parts
Surface fatigue Gears
Spalling

Contact Fatigue - How to detect it



Unaided Eye Microscopically
Cracks, pits and spalls Combination of cracks and pits with sharp edges
Subsurface cracks by metallographic cross-section. Numerous metal inclusions
Conditions Promoting Wear
Cyclic stress over long periods
Water, dirt, in oil
Inclusions in steel
Particles of metal with sharp edges
Metal spheres by microscopy
Contact Fatigue - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Reduce contact pressures and frequency of cyclic stress
Use high quality vacuum melted steels
Use less abusive surface finish
LUBRICANT
Use clean, dry oil
Use more viscous oil
Use oil with higher-pressure viscosity coefficient


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Corrosion
Rubbing off of corrosion products on a surface.

Corrosive wear occurs when the sliding of surfaces are in a corrosive environment. This wear action generally takes
in two stages.

First, there is corrosive attack on the surfaces. Then the sliding action wears off the corroded surface film. If the
compounds formed are harder than the original material and if loose particles are formed. The wear rate is accelera
abrasive sliding action.

Some corrosive reaction products are softer than the base metal and act to reduce the wear rate especially when th
sliding action does not remove the entire layer. Hence, some corrosion products can be used beneficially for their go
lubricating characteristics.

An example of a highly corrosive situation occurs in the engines of ocean-going vessels. Many ships are powered by
engines that use inexpensive, high-sulfur fuel. However, their combustion products contain oxidized sulfur and wate
vapor. These combine to form sulfuric acid, which is highly corrosive to the cast iron cylinders and piston rings. This
corrosion is effectively controlled by using highly alkaline-type cylinder lubricants that neutralize the acids.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Chemical wear All bearings
Oxidative wear Cylinder walls
Corrosive film wear Valve train
Seals and chains
Corrosion - How to detect it




Unaided Eye Microscopically
Corroded metal surface rust, FeOHO (hydrated iron oxide) is a common
iron corrosion product
Scale, films, pits containing corrosi
products

Dissolution of one phase in a 2-pha
alloy
Conditions Promoting Wear
Corrosive environment
Corrodible metals
Rust promoting conditions
High temperatures
Oil Analysis
Detection of corrosion products in oil and wear debris
Detection of anion, such as chlorine by X-ray fluorescence
Corrosion - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Use more corrosion resistant metal (not stainless)
Reduce operating temperature
Eliminate corrosive material
LUBRICANT
Remove corrosive material such as too chemically active additive and contaminates
Use improved corrosion inhibitor
Use fresh oil


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Fretting
Wear between two solid surfaces experiencing oscillatory relative motion of low amplitude.

Fretting wear occurs where there is oscillatory motion with a small displacement ( ~1 micron) of the contacting surf
under load. Small wear particles are formed through the mechanism of adhesive wear. Because of the small amplitu
motion the wear particles are not carried out of the contact area and removed from the system. The particles produ
contribute to the wear through abrasive action. Where the material is steel, which is usually the case, corrosive wea
enter the picture. The wear particles oxidize and generally, being harder than the base metal, expose clean metal to
further oxidation.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
False brinelling Vibrating machines
Fretting Bearing housing contacts
Friction oxidation Splines, keys, couplings
Fasteners
Fretting - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Corroded stained surfaces where damage on one surface is mirror
image of mating surface
Thick films of oxide and metal. Red and
for steel
Loose colored debris around real contact areas
Rouge (Fe?O?) colored films, debris, grease or oil for steel
Conditions Promoting Wear
Vibration causing relative motion
Oil Analysis
Identify metal oxide (alpha Fe?O? for steel) by X-ray diffraction
Fretting - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Reduce or stop vibration by tighter fit or higher load
Improve lubrication between surfaces by rougher (then honed) surface finish
LUBRICANT
Use oil of lower viscosity
Relubricate frequently
Use oxidation inhibitors in oil
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False Brinneling
Localized wear spots made by rolling elements on raceways due to limited rolling/repeated impact.

Localized wear spots formed by rolling elements on raceways due to limited rolling/repeated impact. False Brinelling
typically characterized by indentations on the inner or outer raceway of a rolling element bearing. The indentation
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corresponded to the position of the rolling elements.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
False brinelling Rolling element bearing raceways
Fretting
False Brinelling - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Indentations on raceway Indentations on raceway
Conditions Promoting Wear
Protective film is broken continually by repeated impacts
Oil Analysis
None
False Brinelling - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Reduce or eliminate impact
Rotate bearings occasionally
LUBRICANT
Change viscosity
Consider additives
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Cavitation
Removal of metal by vapor cavity implosion in a cavitating liquid.

Cavitation happens, for example, in high-pressure pumps adjacent to the intake ports and on the blades of a ship's
propellers. When a sudden local reduction in fluid pressure occurs, a vapor cavity is formed. When the vapor cavity
collapses near a solid surface it produces a mechanical shock. Surface damage similar to surface fatigue takes place
particles are removed. The particle sizes are smaller, however, than those generated by surface fatigue.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Cavitation erosion Hydraulic parts, pumps, valves, gear teeth
Fluid erosion, NOT pump cavitation same name, different thing Cylinder liners
Piston rings
Sliding bearings
Cavitation - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Clean frosted or rough appearing
metal
Clean, metallic bright rough metal, pits
Deep, rough pits or grooves
Removal of softer phase from 2-phase metal (graphite phase in cast iron is
susceptible)
Conditions Promoting Wear
Sudden changes in liquid pressure due to changes in liquid velocity or to shape or motion of parts
Cavitation damage is increased by a corrosive environment, and by abrasives in the oil
Oil Analysis
Observation of large chunks or spheres of metals in oils
Cavitation - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Use hard, tough metals, such as tool steel
Reduce vibration, flow velocities and pressures
Avoid restriction and obstructions to liquid flow
LUBRICANT
Avoid low vapor pressure, aerated, wet oils
Use noncorrosive oils
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Polishing
Continuous removal of surface films by very fine abrasives.

Polishing wear is characterized by very shiny, very smooth, mirror like metal surfaces. Fine abrasives wear away the
surface films as they form and reform.
Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Bore polishing Cylinder bores (diesel engines)
Gear teeth
Valve lifters
Polishing - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
High wear but a bright mirror finish Featureless surface except scratches at high magnification by electron micros
Wavy profile
Polishing - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
None
LUBRICANT
Choose less chemically active additive
Remove corrosive contaminant
Remove abrasive
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Electro-Corrosion
Dissolution of a metal in an electrically conducive liquid by low amperage currents.

Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
"Erosion" Aircraft hydraulic valves
Electrical erosion Hydraulic pumps and motors
Electro-chemical wear
Electrical attack
Electro-corrosion - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
High wear but a bright mirror finish
Featureless surface except scratches at high magnification by electro
microscopy
Local corroded areas Corrosion pits, films, dissolution of metals
Black spots such as made by a small drop
of acid

Corroded, worn metering edges
Conditions Promoting Wear
High velocity liquid flow causing streaming potentials
Stray currents
Galvanic metal combinations
Oil Analysis
Detection of corrosion products
Electrically conducive liquids
Electro-corrosion - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Decrease liquid velocity and velocity gradients
Use corrosion-resistant metals
Eliminate stray currents
Use nongalvanic couples
LUBRICANT
Decrease or increase electrical conductivity of lubricants or hydraulic fluids
Highly compounded oils can act as electrolytes, and be conductive. Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids are cond
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Electrical Discharge
Removal of metal by high amperage electrical discharge or spark between two surfaces.

Other Names Susceptible Machine Parts
Electrical pitting Bearings in high speed rotating machinery such as compressors, atomizers
Sparking Static charge producers
Electrical Discharge - How to detect it

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Metal surface appears etched. In thrust bearings,
sparks make tracks like an electrical engraver
Pits, near edge of damage, showing once molten state, suc
smooth bottoms, rounded particles, gas holes
Rounded particles welded to surface near pits
Conditions Promoting Wear
High-speed rotation
High velocity two-phase fluid mixtures
High potential contacts
Sparks
Oil Analysis
Detection of large rounded particles by microscopic examination of filtrate or on microscope slide
Electrical Discharge - Solutions

Prevention
MECHANICAL
Improve electrical insulation of bearings
Degauss magnetic rotating parts
Install brushes on shaft
Improve machine grounding
LUBRICANT
Use of oil of higher electrical conductivity
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Summmary
Congratulations!

You have completed the materials for Fundamentals of Lubrication and Tribology II - Wear.

We hope that you have achieved the learning objectives listed on the Overview page of this module such that you a
able to:
Describe the different wear processes;

Recognize the manner in which certain wear processes can lead to other wear processes;
Discuss the factors which are primarily responsible for accelerating each type of wear process;
DUnderstand the Archard equation for wear rate and the conditions under which it is valid; and,
Know how to minimize wear through proper selection of lubricant, material, and operating conditions.
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Special Thanks
Technical Contributors

We would like to thank the following people for their valuable contributions to this course:
Principal Contributor: Dr. James Ziemer, Chevron
William R. Herguth, Herguth Laboratories, Inc.,
Robert W. Bruce, GE Aircraft Engines,
Douglas Godfrey, Wear Analysis,
Ray Ryason, Tamalpais Tribology,
E.R. Booser, Independent Consulting Engineer,
Andrew Flaherty, Flowserve Corp.,
Dr. Simon Tung, General Motors,
Philip J. Guichelaar, Western Michigan University
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