Cinematography (from Greek: , kinema "movements" and !

"#$, graphein "to re%ord"& is

the art or s%ien%e of motion pi%t're photography( )t is the te%hni*'e of movie photography,
in%+'ding ,oth the shooting and deve+opment of the fi+m( -he %inematographer %o'+d a+so ,e
referred to as the fi+m dire%tor.s main vis'a+ %o++a,orator(
History
Cinematography is an art form in the fie+d of fi+mmaking( /+tho'gh the e0posing of images on
+ight1sensitive e+ements dates to the ear+y 23th %ent'ry, motion pi%t'res demanded a ne4 form of
photography and a ne4 aestheti%(
5n 6'ne 23, 2789, :ad4eard ;'y,ridge s'%%essf'++y photographed a horse named "<a++ie Gardner"
in fast motion 'sing a series of => stereos%opi% %ameras( -he %ameras 4ere arranged a+ong a tra%k
para++e+ to the horse.s, and ea%h %amera sh'tter 4as %ontro++ed ,y a trip 4ire triggered ,y the horse.s
hooves( -hey 4ere =2 in%hes apart to %over the =? feet taken ,y the horse stride, taking pi%t'res at
one tho'sandth of a se%ond(
@ine years +ater, in 277=, Aren%h s%ientist Btienne16'+es ;arey invented a %hronophotographi% g'n,
4hi%h 4as %apa,+e of taking 2= %onse%'tive frames a se%ond, re%ording a++ the frames of the same
pi%t're( -he se%ond e0perimenta+ fi+m, Co'ndhay Garden <%ene, fi+med ,y Do'is De Erin%e on
5%to,er 2>, 2777 in Co'ndhay, Deeds, :ng+and, is the ear+iest s'rviving motion pi%t're( -he first
tho'gh to design a s'%%essf'+ apparat's 4as F( G( D( Hi%kson, 4orking 'nder the dire%tion of
-homas /+va :dison, %a++ed the Ginetograph, and patented in 2732( -his %amera took a series of
instantaneo's photographs on standard :astman Godak photographi% em'+sion %oated onto a
transparent %e++'+oid strip 9I mm 4ide( -he res'+ts of this 4ork 4ere first sho4n in p',+i% in 2739,
'sing the vie4ing apparat's a+so designed ,y Hi%kson, and %a++ed the Ginetos%ope( Contained
4ithin a +arge ,o0, on+y one person at a time +ooking into it thro'gh a peepho+e %o'+d vie4 the
movie( )t 4as not a %ommer%ia+ s'%%ess ,'t in the fo++o4ing year, Char+es Aran%is 6enkins and his
proJe%tor, the Ehantos%ope,made a s'%%essf'+ a'dien%e vie4ing 4hi+e Do'is and /'g'ste D'miKre
perfe%ted the CinLmatographe, an apparat's that took, printed, and proJe%ted fi+m in Earis in
He%em,er 273I(
Film technique
-he first fi+m %ameras 4ere fastened dire%t+y to the head of a tripod or other s'pport, 4ith on+y the
%r'dest kind of +eve++ing devi%es provided, in the manner of the sti++1%amera tripod heads of the
period( -he ear+iest fi+m %ameras 4ere th's effe%tive+y fi0ed d'ring the shot, and hen%e the first
%amera movements 4ere the res'+t of mo'nting a %amera on a moving vehi%+e( -he first kno4n of
these 4as a fi+m shot ,y a D'miKre %ameraman from the ,a%k p+atform of a train +eaving 6er'sa+em
in 273M, and ,y 2737 there 4ere a n'm,er of fi+ms shot from moving trains( /+tho'gh +isted 'nder
the genera+ heading of "panoramas" in the sa+es %ata+og'es of the time, those fi+ms shot straight
for4ard from in front of a rai+4ay engine 4ere 's'a++y spe%ifi%a++y referred to as "phantom rides"(
)n 2738, Co,ert F( Ea'+ had the first rea+ rotating %amera head made to p't on a tripod, so that he
%o'+d fo++o4 the passing pro%essions of N'een Oi%toria.s Hiamond 6',i+ee in one 'ninterr'pted
shot( -his devi%e had the %amera mo'nted on a verti%a+ a0is that %o'+d ,e rotated ,y a 4orm gear
driven ,y t'rning a %rank hand+e, and Ea'+ p't it on genera+ sa+e the ne0t year( <hots taken 'sing
s'%h a "panning" head 4ere a+so referred to as "panoramas" in the fi+m %ata+og'es of the first
de%ade of the %inema(
-he standard pattern for ear+y fi+m st'dios 4as provided ,y the st'dio 4hi%h Georges ;L+iKs had
,'i+t in 2738( -his had a g+ass roof and three g+ass 4a++s %onstr'%ted after the mode+ of +arge st'dios
for sti++ photography, and it 4as fitted 4ith thin %otton %+oths that %o'+d ,e stret%hed ,e+o4 the roof
to diff'se the dire%t ray of the s'n on s'nny days( -he soft overa++ +ight 4itho't rea+ shado4s that
this arrangement prod'%ed, and 4hi%h a+so e0ists nat'ra++y on +ight+y over%ast days, 4as to ,e%ome
the ,asis for fi+m +ighting in fi+m st'dios for the ne0t de%ade(
Effects
Pni*'e among a++ the one min'te +ong fi+ms made ,y the :dison %ompany, 4hi%h re%orded parts of
the a%ts of variety performers for their Ginetos%ope vie4ing ma%hines, 4as -he :0e%'tion of ;ary
N'een of <%ots( -his sho4ed a person dressed as the *'een p+a%ing her head on the e0e%'tion ,+o%k
in front of a sma++ gro'p of ,ystanders in :+iQa,ethan dress( -he e0e%'tioner ,rings his a0e do4n,
and the *'een.s severed head drops onto the gro'nd( -his tri%k 4as 4orked ,y stopping the %amera
and rep+a%ing the a%tor 4ith a d'mmy, then restarting the %amera ,efore the a0e fa++s( -he t4o
pie%es of fi+m 4ere then trimmed and %emented together so that the a%tion appeared %ontin'o's
4hen the fi+m 4as sho4n(
-his fi+m 4as among those e0ported to :'rope 4ith the first Ginetos%ope ma%hines in 273I, and
4as seen ,y Georges ;L+iKs, 4ho 4as p'tting on magi% sho4s in his -heatre Co,ert1Ro'din in
Earis at the time( Re took 'p fi+mmaking in 273M, and after making imitations of other fi+ms from
:dison, D'miKre, and Co,ert Ea'+, he made :s%amotage d.'n dame %heQ Co,ert1Ro'din (-he
Oanishing Dady&( -his fi+m sho4s a 4oman ,eing made to vanish ,y 'sing the same stop motion
te%hni*'e as the ear+ier :dison fi+m( /fter this, Georges ;L+iKs made many sing+e shot fi+ms 'sing
this tri%k over the ne0t %o'p+e of years(
Double exposure
/ s%ene inset inside a %ir%'+ar vignette sho4ing a "dream vision" in <anta C+a's (2737&
-he other ,asi% te%hni*'e for tri%k %inematography invo+ves do',+e e0pos're of the fi+m in the
%amera, 4hi%h 4as first done ,y George /+,ert <mith in 6'+y 2737 in the PG( <mith.s -he Corsi%an
Srothers (2737& 4as des%ri,ed in the %ata+og'e of the Far4i%k -rading Company, 4hi%h took 'p
the distri,'tion of <mith.s fi+ms in 23??, th's:
"5ne of the t4in ,rothers ret'rns home from shooting in the Corsi%an mo'ntains, and is visited ,y
the ghost of the other t4in( Sy e0treme+y %aref'+ photography the ghost appears T*'ite transparentT(
/fter indi%ating that he has ,een ki++ed ,y a s4ord1thr'st, and appea+ing for vengean%e, he
disappears( / UvisionV then appears sho4ing the fata+ d'e+ in the sno4( -o the Corsi%an.s
amaQement, the d'e+ and death of his ,rother are vivid+y depi%ted in the vision, and over%ome ,y
his fee+ings, he fa++s to the f+oor J'st as his mother enters the room("
-he ghost effe%t 4as done ,y draping the set in ,+a%k ve+vet after the main a%tion had ,een shot,
and then re1e0posing the negative 4ith the a%tor p+aying the ghost going thro'gh the a%tions at the
appropriate point( Dike4ise, the vision, 4hi%h appeared 4ithin a %ir%'+ar vignette or matte, 4as
simi+ar+y s'perimposed over a ,+a%k area in the ,a%kdrop to the s%ene, rather than over a part of the
set 4ith detai+ in it, so that nothing appeared thro'gh the image, 4hi%h seemed *'ite so+id( <mith
'sed this te%hni*'e again in <anta C+a's (2737&(
Georges ;L+iKs first 'sed s'perimposition on a dark ,a%kgro'nd in Da Caverne ma'dite (-he Cave
of the Hemons& made a %o'p+e of months +ater in 2737, and e+a,orated it 4ith m'+tip+e
s'perimpositions in the one shot in Pn Romme de tWtes (-he Ao'r -ro',+esome Reads&( Re %reated
f'rther variations in s',se*'ent fi+ms(
Other special techniques
G(/( <mith initiated the te%hni*'e of reverse motion and a+so improved the *'a+ity of se+f1
motivating images( -his he did ,y repeating the a%tion a se%ond time, 4hi+e fi+ming it 4ith an
inverted %amera, and then Joining the tai+ of the se%ond negative to that of the first( -he first fi+ms
'sing this 4ere -ipsy, -opsy, -'rvy and -he /4k4ard <ign Eainter, the +atter 4hi%h sho4ed a sign
painter +ettering a sign, and then the painting on the sign vanishing 'nder the painter.s ,r'sh( -he
ear+iest s'rviving e0amp+e of this te%hni*'e is <mith.s -he Ro'se -hat 6a%k S'i+t, made ,efore
<eptem,er 23?2( Rere, a sma++ ,oy is sho4n kno%king do4n a %ast+e J'st %onstr'%ted ,y a +itt+e gir+
o't of %hi+dren.s ,'i+ding ,+o%ks( / tit+e then appears, saying "Ceversed", and the a%tion is repeated
in reverse, so that the %ast+e re1ere%ts itse+f 'nder his ,+o4s(
Ce%i+ Rep4orth took this improved 'pon this te%hni*'e ,y printing the negative of the for4ards
motion ,a%k4ards frame ,y frame, so that in the prod'%tion of the print the origina+ a%tion 4as
e0a%t+y reversed( -o do this, Rep4orth ,'i+t a spe%ia+ printer in 4hi%h the negative r'nning thro'gh
a proJe%tor 4ere proJe%ted into the gate of a %amera thro'gh a spe%ia+ +ens giving the same1siQe
image( -his arrangement %ame to ,e %a++ed a "proJe%tion printer", and event'a++y an "opti%a+
printer"( Fith it Rep4orth made -he Sathers in 23??, in 4hi%h ,athers 4ho have 'ndressed and
J'mped into the 4ater appear to spring ,a%k4ards o't of it, and have their %+othes magi%a++y f+y
,a%k onto their ,odies(
-he 'se of different %amera speeds a+so appeared aro'nd 23??( Co,ert Ea'+.s 5n a C'na4ay ;otor
Car thro'gh Ei%%adi++y Cir%'s (2733&, had the %amera t'rn so s+o4+y that 4hen the fi+m 4as
proJe%ted at the 's'a+ 2M frames per se%ond, the s%enery appeared to ,e passing at great speed( Ce%i+
Rep4orth 'sed the opposite effe%t in -he )ndian Chief and the <eid+itQ Eo4der (23?2&, in 4hi%h a
naXve Ced )ndian eats a +ot of the fiQQy stoma%h medi%ine, %a'sing his stoma%h to e0pand and then
he then +eaps aro'nd ,a++oon1+ike( -his 4as done ,y %ranking the %amera faster than the norma+ 2M
frames per se%ond giving the first "s+o4 motion" effe%t(
The cinematographer
)n the infan%y of motion pi%t'res, the %inematographer 4as 's'a++y a+so the dire%tor and the person
physi%a++y hand+ing the %amera( /s the art form and te%hno+ogy evo+ved, a separation ,et4een
dire%tor and %amera operator emerged( Fith the advent of artifi%ia+ +ighting and faster (more +ight
sensitive& fi+m sto%ks, in addition to te%hno+ogi%a+ advan%ements in opti%s, the te%hni%a+ aspe%ts of
%inematography ne%essitated a spe%ia+ist in that area(Cinematography 4as key d'ring the si+ent
movie eraY4ith no so'nd apart from ,a%kgro'nd m'si% and no dia+og'e, the fi+ms depended on
+ighting, a%ting, and set()n 2323, in Ro++y4ood, the ne4 motion pi%t're %apita+ of the 4or+d, one of
the first (and sti++ e0isting& trade so%ieties 4as formed: the /meri%an <o%iety of Cinematographers
(/<C&, 4hi%h stood to re%ogniQe the %inematographer.s %ontri,'tion to the art and s%ien%e of motion
pi%t're making( <imi+ar trade asso%iations have ,een esta,+ished in other %o'ntries, too(
-he /<C defines %inematography as:a %reative and interpretive pro%ess that %'+minates in the
a'thorship of an origina+ 4ork of art rather than the simp+e re%ording of a physi%a+ event(
Cinematography is not a s',%ategory of photography( Cather, photography is ,'t one %raft that the
%inematographer 'ses in addition to other physi%a+, organiQationa+, manageria+, interpretive and
image1manip'+ating te%hni*'es to effe%t one %oherent pro%ess(ZM[
Aspects
@'mero's aspe%ts %ontri,'te to the art of %inematography, in%+'ding:)mage sensor and fi+m
sto%kCinematography %an ,egin 4ith ro++s of fi+m or a digita+ image sensor( /dvan%ements in fi+m
em'+sion and grain str'%t're provided a 4ide range of avai+a,+e fi+m sto%ks( -he se+e%tion of a fi+m
sto%k is one of the first de%isions made in preparing a typi%a+ fi+m prod'%tion(
/side from the fi+m ga'ge se+e%tion Y 7 mm (amate'r&, 2M mm (semi1professiona+&, 9I mm
(professiona+& and MI mm (epi% photography, rare+y 'sed e0%ept in spe%ia+ event ven'es& Y the
%inematographer has a se+e%tion of sto%ks in reversa+ (4hi%h, 4hen deve+oped, %reate a positive
image& and negative formats a+ong 4ith a 4ide range of fi+m speeds (varying sensitivity to +ight&
from )<5 I? (s+o4, +east sensitive to +ight& to 7?? (very fast, e0treme+y sensitive to +ight& and
differing response to %o+or (+o4 sat'ration, high sat'ration& and %ontrast (varying +eve+s ,et4een
p're ,+a%k (no e0pos're& and p're 4hite (%omp+ete overe0pos're&(
/dvan%ements and adJ'stments to near+y a++ ga'ges of fi+m %reated the "s'per" formats 4herein the
area of the fi+m 'sed to %apt're a sing+e frame of an image is e0panded, a+tho'gh the physi%a+ ga'ge
of the fi+m remains the same( <'per 7 mm, <'per 2M mm and <'per 9I mm a++ 'ti+iQe more of the
overa++ fi+m area for the image than their "reg'+ar" non1s'per %o'nterparts(-he +arger the fi+m
ga'ge, the higher the overa++ image reso+'tion %+arity and te%hni%a+ *'a+ity(-he te%hni*'es 'sed ,y
the fi+m +a,oratory to pro%ess the fi+m sto%k %an a+so offer a %onsidera,+e varian%e in the image
prod'%ed( Sy %ontro++ing the temperat're and varying the d'ration in 4hi%h the fi+m is soaked in the
deve+opment %hemi%a+s and ,y skipping %ertain %hemi%a+ pro%esses (or partia++y skipping a++ of
them&, %inematographers %an a%hieve very different +ooks from a sing+e fi+m sto%k in the +a,oratory(
<ome te%hni*'es that %an ,e 'sed are p'sh pro%essing, ,+ea%h ,ypass and %ross
pro%essing(/+tho'gh the maJority of %inema sti++ 'ses fi+m, m'%h of modern %inema 'ses digita+
%inematography and has no fi+m sto%ksZ%itation needed[, ,'t the %ameras themse+ves %an ,e
adJ'sted in 4ays that go far ,eyond the a,i+ities of one parti%'+ar fi+m sto%k( -hey %an provide
varying degrees of %o+or sensitivity, image %ontrast, +ight sensitivity and so on( 5ne %amera %an
a%hieve a++ the vario's +ooks of different em'+sions, a+tho'gh it is heavi+y arg'ed as to 4hi%h
method of %apt'ring an image is the ",est" method( Higita+ image adJ'stments ()<5, %ontrast et%(&
are e0e%'ted ,y estimating the same adJ'stments that 4o'+d take p+a%e if a%t'a+ fi+m 4ere in 'se,
and are th's v'+nera,+e to the %ameras sensor designers per%eptions of vario's fi+m sto%ks and
image adJ'stment parameters(
Ai+ters, s'%h as diff'sion fi+ters or %o+or1effe%t fi+ters, are a+so 4ide+y 'sed to enhan%e mood or
dramati% effe%ts( ;ost photographi% fi+ters are made 'p of t4o pie%es of opti%a+ g+ass g+'ed together
4ith some form of image or +ight manip'+ation materia+ ,et4een the g+ass( )n the %ase of %o+or
fi+ters, there is often a trans+'%ent %o+or medi'm pressed ,et4een t4o p+anes of opti%a+ g+ass( Co+or
fi+ters 4ork ,y ,+o%king o't %ertain %o+or 4ave+engths of +ight from rea%hing the fi+m( Fith %o+or
fi+m, this 4orks very int'itive+y 4herein a ,+'e fi+ter 4i++ %'t do4n on the passage of red, orange
and ye++o4 +ight and %reate a ,+'e tint on the fi+m( )n ,+a%k1and14hite photography, %o+or fi+ters are
'sed some4hat %o'nter int'itive+y\ for instan%e a ye++o4 fi+ter, 4hi%h %'ts do4n on ,+'e
4ave+engths of +ight, %an ,e 'sed to darken a day+ight sky (,y e+iminating ,+'e +ight from hitting the
fi+m, th's great+y 'ndere0posing the most+y ,+'e sky&, 4hi+e not ,iasing most h'man f+esh tone(
Certain %inematographers, s'%h as Christopher Hoy+e, are 4e++ kno4n for their innovative 'se of
fi+ters( Ai+ters %an ,e 'sed in front of the +ens or, in some %ases, ,ehind the +ens for different
effe%ts(Denses %an ,e atta%hed to the %amera to give a %ertain +ook, fee+, or effe%t ,y fo%'s, %o+or,
et%(
/s does the h'man eye, the %amera %reates perspe%tive and spatia+ re+ations 4ith the rest of the
4or+d( Ro4ever, 'n+ike one.s eye, a %inematographer %an se+e%t different +enses for different
p'rposes( Oariation in fo%a+ +ength is one of the %hief ,enefits( -he fo%a+ +ength of the +ens
determines the ang+e of vie4 and, therefore, the fie+d of vie4( Cinematographers %an %hoose from a
range of 4ide1ang+e +enses, "norma+" +enses and +ong fo%'s +enses, as 4e++ as ma%ro +enses and
other spe%ia+ effe%t +ens systems s'%h as ,ores%ope +enses( Fide1ang+e +enses have short fo%a+
+engths and make spatia+ distan%es more o,vio's( / person in the distan%e is sho4n as m'%h sma++er
4hi+e someone in the front 4i++ +oom +arge( 5n the other hand, +ong fo%'s +enses red'%e s'%h
e0aggerations, depi%ting far1off o,Je%ts as seeming+y %+ose together and f+attening perspe%tive( -he
differen%es ,et4een the perspe%tive rendering is a%t'a++y not d'e to the fo%a+ +ength ,y itse+f, ,'t ,y
the distan%e ,et4een the s',Je%ts and the %amera( -herefore, the 'se of different fo%a+ +engths in
%om,ination 4ith different %amera to s',Je%t distan%es %reates these different rendering( Changing
the fo%a+ +ength on+y 4hi+e keeping the same %amera position doesn.t affe%t perspe%tive ,'t the
%amera ang+e of vie4 on+y( / ]oom +ens a++o4s a %amera operator to %hange their fo%a+ +ength
4ithin a shot or *'i%k+y ,et4een set'ps for shots( /s prime +enses offer greater opti%a+ *'a+ity and
are "faster" (+arger apert're openings, 'sa,+e in +ess +ight& than Qoom +enses, they are often
emp+oyed in professiona+ %inematography over Qoom +enses( Certain s%enes or even types of
fi+mmaking, ho4ever, may re*'ire the 'se of Qooms for speed or ease of 'se, as 4e++ as shots
invo+ving a Qoom move( /s in other photography, the %ontro+ of the e0posed image is done in the
+ens 4ith the %ontro+ of the diaphragm apert're( Aor proper se+e%tion, the %inematographer needs
that a++ +enses ,e engraved 4ith -1<top, not f1stop, so that the event'a+ +ight +oss d'e to the g+ass
doesn.t affe%t the e0pos're %ontro+ 4hen setting it 'sing the 's'a+ meters( -he %hoi%e of the apert're
a+so affe%ts image *'a+ity (a,errations& and depth of fie+d (see ,e+o4&( Hepth of fie+d and fo%'s/
stern +ooking man and a 4oman sit on the right side of a ta,+e 4ith do%'ments on the ta,+e( / top
hat is on the ta,+e( /n 'nkempt man stands to the +eft of the pi%t're( )n the ,a%kgro'nd a ,oy %an ,e
seen thro'gh a 4indo4 p+aying in the sno4(/ deep fo%'s shot from CitiQen Gane (23>2&:
everything, in%+'ding the hat in the foregro'nd and the ,oy (yo'ng Char+es Aoster Gane& in the
distan%e, is in sharp fo%'s(
Ao%a+ +ength and diaphragm apert're affe%t the depth of fie+d of a s%ene Y that is, ho4 m'%h the
,a%kgro'nd, mid1gro'nd and foregro'nd 4i++ ,e rendered in "a%%epta,+e fo%'s" (on+y one e0a%t
p+ane of the image is in pre%ise fo%'s& on the fi+m or video target( Hepth of fie+d (not to ,e %onf'sed
4ith depth of fo%'s& is determined ,y the apert're siQe and the fo%a+ distan%e( / +arge or deep depth
of fie+d is generated 4ith a very sma++ iris apert're and fo%'sing on a point in the distan%e, 4hereas
a sha++o4 depth of fie+d 4i++ ,e a%hieved 4ith a +arge (open& iris apert're and fo%'sing %+oser to the
+ens( Hepth of fie+d is a+so governed ,y the format siQe( )f one %onsiders the fie+d of vie4 and ang+e
of vie4, the sma++er the image is, the shorter the fo%a+ +ength sho'+d ,e, as to keep the same fie+d of
vie4( -hen, the sma++er the image is, the more depth of fie+d is o,tained, for the same fie+d of vie4(
-herefore, 8?mm has +ess depth of fie+d than 9Imm for a given fie+d of vie4, 2Mmm more than
9Imm, and video %ameras even more depth of fie+d than 2Mmm( /s videographers try to em'+ate the
+ook of 9I mm fi+m 4ith digita+ %ameras, this is one iss'e of fr'stration 1 e0%essive depth of fie+d
4ith digita+ %ameras and 'sing additiona+ opti%a+ devi%es to red'%e that depth of fie+d()n CitiQen
Gane (23>2&, %inematographer Gregg -o+and and dire%tor 5rson Fe++es 'sed tighter apert'res to
%reate ring every detai+ of the foregro'nd and ,a%kgro'nd of the sets in sharp fo%'s( -his pra%ti%e is
kno4n as deep fo%'s( Heep fo%'s ,e%ame a pop'+ar %inematographi% devi%e from the 23>?s
on4ards in Ro++y4ood( -oday, the trend is for more sha++o4 fo%'s(-o %hange the p+ane of fo%'s
from one o,Je%t or %hara%ter to another 4ithin a shot is %ommon+y kno4n as a ra%k fo%'s(