Group 8

Part 1
Chris Miller, Will McCabe, Luciano Cortes-Alvarado
Alfred Tarski(1901-1983)
- Born in Warsaw in 1901
-Studied Philosophy and Mathematics at the University of
Warsaw
-He Took courses with Sierpinski, Lesniewski,
Lukasiewicz just to name a few.
-With Lesniewskis supervision, Tarski earn his doctorate
in 1924
Alfred Tarski
Achievements
-Considered to be one of the greatest logicians of all time.
- His mathematical characterizations of the concepts of
truth and logical consequence for sentences of classical
formalized languages, which means his ideas with
combining math and truth/logical consequence are when
he is known for.(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
2006)
-Created the Language of the Calculus Classes
(Sec 3.2) Problem # 4


Write an informal negation for each of the following
statements. Be careful to avoid negations that are
ambiguous.
Prob # 4 Background Info
First lets explain the basics of the problem before we solve it. There are three main types of
statements in mathematics: universal, conditional, and existential. The two types that we will be
using for problem 4 are universal and existential. A universal statement is a statement true for all
elements in a set. An existential statement is when there is at least one thing that makes the
property true. Negation in math is the opposite of the statement. Theorem 3.2.1 Negation of a
Universal Statement is, The negation of a universal statement (all are) is logically equivalent to
an existential statement (some are not or there is at least one that is not) (Epps, 2010, p. 109).
Theorem 3.2.2 Negation of an Existential Statement is, The negation of an existential statement
(some are) is logically equivalent to a universal statement (none are or all are not) (Epps,
2010, p. 109). We need to be careful of negating a statement, because you can make it too
ambiguous. This means that it can have more than one interpretation of the statement, thats why
we cant just insert the word not into a statement. Lastly, an informal negation of a statement is
simply the negation of the statement with words in place of the mathematical symbols.
Prob # 4 Step-By-Step
a. All dogs are friendly.
What exactly would it mean for this statement to be false? The statement asserts that all dogs satisfy a
certain property of being friendly. So for it to be false, there would have to be at least one dog that does not
satisfy the property of being friendly. Thus using Theorem 3.2.1 Negation of a Universal Statement, the answer
is:
There is at least one dog that is not friendly.
or Some dogs are friendly.
b. All people are happy.
What exactly would it mean for this statement to be false? The statement asserts that all people satisfy a
certain property of being happy. So for it to be false, there would have to be at least one person that does not
satisfy the property of being happy. Thus using Theorem 3.2.1 Negation of a Universal Statement, the answer
is:
There is at least one person that is not happy.
or Some people are happy.
Step-By-Step Continued...
c. Some suspicions were substantiated.
This statement is equivalent to saying that there is at least one suspicion with a certain property of being
substantiated. So for it to be false, not a single suspicion can have that property of being substantiated. Thus
using Theorem 3.2.2 Negation of an Existential Statement, the negation is:
No suspicions were substantiated.
or All suspicions were unsubstantiated.

d. Some estimates are accurate.
This statement is equivalent to saying that there is at least one estimate with a certain property of being
accurate. So for it to be false, not a single estimate can have that property of being accurate. Thus using
Theorem 3.2.2 Negation of an Existential Statement, the negation is:
No estimates are accurate
or All estimates are inaccurate.
(Sec 3.2) Problem # 15
Let D = {-48, -14, -8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, 36}.

Determine which of the following statements are true and
which are false.

Provide counterexamples for those statements that are
false.
Prob # 15 Background
Info
First lets explain what we have. D is the name of a set that contains objects called elements. The elements in this set
D are the numbers -48, -14, -8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, and 36. The statement is true if it works for every case. The statement is
false if there is at least one counterexample, or case in which it is not true.
Now we will discuss what an if then statement is. Consider the statement: if A then B. In all cases, if A occurs or if
A is true, then B must occur for the statement to be true. If there is at least one case in which A occurs or A is true and B does
not occur, then the statement is false. Lastly, if A does not occur or is true in any case, then the statement is always true. B
does not affect our statement if A does not happen.
Before we begin with the statements, we will discuss what x D means. The symbol means for all, means is
an element of or is in, and x represents an arbitrary element. Therefore, the symbols x D together means for all
arbitrary elements x in the set D. The xs in our set D are the numbers -48, -14, -8, 0, 1, 3, 16, 23, 26, 32, and 36. Each
number is arbitrary.
Last of all, digit places are important to proceed. Consider the number 16. 16 is a two digit number since it takes a 1
and a 6 to give us 16. The 6 is in the ones digit place. The 1 is in the tens digit place. For a single digit number such as 3,
we have that 3 is in the ones digit place. If we write 3 as 03, then we have 0 in the tens digit place, and so on. Now lets
begin!
Prob # 15 Step-By-Step
a. x D, if x is odd then x > 0.
Consider this statement for all arbitrary elements x in the set D. Lets begin by looking at every odd
element in D. We have 1, 3, and 23. For this statement to be true, they must all be greater than zero. 1 > 0, 3 >
0, and 23 > 0. This is true for every case. Thus this statement is true.

b. x D, if x is less than 0 then x is even.
Consider this statement for all arbitrary elements x in the set D. First we find which elements in D are less
than zero. We have -48, -14, and -8. Now we need to check if each of these elements are even. We can confirm
they are all even by checking if they are divisible by 2. -48/2=-24, -14/2=-7, and -8/2=-4. Yes, they are all even.
Hence this statement is true.

c. x D, if x is even then x0.
Consider this statement for all arbitrary elements x in the set D. We find that all the elements in D that are even
are -48, -14, -8, 0, 16, 26, 32, and 36. Now we see if every element is less than or equal to zero. Note that -
480, -140, -80, and 00, but 16>0, 26>0, 32>0, and 36>0. Therefore this statement is false. There are
elements 16, 26, 32, and 36 of the set D that are even but are not less than or equal to zero. We have that 0, 16,
26, 32, and 36 are counterexamples of this statement.
Step-By-Step Continued...
d. x D, if the ones digit of x is 2, then the ten digit is 3 or 4.
Consider this statement for all arbitrary elements x in the set D. We find that the only element in the set D with a
2 in the ones digit place is 32. Now we notice that the tens digit place contains a 3 or 4. Indeed 32 has a tens
place digit of 3. Thus this statement is true.

e. x D, if the ones digit is 6, then the tens digit is 1 or 2.
Consider this statement for all arbitrary elements x in the set D. The elements in D that contain a 6 in the ones
digit are 16, 26 and 36. We must confirm that each of these elements have a 1 or 2 in the tens digit place. 16
has a 1 in the tens digit place, 26 has a 2 in the tens digit place, but 36 does not have a 1 or 2 in the tens digit
place. 36 has a 3 in the tens digit place. Hence this statement is false. 36 has 6 in the ones digit place and not a
1 or 2 in the tens digits place. The counterexample for this statement is 36.
(Sec 3.2) Problem # 35

Give an example to show that a universal
conditional statement is not logically
equivalent to its inverse.
Prob # 35 Background
Info
A universal statement is a statement true for all elements in a set. A conditional statement is
an if then statement. A universal conditional statement is a universal and conditional statement.
For a statement to be logically equivalent to another statement, each individual case would be true
for both statements or would be false for both statements. If there is even a single case in which
one statement is true and the other is false, then the two statements are not considered logically
equivalent.
We discussed earlier about if then statements. Our example was if A then B. An inverse of this
would be written as: if not A then not B. This says if A is not true then B is not true. To negate an
or statement such as
Prob # 35 Step-By-Step
Consider the universal conditional statement: x Z, if x > 2 or x < 2, then x
2
> 4.
Z is the infinite set of integers or whole numbers including zero, positive, and negative numbers. Z = {, -4, -3, -2,
-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }. In our statement, x Z means for all elements x in the set Z of integers. This statement is
true for every integer.
We want to show that the inverse of our statement is not logically equivalent. The inverse can be written as x
Z, if x > 2 and x 2, then x
2
4 or to make it more clear, the inverse can be written as x Z, if x > 2 then x
2

4.
To show that x Z, if x > 2 or x < 2, then x
2
> 4 and x Z, if x > 2 then x
2
4 are not logically equivalent, then
we must find an element in Z which makes one statement true and the other statement false.
Consider the element 8 of Z. In the first statement, 8 > 2 and 8
2
> 4. 8 makes the first statement true. In the
inverse of the statement, 8 > 2 but 8
2
is not less than or equal to 4. 8
2
> 4. 8 makes the inverse of the statement
false. Therefore the statements are not logically equivalent. 8 is an element in Z that makes the first statement true
and the inverse statement false. One counterexample is enough to show that statements are not logically
equivalent. Therefore a universal conditional statement is not logically equivalent to its inverse.

(Sec 3.3) Problem # 21
For each of the following equations, determine which of the following
statements are true:
(1) For all real numbers x, there exists a real number y such that the equation
is true.
(2) There exists a real number x, such that for all real numbers y, the
equation is true.

Note that it is possible for both statements to be true or for both to be false.
Prob # 21 Background
Info
To begin we must look at the basics of the problem, breaking it down. Logic Notation Form is what computer scientists and
mathematicians need to use so that they can express logical statements using symbols. We need to break down parts (1) and
(2) into Logic Notation Form, which is the mathematical way of approaching the problem. The symbol denotes for all
and is called the universal quantifier. For example, another way to express the sentence All human beings are mortal is to
write human beings x, x is mortal (Epps, 2010, p. 98). So anywhere we see the words for all, we need to include . The
symbol denotes there exists and is called the existential quantifier. For example, the sentence There is a student in Math
140 can be written as ( a person p such that p is a student in Math 140), or, more formally, (p P such that p is a student
in Math 140), where P is the set of all people (Epps, 2010, p. 99). So anywhere we see the words there exists, we need to
include .
Now we need to start breaking down parts (1) and (2):
(1) For all real numbers x, there exists a real number y such that the equation is true.
= real numbers x, a real number y such that the equation is true.

(2) There exists a real number x, such that for all real numbers y, the equation is true.
= a real number x such that real numbers y, the equation is true.

And now lets start!
Prob # 21 Step-By-Step
a. 2x + y = 7
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) real numbers x, a real number y such that 2x + y = 7.
Plug in 2() + () = 7 = 2, = 3
2(2) + (3) = 7
4 + 3 = 7
7 = 7 = true
ANSWER: The statement real numbers x, a real number y such that 2x + y = 7 is
true.
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) a real number x such that real numbers y, 2x + y = 7
Plug in: 2() + () = 7 = 2, = 3
2(3) + (2) = 7
6 + 2 = 7
8 = 7 = false
ANSWER: The statement a real number x such that real numbers y, 2x + y = 7 is
false.

Prob # 21 Step-By-Step
b. y + x = x + y
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) real numbers x, a real number y such that y + x = x + y.
Plug in () + () = () + () = 2, = 3
(3) + (2) = (2) + (3)
5 = 5 = true
ANSWER: The statement real numbers x, a real number y such that y + x = x + y is
true.
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) a real numbers x, real number y such that y + x = x + y.
Plug in () + () = ()+ () = 2, = 3
(3) + (2) = (2) + (3)
5 = 5 = true
ANSWER: The statement a real numbers x, real number y such that y + x = x + y is
true.


Prob # 21 Step-By-Step
c. x 2xy + y = 0
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) real numbers x, a real number y such that y + x = x + y.
Plug in : () - 2()() + () = 0 = 2, = 3
(2) - 2(2)(3) + (3) = 0
4 - 12 + 9 = 0
9 - 9 = 0
0 = 0 = true
ANSWER: The statement real numbers x, a real number y such that y + x = x + y is
true.
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) a real numbers x, real number y such that y + x = x + y.
Plug in : () - 2()() + () = 0 = 2, = 3
(3) - 2(3)(2) + (2) = 0
9 - 12 + 4 = 0
-4 + 4 = 0
0 = 0 = true
ANSWER: The statement a real numbers x, a real number y such that y + x = x + y
is true.


Prob # 21 Step-By-Step
d. (x 5)(y 1) = 0
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) real numbers x, a real number y such that (x 5)(y 1) = 0.
Plug in ( 5)( 1) = 0 = 5, = 1
(5 5)(1 1) = 0
0 = 0 = true
ANSWER: The statement real numbers x, a real number y such that (x 5)(y 1) = 0
is true.
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) a real numbers x, real number y such that (x 5)(y 1) = 0.
Plug in ( 5)( 1) = 0 = 5, = 1
(1 5)(5 1) = 0
(-4)(4) = 0
-16 = 0 = false
ANSWER: The statement a real numbers x, real number y such that (x 5)(y 1) = 0
is false.



Prob # 21 Step-By-Step
e. x + y = 1
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) Start with changing for all to
real numbers x, a real number y such that x + y = 1.
Plug in () + () = 1 = 2, = 3
(2) + (3) = 10
4 + 9 = 10
13 = 10 = false
ANSWER: The statement real numbers x, a real number y such that x + y = 1 is
false. *Note: Anything squared is a positive. And the equation is adding
two squared numbers, so the result has to be positive.
1) First rewrite the equation in Logic Notation Form:
i) Start with changing for all to
a real numbers x, real number y such that x + y = 1.
Plug in: () + () = 1 = 2, = 3
(3) + (2) =10
9 + 4 = 10
13 = 10 = false
ANSWER: The statement a real numbers x, real number y such that x + y = 1 is
false.

Bibliography
Epp, S. (2010). Discrete mathematics with applications. (4 ed.).
Massachusetts, Boston: Cengage Learning.
Leonhard Euler. (2014). The Biography.com website. Retrieved 04:05, Apr
24, 2014, fromhttp://www.biography.com/people/leonhard-euler-21342391.