ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
Definition
Environment is derived from the French word Environ which means to encircle
or surround.
Environment is sum total of ater! air! an" lan"! inter-relations#i$s amon%
t#emselves an" also it# t#e #uman &ein%s! ot#er livin% or%anisms an" $ro$ert'.
The above definition given in Environment Act, 1986 clearly indicates that environment
includes all the hysical and biological surroundings and their interactions.
S(o$e

!coe of environmental science is broad. !ome of the asects of scoe of
environmental science are"
!tudying the interrelationshis among biotic and abiotic comonents for
sustainable human ecosystem,
#arrying out imact analysis and environmental auditing for the further
catastrohic activities,
$eveloing and curbing the ollution from e%isting and new industries,
!toing the use of biological and nuclear weaons for destruction of
human race,
&anaging the unredictable disasters and so on.
There are some ma'or issues li(e global warming, deletion of o)one layer,
dwindling forests and energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc., that are going to
affect the man(ind as a whole and for that we have to thin( globally.
Nee" for $u&li( aareness
o *ublic awareness very essential to hel understand ros and cons of
environmental roblems.
o The +nited ,ations #onference on Environment and $eveloment held in
-io de .anerio in 199/ and oularly (nown as Earth summit followed by
the world summit on sustainable $eveloment in /00/, have highlighted
(ey issues of global environmental concern.
o Environmental ollution cannot be removed by laws alone.
o The roer imlementation and esecially ublic articiation are
imortant asects.
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o *ublic articiation is ossible only when the ublic is aware about the
ecological and environmental issues.
o A drive by the government to ban the littering of olythene cannot be
successful until the ublic understands the environmental imlications of
the same.
o The ublic has to be educated about the fact that if we are degrading our
environment we are actually harming ourselves.
)orest resour(es
Uses of )orests
Commer(ial uses*
&an deends heavily on a larger number of lant and animal roducts
from forests for his daily needs.
The chief roduct that forests suly is wood, which is used as fuel, raw
material for various industries as ul, aer, newsrint, board, timber for
furniture items, other uses as in ac(ing articles, matches, sorts goods
etc.
1ndian forests also suly minor roducts li(e gums, resins, dyes, tannins,
fibers, etc.
&any of the lants are utili)ed in rearing medicines and drugs2 Total
worth of which is estimated to be more than 3400 billion er year.
&any forests lands are used for mining, agriculture, gra)ing, and
recreation and for develoment of dams.
E(olo%i(al uses*
The ecological services rovided by our forests may be summed u as follows"
+ro"u(tion of O,'%en" The main green house gas carbondio%ide is
absorbed by the forests as a raw material for hoto synthesis. Thus forest
canoy acts as a sin( for corbondio%ide thereby reducing the roblem of
global warming caused by green house gas #5
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-il" life #a&itat" Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and
lants. About 6 million secies are found in the troical forests alone.
Re%ulation of #'"rolo%i(al C'(le" Forested watersheds act li(e giant
songes, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the runoff. They control
climate through transiration of water and seed clouding.
Soil Conservation* Forests bind the soil articles tightly in their roots and
revent soil erosion. They also act as wind brea(ers.
+ollution mo"erators" Forests can absorb many to%ic gases and can hel
in (eeing the air ure and in reventing noise ollution.
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Over E,$loitation of )orests
&an deends heavily on forests for food, medicine, shelter, wood and
fuel.
7ith growing civili)ation the demands for raw material li(e timber, ul,
minerals, fuel wood etc. shot u resulting in large scale logging, mining,
road8building and clearing of forests.
5ur forests contribute substantially to the national economy.
The international timber trade alone is worth over +! 3 90 billion er
year.
The devasting effects of deforestation in 1ndia include soil, water and wind
erosion, estimated to cost over 16,900 crores every year.
Deforestation
$eforestation means destruction of forests.
The total forests area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 6,000
million hectares which was reduced to /890 million ha in 196: fell down
to 'ust /,400 million ha by /000.
$eforestation rate is relatively less in temerature countries, but it is very
alarming in troical countries.
$eforestation is a continuous rocess in 1ndia where about 1.4 hectares of
forest land has been lost.
The er caita availability of forest in 1ndia is 0.08 hectares er erson
which is much lower than the world average of 0.8 hectares.
The resence of waste land is a sign of deforestation in 1ndia.

Causes of Deforestation*
&a'or causes of deforestation are listed below"
a; $eveloment ro'ects
b; !hifting cultivation
c; Fuel re<uirements
d; #onstruction of dams
e; =rowing food needs
Conse.uen(es of "eforestation*
!ome of the effects of deforestation are listed below"
a; Effect on climate
1. =lobal warming
/. >ess rainfall
4. ?ot climate and others.
b; Effect on biodiversity
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1. >oss of medicinal lants.
/. >oss of timber, fuel wood and others.
c; Effect on resources
1. >oss of land resource
/. >oss of soil fertility
4. !oil erosion
9. $rastic changes in biogeochemical cycles

d; Effect on economy
1. 1ncrease in medicinal values
/. $emand of industrial roducts and others
e; Effect on food
1. >oss of fruit roduction
/. >oss of root based foods
Case Stu"ies
Desertifi(ation in #ill' re%ions of t#e /imala'as*
$esertification in ?imalayas, involving clearance of natural forests and
lantation of monocultures li(e *inus ro%burghi, Eucalytus camadulensis
etc., have uset the ecosystem by changing various soil and biological
roerties.
The area is invaded by e%otic weeds. These areas are not able to recover
and are losing their fertility.
Disa$$earin% Tea %ar"ens in C##ota Na%$ur*
Following the destruction of forest rain fall declined in #hhota ,agur to
such an e%tent that tea8gardens also disaeared from the region.
-anin% rain fall in U"#a%aman"alam*
The rainfall attern was found to fluctuate with wooded land area in the
hills. 7hen the ,ilgiri mountains had lu%uriant forest cover annual
rainfall used to be much higher.
Tim&er E,tra(tion
>ogging for valuable timber such as tea( and mahogany not only involves
a few large trees er hectare but about a do)en more trees since they are
strongly interloc(ed with each other by vines etc.
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Also road construction for ma(ing aroach to the trees causes further
damage to the forests.
1n 1ndia, firewood demand would continue to rise in future mostly
consumed in rural areas, where alternative sources of energy, are yet to
reach.
Minin%
o &ining is the rocess of removing deosits of ores from substantially very
well below the ground level.
o &ining is carried out to remove several minerals including coal.
o These mineral deosits invariably found in the forest region, and any
oeration of mining will naturally affect the forests.
o &ining from shallow deosits is done by surface mining while that from
dee deosits is done by sub8surface mining.
o &ore than 80,000 ha of land of the country is resently under the stress of
mining activities.
Effe(ts of minin% resour(es*
&ining oeration re<uire removal of vegetation along with underlying soil
mantle and overlying roc( masses. This results in destruction of landscae
in the area.
>arge scale of deforestation has been reorted in &ussorie and $ehradun
valley due to mining of various areas.
1ndiscriminate mining in =oa since 1961 has destroyed more than :0,000
ha of forest land.
&ining of radioactive mineral in @erala, Tamilnadu and @arnata(a are
osing similar threats of deforestation.
Dams an" t#eir effe(ts on forests an" tri&al $eo$le
o Aig dams and river valley ro'ects have multi8urose uses and have been
referred to as BTemles of modern 1ndiaC.
o 1ndia has more than 1::0 large dams, the ma%imum being in the state of
&aharashtra Dmore than 600; followed by =u'arat Dmore than /:0; and
&adhya *radesh D140;.
o The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Ahagirathi in +tttaranchal and the
largest in terms of caacity is Aha(ra dam on river !utle'.
Effe(ts on Tri&al $eo$le
The greatest social cost of big dam is the widesread dislacement of local
eole.
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1t is estimated that the number of eole affected directly or indirectly by
all big irrigation ro'ects in 1ndia over the ast :0 years can be as high as
/0 millions.
The ?ira(ud dam, one of the largest dams e%ecuted in fifties, has
dislaced more than /0,000 eole residing in /:0 villages.
Effe(ts on forests
Thousands of hectares of forests have been cleared for e%ecuting river valley
ro'ects which brea(s the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, landslides
become more revalent in such areas.
For e%amle
The ,armada sagar ro'ect alone has submerged 4.: la(h hectares of best forest
comrising of rich tea( and bamboo forests.
The Tehri dam submerged 1000 hectares of forest affecting about 940 secies of
lants according to the survey carried out by the botanical survey of 1ndia.
-ater Resour(es
Uses of -ater
$ue to its uni<ue roerties, water is of multile uses for all living
organisms.
7ater is absolutely essential for life.
&ost of the life rocesses ta(e lace in water contained in the body.
+ta(e of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of
temerature, and removal of wastes are all mediated through water.
?uman beings deend on water for almost every develomental activity.
7ater is used for drin(ing, irrigation, and transortation, washing and
waste disosal for industries and used as a coolant for thermal ower
lants.
7ater shaed the earthEs surface and regulates our climate.
Over utili0ation of surfa(e an" %roun" ater
7ith increasing human oulation and raid develoment, the world
water withdrawal demands have increased many folds and a large
roortion of the water withdrawn is olluted due to anthroogenic
activities.
5ut of the total water reserves of the world, about 96F is salty water and
only 4F is fresh water.
Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is
loc(ed u in olar ice cas and 'ust 0.004F is readily available to us in the
form of ground water and surface water.
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Effe(ts of over e,$loitation of ater
Su&si"en(e* 7hen ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge
rate, the sediments in the a<uifer Da layer of roc( that is highly ermeable
and contains water; get comacted, a henomenon (nows as ground
subsidence. 1t results in sin(ing of overlying land surface. $ue to this
structural damage in buildings, fracture in ies etc., occurs.
Loerin% of ater ta&le" &ining of groundwater is done e%tensively for
irrigating cro fields. ?owever, e%cessive mining would cause lowering of
water table.
-ater lo%%in%" 7hen e%cessive irrigation is done with brac(ish water it
raises the water table gradually leading to water8logging and salinity
roblems.
)loo"s an" "rou%#t
?eavy rainfall often causes floods in the low8lying coastal areas.
*rolonged downour can also cause the over8flowing of la(es and rivers
resulting into floods.
7hen annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaoration, drought
conditions are created.
Causes of floo" an" "rou%#t*
$eforestation, overgra)ing, mining, raid industriali)ation, global
warming etc., have contributed largely to a shar rise in the incidence of
floods.
$eforestation leads to desertification and drought too. 7hen the trees are
cut, the soil is sub'ect to erosion by heavy rains, winds and sun.
The removal of thin to layer of soil ta(es away the nutrients and the soil
becomes useless.
The eroded soils e%hibit droughty tendency.
+reventive measures*
#lear (nowledge in control of drought and desertification can be very useful for
dealing with the roblem.
#arefully selected mi%ed croing hels to otimi)e roduction and minimi)e the
ris(s of cro failures.
!ocial forestry and 7asteland develoment can rove <uite effective to fight the
roblem, but it should be based on roer understanding of ecological
re<uirement and natural rocess.
Confli(ts over ater
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1ndisensability of water and its une<ual distribution has often led to inter8state or
international disutes. 1ssues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting
our farmers and also sha(ing our governments. &any countries are engaged in bitter
rivalries over this recious resource.
For instance,
Argentina and Ara)il, disute each otherEs claims to the >a *lata river,
1ndia and *a(istan fight over the rights to water from the 1ndus,
&e%ico and +!A have come in conflict over the #olorado river,
1ndia and Aangladesh are fighting for Ahrahmautra river, and
1ran and 1ra< contest for the water from !hatt8Al8 Arab -iver.
7ithin 1ndia, water conflicts are still being continues between the states. For Eg.,
!haring of @rishna water between @arnata(a and Andhra *radesh,
!haring of !iruvani water between Tamilnadu and @erala, and others.
!haring of #auvery between @arnata(a and Tamilnadu
5n .une /,1990, the #auvery 7ater disute Tribunal was set u which through an
interim award directed @arnata(a to ensure that /0: T&#F of water was made
available in Tamil ,aduEs &ettur dam every year, till a settlement was reached.
1n 19918199/ due to good monsoon, there was no disute. 1n 199:, the situation
turned into a crisis due to delayed rains and an e%ert #ommittee was set u to
loo( into the matter which found that there was a comle% croing attern in
#auvery basin.
!amba addy in winter, @uravai addy in summer and some cash cros
demanded intensive water2 thus aggravating the water crisis.
*roer selection of cro varieties, otimum use of water, better rationing are
suggested as some measures to solve the roblem
1i%-Dams 21enefits an" +ro&lems
1enefits*
-iver valley ro'ects with big dams lay a (ey role in the develoment rocess
due to their multile uses.
These dams aim at roviding emloyment for tribal eole and raising the
standard and <uality of life.
$ams can hel in chec(ing floods and generate electricity and reduce water and
ower shortage, rovide irrigation water to lower areas, rovide drin(ing water in
remote areas and romote navigation, fishery etc.
+ro&lems*
The imacts of big dams can be ustream as well as downstream levels.
The ustream roblems include the following"
$islacement of tribal eole
>oss of forests, flora and fauna
#hanges in fisheries
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!altation and sedimentation of reservoirs
>oss of non8forest land
!tagnation and waterlogging near reservoir
Areeding vectors and sread of vector Gborne diseases
-eservoir induces seismicity causing earth<ua(es
&icroclimatic changes
=rowth of a<uatic weeds
The downstream roblems include the following"
7ater logging and salinity due to over irrigation
&icroclimatic changes
-educed water flow and slit deosition in river
Flash foods
!alt water intrusion at river mouth
>oss of land fertility
5utbrea( of vector8borne diseases li(e malaria.
&ineral -esources
Uses of minerals
&ineral is an element or inorganic comound that occurs naturally. The main uses
of minerals are as follows"
$eveloment of industrial lants and machinery
=eneration of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium
#onstruction, housing ,settlements
$efense e<uiments8 weaons, settlement
Transortation means
#ommunication8telehone wires, cables, electronic devices
&edical system8 articularly in Ayurvedic !ystem
Formation of alloys for various uroses
Agriculture8 as fertili)ers, seed dressings and fungicides
.ewellery8 eg. =old, silver, latinum, diamond
&a'or reserves and imortant uses of some of the metals"
Metals Ma3or orl" reserves Ma3or uses
Aluminium Australia, .amaica *ac(ing food items, transortation,
utensils, electronics
#hromium #1!DThe common
wealth of 1ndeendent
states;, !outh Africa
For ma(ing high strength steel alloys,
in te%tiles and tanning industries
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#oer +.!.A, #anada, #1! Electronic and electrical goods,
building, construction, vessels
1ron #1!, #anada, +.!.A ?eavy machinery, steel roduction
transortation means.
&anganese !outh Africa, #1! For ma(ing high strength heat
resistant steel alloys
*latinum !outh Africa, #1! +se in automobiles, catalytic
converters, electronics, medical uses.
=old !outh Africa, #1!,
#anada
5rnaments, medical use, electronic
use, in aerosace
!ilver #anada, !outh Africa *hotograhy, electronic 'ewellery.
,ic(el #1!, #anada #hemical industry, steel alloys
&a'or uses of some of the non metallic minerals
Non-metal mineral Ma3or uses
!ilicate minerals !and and grovel for construction, bric(s, aving
etc.
>imestone +sed for concrete, building stone, used in
agriculture for neutrali)ing acid soils, used in
cement industry
=ysum +sed in laster wall8board, in agriculture
*otash, hoshorite +sed as fertili)ers
!ulhur yrites +sed in medicine, car battery, industry
Environmental im$a(ts of mineral e,tra(tion*
&a'or mines which are (nown for causing severe roblems are given below"
.aduguda +ranium &ine, .har(hand8 e%osing local eole to radioactive
ha)ards.
.haria coal mines, .har(hand8 underground fire leading to land subsidence
and forced dislacement of eole.
!u(inda chromite mines, 5rissa8 !eeing of he%avalent chromium into
river osing serious health ha)ard, #r
6H
being highly to%ic and
carcinogenic.
@udremu(h iron ore mine, @arnata(a8 causing river ollution and threat to
biodiversity.
East coast Aau%ite mine, 5rissa8>and encroachment and issue of
rehabilitation unsettled.
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,orth8Eastern #oal Fields, Assam8Iery high sulhur contamination of
groundwater.
Im$a(ts of minin%* &ining is done to e%tract minerals from dee deosits in soil.
Environmental damages caused by mining activities are as follows"
o Deve%etation an" "efa(in% of lan"s* &ining re<uires removal of
vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying roc( masses.
This results in destruction of landscae in the area.
o Su&si"en(e of lan"* !ubsidence of mining areas results in tilting of
buildings, crac(s in houses, buc(ling of roads, bending of rail trac(s and
lea(ing of gas from crac(ed ie lines leading to serious disasters.
o Groun"ater (ontamination* &ining ollutes the groundwater. !ulhur,
usually resent as an imurity in many ores is (nown to get converted into
sulhuric acid through microbial action, thereby ma(ing the water acidic.
o Surfa(e ater $ollution* The acid mine drainage often contaminates the
nearby streams and la(es. The acidic water, radioactive substances li(e
uranium, heavy metals also contaminate the water bodies and (ill a<uatic
animals.
o Air $ollution* 1n order to searate and urify the metal from other
imurities in the ore, smelting is done which emits enormous <uantities of
air ollutants. 5%ides of sulhur, arsenic, cadmium and lead etc. shoot u
in the atmoshere near the smelters and the ublic suffers from several
health roblems.
o O((u$ational /ealt# /a0ar"s* &iners wor(ing in different tye of
mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, blac( lung disease etc
Reme"ial measures*
Adoting eco8friendly mining technology
+tili)ation of low grade ores by using microbial G leaching techni<ue. 1n this
method, the ores are inoculated with the desired strains of bacteria li(e
Thiobacillus ferro%idans, which remove the imurities and leave the ure mineral.
-e8vegetating mined areas with aroriate lants
=radual restoration of flora
*revention of to%ic drainage discharge.
Case stu"ies
14 Minin% an" .uarr'in% in U"ai$ur
!oa stones, building stone, and dolomite mines sread over 1:,000
hectares in +daiur have caused many adverse imacts on environment.
About 1:0 tones of e%losives are used er month in blasting.
The &aton mines have badly olluted the Ahar river.
The hills around the mines are suffering from acute soil erosion.
The waste water flows towards a big tan( of B Aag $araB.
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$ue to scarcity of water eole are comelled to use this effluent for
irrigation urose.
The animals li(e tiger, lion, deer, and birds have disaeared from the
mining area.
54 Minin% in Saris6a Ti%er Reserve in Aravallis
The Aravalli range is sread over about 69/ @m in the ,orth8west 1ndia
covering =u'rat, -a'asthan, ?aryana, and $elhi.
The hill is rich in mineral resources.
&ining oerations within and around the !aris(a Tiger reserve has left
many areas ermanently infertile and barren.
The recious wild life is under serious threat.
)oo" resour(es
-orl" )oo" +ro&lems
$uring the last :0 years world grain roduction has increased almost three times.
The er caita roduction is increased by about :0F.
At the same time oulation growth increased at such a rate in less develoed
countries.
Every 90 million eole die of undernourishment and malnutrition.
This means that every year our food roblem is (illing as many eole as were
(illed by the atomic bomb droed on ?iroshima during 7orld 7ar 11.
This statistics emhasi)e the need to increase our food roduction, and also to
control oulation growth.
1t is estimated that 400 millions are still undernourished.
Im$a(ts of over%ra0in% an" a%ri(ulture4
Over%ra0in%*
5vergra)ing can limit livestoc( roduction. 5ver gra)ing occurs when too many
animals gra)e for too long and e%ceed the carrying caacity of a grass land area.
Im$a(t of over%ra0in%*
Lan" "e%ra"ation* 5vergra)ing removes the grass cover. The humus content of
the soil is decreased and it leads to oor, dry, comacted soil.
Soil erosion* The soil roots are very good binders of soil. 7hen the grasses are
removed, the soil becomes loose and suscetible to the action of wind and water.
Loss of useful s$e(ies* $ue to overgra)ing the nutritious secies li(e cenchrus,
anicum etc. are relaced by thorny lants li(e *arthenium, Janthium etc. These
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secies do not have a good caacity of binding the soil articles and, therefore,
the soil becomes more rone to soil erosion.
A%ri(ulture*
Tra"itional A%ri(ulture an" its im$a(ts*
+sually involves a small lot
!imle tools
,aturally available water
5rganic fertili)er and a mi% of cros
Main im$a(ts*
$eforestation
!oil erosion
$eletion of nutrients
Mo"ern A%ri(ulture an" its im$a(ts"
o 1t ma(es use of hybrid seeds of selected and single cro variety.
o high8tech e<uiments, lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertili)ers and,
esticides
o 1rrigation water
Main im$a(ts*
1. Im$a(ts relate" to #i%# 'iel"in% verities 7/8V;" The uses of ?KIs encourage
monoculture i.e. the same genotye is grown over vast areas. 1ncase of an attac(
by some athogen, there is total devastation of the cro by the disease due to
e%actly uniform conditions, which hel in raid sread of the disease.
II4 )ertili0er relate" $ro&lems*
a. Mi(ronutrient im&alan(e* #hemical fertili)ers have nitrogen,
hoshorus and otassium D,,*,@; which are essential macronutrients.
E%cessive use of fertili)ers cause micronutrient imbalance. For e%amle,
e%cessive fertili)er use in *un'ab and ?aryana has caused deficiency of
the micronutrient Linc in the soils, which is affecting roductivity of the
soil.
b. Nitrate +ollution" ,itrogenous fertili)ers alied in the fields often leach
dee into the soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water. The
nitrates get concentrated in the water and when their concentration
e%ceeds /: mgM>, they become the cause of a serious health ha)ard called
BAlue Aaby !yndromeB or methaemoglobinemia. This disease affects the
infants to the ma%imum e%tent causing even death.
c. Eutro$#i(ation" A large roortion of nitrogen and hoshorus used in
cro fields is washed off along with runoff water and reach the water
bodies causing over nourishment of the la(es, a rocess (nown as
Eutrohication. DEuNmore, troicNnutrition;. $ue to Eutrohication the
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la(es get invaded by algal blooms. These algal secies grow very fast by
raidly using u the nutrients. The algal secies <uic(ly comlete their life
cycle and die thereby adding a lot of dead matter. The fishes are also
(illed and there is lot of dead matter that starts getting decomosed.
5%ygen is consumed in the rocess of decomosition and very soon the
water gets deleted of dissolved o%ygen. This further affects a<uatic fauna
and ultimately anaerobic conditions are created where only athogenic
anaerobic bacteria can survive. Thus, due to e%cessive use of fertili)ers in
the agricultural fields the la(e ecosystem gets degraded.
111. +esti(i"e relate" $ro&lems" Thousands of tyes of esticides are used in
agriculture. The first generation esticides include chemicals li(e sulhur, arsenic,
lead or mercury to (ill the ests. They have number of side effects as discussed
below"
a. Creatin% resistan(e in $ests an" $ro"u(in% ne $ests" About /0 secies
of ests are now (nown which have become immune to all tyes of
esticides and are (nown as B!uer estsB.
b. Deat# of non-tar%et or%anisms" &any insecticides not only (ill the target
secies but also several non8target secies that are useful to us.
c. 1iolo%i(al ma%nifi(ation" &any of the esticides are non8biodegradable
and (ee on accumulating in the food chain, a rocess called biological
magnification. This is very harmful.
1I. -ater Lo%%in%" 5ver irrigation of crolands by farmers for good growth of their
cro usually leads to water logging. 1nade<uate drainage caused e%cess water to
accumulate underground and gradually forms a continuous column with the water
table. +nder water8logged conditions, ore8saces in the soil get fully drenched
with water and the soil8 air gets deleted. The water table rises while the roots of
lants do not get ade<uate air for resiration, &echanical strength of the soil
declines, the cro lants get lodged and cro yield falls. 1n *un'ab and ?aryana,
e%tensive areas have become water8logged due to ade<uate canal water suly or
tube8well water. *reventing e%cessive irrigation, sub8surface drainage technology
and bio8drainage with trees li(e Eucalytus are some of the remedial measures to
revent water8logging.
I. Salinit' +ro&lem" At resent one third of the total cultivable land area of the
world is affected by salts. !aline soils are characteri)ed by the accumulation of
soluble salts li(e sodium chloride, sodium sulhate, calcium chloride, magnesium
chloride etc. in the soil rofile. Their electrical conductivity is more than 9 d!Mm.
!odic soils have carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, the ? usually e%ceeds
8.0 and the e%changeable sodium ercentage DE!*; is more than 1:F.
Reme"'*
7i9 The most common method for getting rid of salts is to flush them out by
alying more good <uality water to such soils.
7ii9 Another method is laying underground networ( of erforated drainage ies
for flushing out the salts slowly.
Case stu"ies
19
Salinit' an" ater lo%%in% in +un3a&! /ar'ana an" Ra3ast#an*
The first alarming reort of salt8affected wasteland formation due to irrigation
ractices came from ?aryana in 18:8.
!everal villages in *aniat, and $elhi lying in 7estern Kamuna #anal were
suffering from salinity roblems.
The floods of 1996, 19:0, 19:/, 19:98:: in *un'ab resulted in aggravated water
logging with serious drainage roblems.
1ntroduction to canal irrigation in 1.4 m ha in ?aryana resulted in raise in water
table followed by water8logging and salinity in many irrigated areas as a result of
fall in cro roductivity.
-a'asthan too has suffered badly in this regard following the biggest irrigation
ro'ect B1ndhra =andhi #anal *ro'ectB
Ener%' resour(es
Groin% ener%' nee"s4
$eveloment in different sectors relies largely uon energy.
Agriculture, industry, mining, transortation, lighting, cooling and heating
in buildings all need energy.
7ith the demands of growing oulation the world is facing further
energy deficit.
1n develoed countries li(e +.!.A and #anada an average erson
consumes 400 =. er year.
Ay contrast, an average man in a oor country li(e Ahutan, ,eal or
Ethioia consumes less than 1 =. er year.
This clearly shows that our life8style and standard of living are closely
related to energy needs.
Renea&le an" Non-Renea&le ener%' sour(es
>ife on earth deends uon a large number of things and services rovided by
nature, which are (nows as energy resources.

Energy -esources are of two (inds.
I4 Renea&le resour(es" which are ine%haustive and can be regenerated within a
given san of time eg. Forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy etc. !olar
energy is also a renewable form of energy as it is an ine%haustible source of
energy.
II4 Non-renea&le resour(es which cannot be regenerated eg. Fossil fuels li(e coal,
etroleum etc. 5nce we e%haust these reserves, the same cannot be relenished.
1:
Even our renewable resources can become non8renewable if we e%loit them to
such e%tent their rate of consumtion e%ceeds their rate of regeneration.
Renea&le ener%' resour(es*
I4 Solar ener%'*
a4 !un releases enormous <uantity of energy in the form of heat and light.
&4 The solar energy received by the near earth sace is aro%imately1.9
(.MsMm
/
(nown as solar constant.
(4 ,ow we have several techni<ues for harnessing solar energy.
"4 !olar heat collectors, solar cells, solar coo(er, solar water heater, solar
furnace and solar ower lant are some imortant solar energy harvesting
devices.
II4 -in" Ener%'"
a4 The high seed winds have a lot of energy in them as (inetic energy due to
their motion.
&4 7ind energy is very useful as it does not cause any air ollution.
(4 After the installation cost, the wind energy is very chea.
III4 /'"ro $oer"
a4 The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a big dam where
the water is stored and allowed to fall from a height.
&4 The blades of turbine located at the bottom of the dam move with the fast
moving water which in turn rotates the generator and roduces electricity.
(4 ?ydro ower does not cause any ollution.
"4 ?ydro ower ro'ects hel in controlling floods, used for irrigation,
navigation etc.
IV4 Ti"al ener%'"
a4 5cean tides roduced by gravitational forces of sun and moon contain
enormous amounts of energy.
&4 The tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
(4 $uring high tide, the water flows into the reservoir of the barrage and
turns the turbine, which in turn roduces electricity by rotating the
generators.
"4 $uring low tide, when the sea8level is low, the sea water stored in the
barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and again turns the turbines.
V4 O(ean t#ermal ener%' 7OTE9"
a4 The energy available due to the difference in the temerature of water at
the surface of the troical oceans and at deeer levels is called 5TE.
&4 This energy is used to boil li<uid li(e ammonia.
(4 The high ressure vaours of the li<uid formed by boiling are then used to
turn the turbine of a generator and roduce electricity.
VI4 Geot#ermal ener%'*
a4 The energy harnessed from hot roc(s resent inside the earth is called
geothermal energy.
16
&4 !ometimes the steam or boiling water underneath the earth does not find
any lace to come out.
(4 7e can drill a hole u to the hot roc(s and by utting a ie in it ma(e the
steam or hot water gush out through the ie at high ressure which turns
the turbine of a generator to roduce electricity.
VII4 1iomass ener%'*
a4 Aiomass is the organic matter roduced by the lants or animals which
include wood, cro, residues, cattle dung agricultural wastes etc.
&4 The burning of biogas cause air ollution and roduce a lot of ash.
(4 1t is therefore more useful to convert biomass into biogas or bio fuels.
VIII4 1io%as*
a4 Aiogas is a mi%ture of methane, carbon dio%ide, hydrogen and hydrogen
sulhide.
&4 Aiogas is roduced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes in the
resence of water.
(4 Anaerobic degradation means brea( down of organic matter by bacteria in
the absence of o%ygen.
"4 Aiogas has many advantages. 1t is clean, non8olluting and chea.
e4 There is direct suly of gas from the lant and there is no storage
roblem
I:4 1io fuels*
a4 Aiomass can be fermented to alcohols li(e ethanol and methanol which
can be used as fuels.
&4 =asohol is common fuel in Ara)il and Limbabwe for running cars and
buses.
(4 &ethanol is very useful since it burns at a lower temerature than gasoline
or diesel.
"4 $ue to its high calorific value, hydrogen can serve as an e%cellent fuel.
e4 &oreover it is non8olluting and can be easily roduced.
f4 *resently ?
/
is used in the form of li<uid hydrogen as a fuel in saceshis.
Non -Renea&le ener%' resour(es*
I4 Coal*
a. #oal was formed /::8/:0 million years ago in the hot, dam regions of
the earth during the carboniferous age.
b. The ancient lants along the ban(s of rivers were buried after death into
the soil and due to the heat and ressures gradually got converted into eat
and coal over million years of time.
c. 7hen coal burnt it roduces carbon dio%ide, which is a green house gas
resonsible for causing enhanced global warming.
II4 +etroleum*
a. 1t is the life line of global economy.
16
b. *etroleum is a cleaner fuel as comared to coal as it burns comletely and
leaves no residue.
c. 1t is also easy to transort and use.
d. #rude etroleum is a comle% mi%ture of al(ane hydrocarbons.
e. ?ence it has to be refined by the rocess of fractional distillation, during
which we get large variety of roducts namely, etroleum gas, (erosene,
etrol, diesel, fuel oil, lubricating oil, araffin wa% etc.
f. The etroleum gas is easily converted to li<uid form under ressure as
>*=.
III4 Natural %as*
a. 1t is mainly comosed of methane with small amounts of roane and
ethane.
b. 1t is used as a domestic and industrial fuel in thermal ower lants for
generating electricity.
c. 1t is used as a source of hydrogen gas in fertili)er industry and as a source
of carbon in tier industry.
IV4 Nu(lear ener%'*
a. ,uclear energy is (nown for its high destructive ower.
b. ,uclear energy can be generated by two tyes of reactions"
7i9 Nu(lear fission* 1t is the nuclear reaction in which heavy isotoes are
slit into lighter nuclei on bombardment by neutrons. Fission reaction of +
/4:
is
given below.

9/
+
/4:
H
0
n1 O
46
@r
9/
H
:6
Aa
191
H 4
0
n
1
H energy

7ii9 Nu(lear fusion* ?ere two isotoes of a light element are forced
together at e%tremely high temeratures D1 billion P#; until they fuse to form a
heavier nucleus releasing enormous amount of energy in the rocess.
18
1
?
/
H
1
?
/
O
4
?e
/
H
0
n
1
Henergy
,uclear energy has tremendous otential but any lea(age from the reactor may
cause devastating nuclear ollution. $isosal of the nuclear waste is also a big roblem.
>and -esources
Lan" as a resour(e
7e deend uon land for our food, fibre, and fuel wood.
About /0081000 years are needed for the formation of one inch or /.:
cm soil, deending uon the climate and the soil tye.
Aut, when rate of erosion is faster than rate of renewal, then the soil
becomes a non8renewable resource
Lan" "e%ra"ation
7ith increasing oulation growth the demands for land for roducing
food, fibre and fuel wood is also increasing.
?ence there is more and more ressure on limited land resources which are
getting degraded due to over8e%loitation.
!oil erosion, water8logging, salini)ation and contamination of the soil with
industrial wastes li(e fly8ash, ress8mud or heavy metals all cause
degradation of land.
Man in"u(e" lan"sli"es
Iarious anthroogenic activities li(e hydroelectric ro'ects, large dams,
reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of
buildings, mining etc are resonsible for clearing of large forested areas.
Earlier there were few reorts of landslides between -ishi(esh and Ayasi
on Aadrinath ?ighway area. Aut, after the highway was constructed, 1:
landslides occurred in a single year.
$uring the construction of roads, mining activities etc. huge ortions of
fragile mountainous areas are cut or destroyed by dynamite and thrown
into ad'acent valleys and streams.
These land masses wea(en the already fragile mountain sloes and lead to
landslides.
They also increase the turbidity of various nearby streams, thereby
reducing their roductivity.
Soil erosion
19
!oil erosion is defined as the movement of soil comonents, esecially
surface litter and to soil from one lace to another.
!oil erosion results in the loss of fertility because it is the to soil layer
which is fertile.
!oil erosion is basically of two tyes based uon the cause of erosion"
a; Normal erosion or %eolo%i(al erosion* caused by the gradual removal of
to soil by natural rocesses which bring e<uilibrium between hysical,
biological and hydrological activities and maintain a natural balance
between erosion and renewal.
b; A((elerate erosion" This is mainly caused by man made activities and the
rate of erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.
5vergra)ing, deforestation and mining are some imortant activities
causing accelerated erosion
There are two tyes of agents which cause soil erosion. They are climatic agents
and biotic agents.
I4 Climati( A%ents 2 -ater an" -in"*
7ater affects soil erosion in the form of rain. -ater in"u(e" soil erosion is of
following tyes"
a; S#eet erosion* 7hen there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large
surface area, it is called sheet erosion.
b; Rill erosion* when there is rainfall and raidly running water roduces finger8
shaed grooves or rills over the area, it is called rill erosion.
c; Gull' erosion* 7hen the rainfall is very heavy, deeer cavities or gullies are
formed, which may be + or I shaed.
Sli$ erosion* This occurs due to heavy rainfall on sloes of hills and mountains.
d; Stream &an6 erosion" $uring the rainy season, when fast running streams ta(e a
turn in some other direction, they cut the soil and ma(e caves in the ban(
-in" erosion is resonsible for the following three tyes of soil movements"
a; Saltation* This occurs under the influence of direct ressure of stormy wind and
the soil articles of 181.: mm diameter move u in vertical direction.
b; Sus$ension" ?ere fine soil articles Dless than 1mm diameter; which are
susended on the air are (ic(ed u and ta(en away to distant laces.
c; Surfa(e (ree$* ?ere the large articles D:810 mm diameter; cree over the soil
surface along with wind.
II4 1ioti( A%ents*
/0
a. E%cessive gra)ing, mining, and deforestation are the ma'or biotic agents
resonsible for soil erosion.
b. $eforestation without reforestation, overgra)ing by cattle, surface mining
without land reclamation, irrigation techni<ues that lead to salt build8 u,
water logged soil, ma(e the to soil vulnerable to erosion.
Soil (onservation $ra(ti(es*
1n order to revent soil erosion and conserve the soil the following ractices are
emloyed.
14 Conventional till farmin%*
a. 1n traditional method the soil is bro(en u and smoothed to ma(e a
lanting surface.
b. This disturbs the soil and ma(es it suscetible to erosion.
c. #onservational till farming, oularly (nown as no8till8farming causes
minimum disturbance to the to soil.
d. ?ere secial tillers brea( u and loosen the subsurface soil without turning
over the to soil.
e. The tilting machines ma(e slits in the soil and in'ect seeds, fertili)ers, and
little water in the slit, so that cro grows successfully.
54 Contour farmin%*
a. 5n gentle sloes, cros are grown in rows across, rather u and down.
b. This ractice is (nows as contour farming.
c. 1t hels to hold soil and slow down loss of soil through run8off water.
;4 Terra(in%*
a. 1t is used on still steeer sloes are converted into a series of broad
terraces which run across the contour.
b. Terracing retains water for cros at all levels and cuts down soil erosion.
<4 Stri$ (ro$$in% "
a. ?ere stros of cros are alternated with stris of soil saving cros li(e
grasses or grass8 legume mi%ture.
b. 7hat ever run8off comes from the croed soil is retained by the stri of
cover8 cro and this reduces soil erosion.
=4 Alle' (ro$$in%*
a. 1t is a form of inter G croing in which cros are lanted between rows of
trees or shrubs. This is also called A%ro forestr'.
b. Even when the cro is harvested, the soil is not fallow because trees and
shrubs still remain on the soil holding the soil articles and revent soil
erosion.
>4 -in" &rea6s or s#elter&elts"
a. The trees are lanted in long rows along the cultivated land boundary so
that wind is bloc(ed.
b. 9 The wind seed is substantially reduced which hels in reventing wind
erosion of soil.
/1
Desertifi(ation
$esertification is characteri)ed by devegitation and loss of vegetal over,
deletion of groundwater, salini)ation and severe soil erosion.
$esertification leads to the conversion of irrigated crolands to desert li(e
conditions in which agricultural roductivity falls.
&oderate desertification roduce 108/:F dro in roductivity.
!evere desertification cause /:8:0F dro while very severe desertification results
in :0F dro in roductivity.

Causes of Desertifi(ation" The ma'or man made activities resonsible for desertification
are as follows.
I4 Deforestation"
a4 $eforestation means destruction of forests.
&4 The total forests area of the world in 1900 was estimated to be 6,000
million hectares which was reduced to /890 million ha in 196: fell down
to 'ust /,400 million ha by /000.
(4 $eforestation rate is relatively less in temerature countries, but it is very
alarming in troical countries.
II4 Over%ra0in%*
a4 5vergra)ing can limit livestoc( roduction.
&4 5ver gra)ing occurs when too many animals gra)e for too long and e%ceed
the carrying caacity of a grass land area.
(4 5vergra)ing removes the grass cover.
"4 The humus content of the soil is decreased and it leads to oor, dry,
comacted soil.
e4 The soil roots are very good binders of soil.
f4 7hen the grasses are removed, the soil becomes loose and suscetible to
the action of wind and water.
%4 The dry barren land reflects more of the suns heat, changing wind atterns
leading to further desertification.
III4 Minin% an" .uarr'in%"
a4 &ining oeration re<uires removal of vegetation along with underlying
soil mantle and overlying roc( masses. This results in destruction of
landscae in the area.
Conservation of natural resour(es* role of an in"ivi"ual
$ifferent natural resources li(e forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy
resources lay a vital role in the develoment of a nation. 7hile conservation efforts are
underway at ,ational as well as 1nternational level, the individual efforts for conservation
of natural resources can go a long way.
//
Conserve -ater
$onEt (ee water tas running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
#hec( for water lea(s in ies and toilets and reair them romtly. A small in8
hole si)ed lea( will lead to the wastage of 690 liters of water in a month.
+se dri irrigation and srin(ling irrigation to imrove irrigation efficiency and
reduce evaoration.
1nstall a small system to cature rain water and collect normally wasted used
water from sin(s, cloth8washers, bathtubs etc. which can be used for watering the
lants
Auild rain water harvesting system in your house. Even the *resident of 1ndia is
doing this.
Conserve ener%'
Turn off lights, fans and other aliances when not in use.
5btain as much heat as ossible from natural sources. $ry the clothes in sun
instead of drier if it is a sunny day.
+se solar coo(er for coo(ing your food on sunny days which will be more
nutritious and will cut down on your >*= e%enses.
=row deciduous trees and climbers at roer laces outside your home to cut off
intense heat of summers and get a cool bree)e and shade. This will cut off your
electricity charges on coolers and air8conditioners.
Try riding bicycle or 'ust wal( down small distances instead of using your car or
scooter.
+rote(t t#e soil
7hile constructing your house, donEt uroot the trees as far as ossible. *lant the
disturbed areas with a fast growing native ground cover.
&a(e comost from your (itchen waste and use it for your (itchen8garden or
flower8ots.
$o not irrigate the lants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the
soil.
1f you own agricultural fields, do not over8irrigate your fields without roer
drainage to revent water logging and salinisation .
+se mi%ed croing so that some secific soil nutrients do not get deleted.
+romote Sustaina&le A%ri(ulture
$o not waste food. Ta(e as much as you can eat
-educe the use of esticides.
Fertili)e your cro rimarily with organic fertili)ers.
Eat local and seasonal vegetables. This saves lot of energy on transort, storage
and reservation.
#ontrol ests by a combination of cultivation and biological control methods.
E.uita&le use of resour(es for sustaina&le life st'le
/4
There is a big divide in the world as ,orth and !outh, the more develoed
countries D&$#E!; and less develoed countries D>$#E!;, the haves and the
have nots.
The &$#Es have only //F of worldEs oulation, but they use 88F of its
natural resources, 64F of its energy and command 8:F of its income.
As the rich nations continue to grow, they will reach a limit.
1f they have a growth rat of 10F every year, they will show 10/9 times
increase in the ne%t 60 years.
7ill this much of growth be sustainableQ The answer is E,oE because many
of our earthEs resources are limited and even the renewable resources will
become unsustainable if their use e%ceeds their regeneration.
Thus, the solution to this roblem is to have more e<uitable distribution of
resources and wealth.
7e cannot e%ect the oor countries to sto growth in order to chec(
ollution because develoment brings emloyment and the main roblem of
these countries is to tac(le overty.
The oor in the >$#E! are at least able to sustain their life.
+nless they are rovided with such basic resources, we cannot thin( of
rooting out the roblems related to dirty, unhygienic, olluted, disease
infested settlements of these eole8which contribute to unsustainability.
Thus, the two basic causes of unsustainability are over oulation in oor
countries who have under consumtion of resources and over consumtion
of resources by the rich countries, which generate wastes.
1n order to achieve sustainable life styles it is desirable to achieve a more
balanced and e<uitable distribution of global resources and income to meet
everyoneEs basic needs.
The rich countries will have to lower down their consumtion levels while
the bare minimum needs of the oor have to be fulfilled by roviding them
resources.
A fairer sharing of resources will narrow down the ga between the rich and
the oor and will lead to sustainable develoment for all and not 'ust for a
rivileged grou.
.
. .
/9