Blood Questions

Blood Review Made Easy

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Blood Questions Review
1. What are the main functions of the blood?
The blood is a means of substance transportation throughout the body. The blood distributes
nutrients, oxygen, hormones, antibodies and cells specialized in defense to the tissues and
collects residuals like nitrogen wastes and carbon dioxide from them.
2. What are the constituent elements of the blood?
The blood is made of a liquid and a cellular part. The fluid part is called plasma and in it
there are several substances, like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and mineral salts. The
cellular constituents of the blood are also known as blood corpuscles and they comprise the
erythrocytes (red blood cells, leukocytes and platelets.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& red blood cells leukocytes platelets
3. What is hematooiesis?
'ematopoiesis is the formation of blood cells and other constituent elements of the blood.
!. Where does hematooiesis occur?
'ematopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow (mainly within flat bones, where erythrocytes,
leukocytes and platelets are made, and in the lymphoid tissue, responsible for the maturation
of leukocytes and found in the thymus, spleen and lymphnodes.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& bone marrow
". #n which bones can bone marrow chiefly be found? #s the bone marrow made of
osseous tissue?
!one marrow can mainly be found in the internal cavities of flat bones, like the vertebrae, the
ribs, the scapulae, the sternum and the hips.
The bone marrow is not made of osseous tissue, although it is a connective tissue as bone
tissue is.
$. What are blood stem cells?
(tem cells are undifferentiated cells able to differentiate into other types of specialized cells.
The stem cells of the bone marrow originate the differentiated blood cells. )ccording to
stimulus from specific growth factors the stem cells are turned into red blood cells,
leukocytes and megakaryocytes (cells that form platelets. *esearch shows that stem cells of
the bone marrow can also differentiate into muscle, nervous and hepatic cells.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& blood stem cell
%. What are the other names by which erythrocytes are &nown? What is the function of
these cells?
+rythrocytes are also known as red blood cells (*!,s, or red corpuscles. *ed blood cells are
responsible for oxygen transport from the lungs to the tissues.
'. What is the name of the molecule that transorts o(y)en in red blood cells?
The respiratory pigment of the red blood cells is hemoglobin.
*. What is the molecular comosition of hemo)lobin? +oes the functionality of
hemo)lobin as a rotein deend uon its tertiary or uon its ,uaternary structure?
'emoglobin is a molecule made of four polypeptide chains, each bound to a iron#containing
molecular group called a heme group. (o the molecule contains four polypeptide chains and
four heme groups.
)s a protein composed of association of polypeptide chains, the functionality of hemoglobin
depends upon the integrity of its quaternary structure.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& hemoglobin molecule
1-. .n avera)e what is the life duration of the red blood cells? Where are they
destroyed? What is the destination of the heme )rous after the destruction of
hemo)lobin molecules?
-n average red blood cells live around ./0 days. The spleen is the main organ where old red
blood cells are destroyed.
%uring the red blood cell destruction the heme groups turn into bilirubin and this substance is
then captured by the liver and later excreted in the bowels as part of the bile.
11. What are the functions of the sleen? Why is a total slenectomy /sur)ical removal
of the sleen0 comatible with life?
The spleen has many functions& it participates in the destruction of old red blood cells1 in it
specialized leukocytes are matured1 it helps the renewal of the hematopoietic tissue of the
bone marrow when necessary1 it can act as a spongelike organ to retain or liberate blood from
or for the circulation.
Total splenectomy is not incompatible with life as none of the functions of the spleen are vital
and at the same time exclusive of this organ.
12. What is anemia? What are the four main tyes of anemia?
)nemia is low concentration of hemoglobin in the blood.
The four main types of anemia are the nutrient#deficiency anemia, anemia caused by blood
loss, hemolytic anemia and aplastic anemia.
2utrient#deficiency anemia is caused by dietary deficiency of fundamental nutrients for the
production or functioning of the red blood cells, like iron (iron deficiency anemia, vitamin
!./ and folic acid.
)nemia caused by blood loss occurs in hemorrhagic conditions or in diseases like peptic
ulcerations and hookworm disease.
'emolytic anemia is caused by excessive destruction of red blood cells, for example, in
diseases like malaria or in hypervolemic conditions (excessive water in blood that causes
lysis of red blood cells.
)plastic anemia occurs from deficiencies of the hematopoiesis and it happens when the bone
marrow is in3ured by cancers from other tissues (metastasis, by autoimmune diseases and by
intoxication from drugs (like sulfas and anticonvulsants or by chemical substances (like
benzene, insecticides, paints, herbicides and solvents in general. (ome genetic diseases also
affect the bone marrow causing aplastic anemia.
13. What is the difference between white and red blood cells? What are leu&ocytes?
*ed blood cells are erythrocytes and white blood cells are the leukocytes.
4eukocytes are cells specialized in the defense of the body against strange agents and they
are part of the immune system.
1!. What are the tyes of leu&ocytes and how are they classified into )ranulocytes and
a)ranulocytes?
The types of leukocytes are lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
5ranulocytes are those in whose cytoplasm there are granules (when viewed under electronic
microscopy& neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are granulocytes. )granulocytes are the
other leukocytes& lymphocytes and monocytes.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& lymphocytes monocytes neutrophils eosinophils
basophils
1". What is the )eneric function of leu&ocytes? What are leu&ocytosis and leu&oenia?
The generic function of leukocytes is to participate in the defense of the body against strange
agents that penetrate it or are made inside the body.
4eukocytosis and leukopenia are clinical conditions in which the count of leukocytes in a
blood sample is abnormal. 6hen the leukocyte count in a blood sample is above the normal
level for the individual leukocytosis is defined. 6hen the leukocyte count is lower than the
expected normal level leukopenia is defined. The multiplication of these defense cells,
leukocytosis, generally takes place when the body is suffering infections or in cancers of
these cells. The lowering of these defense cells, or leukopenia, occurs when some diseases
attack the cells, like in )$%(, or when immunosuppressor drugs are used.
$n general the body creates leukocytosis as a defense reaction when it is facing infectious or
pathogenic agents. The clinical condition of leukocytosis is thus a sign of infection.
4eukopenia occurs when there is a deficiency in the production (for example, in bone marrow
diseases or excessive destruction of leukocytes (for example, in case of '$7 infection.
1$. What are the mechanisms of hemorrha)e contention called?
The physiological mechanisms of hemorrhage contention (one of them is blood clotting are
generically named hemostasis, or hemostatic processes.
1%. 1ow are latelets formed? What is the function of latelets? What conse,uences
does the clinical condition &nown as thrombocytoenia yield?
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are fragments of giant cells of the bone marrow called
megakaryocytes. 6ith their properties of aggregation and adhesiveness they play a direct role
in blood clotting and they also liberate substances that activate other hemostatic processes.
Thrombocytopenia is a clinical condition in which the platelet count of the blood is lower
than normal. $n this situation the person becomes susceptible to hemorrhages.
1'. 1ow does the or)anism understand that a clottin) rocess must be)in?
6hen there is some tissue wound with in3ury of blood vessel the platelets and endothelial
cells of the wall of the damaged vessel liberate substances (respectively platelet factors and
tissue factors that trigger the clotting process.
1*. 1ow can the blood coa)ulation /clottin)0 rocess be described?
!lood clotting encompasses a sequence of chemical reactions whose respective products are
enzymes that catalyze the following reactions (that is why the clotting reactions are called
cascade reactions. $n the plasma thromboplastinogen transforms into thromboplastin, a
reaction triggered by tissue and platelet factors liberated after in3ury of the blood vessel.
Thromboplastin then catalyzes along with calcium ions the transformation of prothrombin
into thrombin. Thrombin then catalyzes a reaction that produces fibrin from fibrinogen.
8ibrin, as an insoluble substance, precipitates to form a network that traps red blood cells and
platelets forming the blood clot and containing the hemorrhage.
!lood "uestions # $mage %iversity& clotting cascade
2-. What are clottin) factors?
,lotting factors are substances (enzymes, coenzymes, reagents necessary for the clotting
stages to happen. !esides those triggering factors and reagents already described (tissue and
platelet factors, thromplastinogen, prothrombin, fibrinogen, calcium ions, other substances
participate in the blood clotting process as clotting factors, like factor 7$$$, whose deficiency
causes hemophilia ), or the factor $9, whose deficiency causes hemophilia !.
21. What is the or)an where most of the clottin) factors are roduced? What is the role
of vitamin 2 in the blood coa)ulation?
:ost of the clotting factors are produced in the liver.
7itamin ; participates in the activation of several clotting factors and it is fundamental for
the well#functioning of the blood coagulation.
22. What is factor 3###? What is the )enetic disease in which this factor is absent?
8actor 7$$$ has the function of activating factor 9 that in its turn is necessary for the
transformation of prothrombin into thrombin in the clotting cascade. 'emophilia ) is the 9#
linked genetic disease in which the individual does not produce factor 7$$$ and so is more
susceptible to severe hemorrhages.
23. 1ow is hemohilia treated? Why is hemohilia rare in females?
'emophilia is medically treated with administration of factor 7$$$, in case of hemophilia ),
or of factor $9, in case of hemophilia !, by means of blood or fresh frozen plasma
transfusions.
'emophilia, ) or !, is an 9#linked recessive inheritance and for a girl to be hemophilic it is
necessary for both of her 9 chromosomes to be affected while boys, that have only one 9
chromosome, are more easily affected. ) girl with only one affected chromosome does not
present the disease since the normal gene of the unaffected other 9 chromosome produces the
clotting factor.
2!. What is the eidemiolo)ical association between hemohilia and 1#3 infection?
(ince hemophilic patients need frequent transfusions of clotting factors (7$$$ or $9 they are
more susceptible to contamination by infectious agents present in the blood from which the
transfused elements come. $n the past the blood banks did not usually perform '$7 detection
tests and many hemophilic patients have become infected with the virus.
2". What are anticoa)ulants? What are the ractical alications of anticoa)ulants4 li&e
hearin4 in Medicine?
)nticoagulants are substances that block the clotting reactions and thus stop the coagulation
process. -rdinarily there are anticoagulants circulating in the plasma since under normal
conditions the blood must be kept fluid.
$n :edicine anticoagulants like heparin are used in surgeries in which tissue in3uries made by
the surgical act could trigger undesirable systemic blood clotting. They are also used to avoid
the formation of thrombus inside blood vessels of patients facing increased thrombotic risk.
2$. What is dicoumarol? 1ow does this substance act in the clottin) rocess and what
are some e(amles of its to(icity?
%icoumarol is an anticoagulant drug. %ue to its molecular structure dicoumarol competes
with vitamin ; for the binding to substrates blocking the formation of clotting factors and
interrupting the making of prothrombin. %icoumarol is found in some vegetables undergoing
decomposition, and it can cause severe internal hemorrhages when those vegetables are
accidentally ingested. ,oumarinic anticoagulants cannot be administered during pregnancy
since they pass the placental barrier and can cause fetal hemorrhages.
2%. 5treto&inase is a substance used in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction.
1ow does this substance act?
(ubstances known as fibrinolytics, like streptokinase and urokinase, can destroy thrombi
(clots formed inside blood vessels, capillaries or within the heart chambers and are used in
the treatment of obstructions of the coronary arteries or other blood vessels.
(treptokinase destroys the fibrin network and so it dissolves the thrombotic clot. $ts name
comes after the bacteria that produce it, the streptococci.