Conguration Aerodynamics - 2

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,

2012
! Drag
! Induced drag
! Compressibility effects
! P-51 example
! Newtonian Flow
! Moments
! Effects of Sideslip
Angle
Copyright 2012 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html
Aerodynamic Drag
Drag = C
D
1
2
!V
2
S " C
D
0
+ #C
L
2
( )
1
2
!V
2
S
" C
D
0
+ # C
L
o
+ C
L
$
$
( )
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
1
2
!V
2
S
Induced Drag
Induced Drag of a Wing
Lift produces downwash (angle proportional to lift)
Downwash rotates local velocity vector CW in gure
Lift is perpendicular to velocity vector
Axial component of rotated lift induces drag
Induced Drag
of a Wing
C
D
i
= C
L
i
sin!
i
" C
L
0
+C
L
!
!
( )
sin!
i
! C
L
0
+C
L
"
"
( )
"
i
#$C
L
2
#
C
L
2
%eAR
=
C
L
2
1+& ( )
%AR
where
e =Oswald efficiency factor =1 for elliptical distribution
& = departure from ideal elliptical lift distribution
Spitre
Straight, Swept, and
Tapered Wings
Straight at the
quarter chord
Swept at the
quarter chord
Progression of
separated ow
from trailing
edge with
increasing angle
of attack
Wing Design Parameters
Planform
Aspect ratio
Sweep
Taper
Complex geometries
Shape at root
Shape at tip
Chord section
Airfoils
Twist
Movable surfaces
Leading- and trailing-edge devices
Ailerons
Spoilers
Interfaces
Fuselage
Powerplants
Dihedral angle
Taper Ratio Effects
Taper makes lift
distribution more elliptical
" ~ 0.45 is best
L/D effect (phugoid)
Tip stall (pitch up)
Bending stress
Roll Damping
Airfoil Effects
Camber increases zero-# lift
coefcient
Thickness
increases # for stall and
softens the stall break
reduces subsonic drag
increases transonic drag
causes abrupt pitching
moment variation (more to
follow)
Prole design
can reduce c.p. (static
margin) variation with #
affects leading-edge and
trailing-edge ow separation
Vortex generators, fences, vortilons,
notched or dog-toothed wing leading edges
Boundary layer control
Maintain attached ow with increasing !
Avoid tip stall
Secondary Wing Structures
McDonnell-Douglas F-4
Sukhoi Su-22
LTV F-8
Strakes or leading edge extensions
Maintain lift at high !
Reduce c.p. shift at high Mach number
Leading-Edge Extensions
McDonnell Douglas F-18
General Dynamics F-16
Winglets, rake, and Hoerner tip reduce induced drag by
controlling the tip vortices
End plate, wingtip fence straightens ow, increasing apparent
aspect ratio (L/D)
Chamfer produces favorable roll w/ sideslip
Wingtip Design
Yankee AA-1
Boeing 747-400
Boeing P-8A
Airbus A319
Marked by noticeable, uncommanded
changes in pitch, yaw, or roll and/or
by a marked increase in buffet
Stall must be detectable
Aircraft must pitch down when it
occurs
Up to the stall break, ailerons and
rudder should operate properly
Inboard stall strips to prevent tip stall
and loss of roll control before the stall
Strakes for improved high-! ight
Design for Satisfactory Stalls Spanwise Lift Distribution
of 3-D (Trapezoidal) Wings
Straight Wings (@ 1/4 chord)
(McCormick)
TR = taper ratio, "
For some taper ratio between 0.35 and 1,
lift distribution is nearly elliptical
Spanwise Lift Distribution
of 3-D Wings
Wing does not
have to have a
geometrically
elliptical planform
to have a nearly
elliptical lift
distribution
Sweep moves lift
distribution
toward tips
Straight and Swept Wings
(NASA SP-367)
C
L2!D
(y)c(y)
C
L3!D
c
Washout twist
reduces tip angle of
attack
typical value: 2 - 4
changes lift distribution
(interplay with taper ratio)
reduces likelihood of tip
stall; allows stall to begin
at the wing root
separationburble
produces buffet at tail
surface, warning of stall
improves aileron
effectiveness at high !
Wing Twist Effects
C
l
!A
Induced Drag Factor, $
Graph for $
(McCormick, p. 172)
Lower AR
C
D
i
=
C
L
2
1+! ( )
"AR
Oswald Efciency Factor, e
Approximation for e (Pamadi, p. 390)
e !
1.1C
L
"
RC
L
"
+ (1# R)$AR
where
R = 0.0004%
3
# 0.008%
2
+ 0.05% + 0.86
% =
AR &
cos '
LE
C
D
i
=
C
L
2
!eAR
P-51 Mustang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)
Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m
2
)
Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
Maximum Power = 1, 720 hp (1, 282 kW)
C
D
o
= 0.0163
AR = 5.83
! = 0.5
P-51 Mustang Example
C
L!
=
"AR
1+ 1+
AR
2
#
$
%
&
'
(
2
)
*
+
+
,
-
.
.
= 4.49 per rad (wing only)
e = 0.947
/ = 0.0557
0 = 0.0576
C
D
i
= !C
L
2
=
C
L
2
"eAR
=
C
L
2
1+# ( )
"AR
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WE0sr4vmZtU
Mach Number Effects
Drag Due to
Pressure Differential
C
D
base
= C
pressure
base
S
base
S
!
0.029
C
friction
S
wet
S
base
S
base
S
M <1 ( ) Hoerner [ ]
<
2
" M
2
S
base
S
#
$
%
&
'
( M > 2, " = specific heat ratio ( )
The Sonic Barrier
Blunt base
pressure drag
C
D
wave
!
C
D
incompressible
1" M
2
M <1 ( )
!
C
D
compressible
M
2
"1
M >1 ( )
!
C
D
M! 2
M
2
"1
M >1 ( )
Prandtl
factor
Shock Waves in
Supersonic Flow
Drag rises due to pressure
increase across a shock wave
Subsonic ow
Local airspeed is less than sonic
(i.e., speed of sound)
everywhere
Transonic ow
Airspeed is less than sonic at
some points, greater than sonic
elsewhere
Supersonic ow
Local airspeed is greater than
sonic virtually everywhere
Critical Mach number
Mach number at which local
ow rst becomes sonic
Onset of drag-divergence
M
crit
~ 0.7 to 0.85
Air Compressibility Effect
Effect of Chord
Thickness on Wing
Pressure Drag
Thinner chord sections lead to higher M
crit
,
or drag-divergence Mach number
Lockheed P-38
Lockheed F-104
Air Compressibility
Effect on Wing Drag
Subsonic
Supersonic Transonic
Incompressible
Sonic Booms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWGLAAYdbbc
Pressure Drag on Wing
Depends on Sweep Angle
Sweep Angle
Effect on Wing Drag
M
crit
swept
=
M
crit
unswept
cos !
Talay, NASA SP-367
Transonic Drag Rise and the Area Rule
Richard Whitcomb (NASA Langley) and Wallace Hayes (Princeton)
YF-102A (left) could not break the speed of sound in level ight;
F-102A (right) could
Transonic Drag Rise and the Area Rule
Talay, NASA SP-367
Cross-sectional area of the total conguration should gradually
increase and decrease to minimize transonic drag
Sears-Haack Body
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sears-Haack_body
Supercritical
Wing
Richard Whitcombs supercritical airfoil
Wing upper surface attened to increase M
crit
Wing thickness can be restored
Important for structural efciency, fuel storage, etc.
Pressure Distribution on
Supercritical Airfoil ~ Section Lift
()
(+)
NASA Supercritical
Wing F-8
Airbus A320
Supersonic Biplane
Concept of Adolf Busemann
(1935)
Shock wave cancellation at
one specic Mach number
2-D wing
Kazuhiro Kusunose et al ,
Tohoku U (PAS, 47, 2011,
53-87)
Adjustable aps
Tapered, variably spaced
3-D wings
Fuselage added
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Busemann
Supersonic Transport Concept
Rui Hu, Qiqi Wang, Antony Jameson, Stanford,
MIT, AIAA-2011-1248
Optimization of biplane aerodynamics
Sketch of possible conguration
Large Angle Variations in Subsonic
Drag Coefcient (0 < ! < 90)
All wing drag coefcients converge to Newtonian-like values
at high angle of attack
Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing at given #
Lift vs. Drag for Large Variation in
Angle-of-Attack (0 < ! < 90)
Subsonic Lift-Drag Polar
Low-AR wing has less drag than high-AR wing, but less lift as well
High-AR wing has the best overall L/D
Lift-to-Drag Ratio vs.
Angle of Attack
L/D is an important performance metric for aircraft
High-AR wing has best overall L/D
Low-AR wing has best L/D at intermediate angle of attack
!
L
D
=
C
L
q S
C
D
q S
=
C
L
C
D
Lift-Drag Polar for a
Typical Bizjet
Lift-Drag Polar: Cross-plot of C
L
(#) vs. C
D
(#)
Note different scaling
for lift and drag
L/D equals slope of line
drawn from the origin
Single maximum for a
given polar
Two solutions for lower
L/D (high and low
airspeed)
Newtonian Flow and
High-Angle-of-Attack
Lift and Drag
Newtonian Flow
No circulation
Cookie-cutter
ow
Equal pressure
across bottom of
the at plate
Normal Force =
Mass flow rate
Unit area
!
"
#
$
%
& Change in velocity ( ) Projected Area ( ) Angle between plate and velocity ( )
Newtonian Flow
N = !V ( ) V ( ) Ssin" ( ) sin" ( )
= !V
2
( )
Ssin
2
"
( )
= 2sin
2
"
( )
1
2
!V
2
#
$
%
&
'
(S
) C
N
1
2
!V
2
#
$
%
&
'
(S = C
N
qS
Lift = Ncos!
C
L
= 2sin
2
!
( )
cos!
Drag = Nsin!
C
D
= 2sin
3
!
Normal Force =
Mass flow rate
Unit area
!
"
#
$
%
& Change in velocity ( ) Projected Area ( ) Angle between plate and velocity ( )
Lift and drag coefcients
Newtonian Lift and Drag Coefcients
C
L
= 2sin
2
!
( )
cos!
C
D
= 2sin
3
!
Application of Newtonian Flow
Hypersonic ow (M ~> 5)
Shock wave close to surface
(thin shock layer), merging with
the boundary layer
Flow is ~ parallel to the surface
Separated upper surface ow
Space Shuttle in
Supersonic Flow
High-Angle-of-
Attack Research
Vehicle (F-18)
All Mach numbers at
high angle of attack
Separated ow on upper
(leeward) surfaces
Moments of the
Airplane
Airplane Forces and Moments
Resolved into Body Axes
f
B
=
X
B
Y
B
Z
B
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
m
B
=
L
B
M
B
N
B
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
Force Vector
Moment Vector

r ! f =
i j k
x y z
f
x
f
y
f
z
= yf
z
" zf
y ( )
i + zf
x
" xf
z
( ) j + xf
y
" yf
x ( )
k
m =
yf
z
" zf
y ( )
zf
x
" xf
z
( )
xf
y
" yf
x ( )
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
= ! rf =
0 "z y
z 0 "x
"y x 0
#
$
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
f
x
f
y
f
z
#
$
%
%
%
%
&
'
(
(
(
(
Incremental
Moment Produced
By Force
Distribution
Aerodynamic Force
and Moment Vectors
of the Airplane
m
B
=
yf
z
! zf
y ( )
zf
x
! xf
z
( )
xf
y
! yf
x ( )
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
dx dydz =
Surface
(
L
B
M
B
N
B
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
f
B
=
f
x
f
y
f
z
!
"
#
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
&
dx dydz
Surface
'
=
X
B
Y
B
Z
B
!
"
#
#
#
$
%
&
&
&
Aerodynamics
analogous to those of
the wing
Longitudinal stability
Horizontal stabilizer
Short period natural
frequency and damping
Directional stability
Vertical stabilizer (n)
Ventral ns
Strakes
Leading-edge extensions
Multiple surfaces
Buttery (V) tail
Dutch roll natural
frequency and damping
Stall or spin prevention/
recovery
Avoid rudder lock (TBD)
Tail Design
Effects

C
m!
, C
mq
, C
m! !
, C
n"
, C
nr
, C
n ! "
Horizontal Tail Location and Size
15-30% of wing area
~ wing semi-span behind the c.m.
Must trim neutrally stable airplane at maximum lift in ground effect
Effect on short period mode
Horizontal Tail Volume: Typical value = 0.48
V
H
=
S
ht
S
l
ht
c
North American F-86
Lockheed Martin F-35
Analogous to horizontal tail volume
Effect on Dutch roll mode
Powerful rudder for spin recovery
Full-length rudder located behind the elevator
High horizontal tail so as not to block the ow over the rudder
Vertical Tail Volume: Typical value = 0.18
V
V
=
S
vt
S
l
vt
b
Vertical Tail Location and Size
Curtiss SB2C Piper Tomahawk
Pitching Moment
of the Airplane
Pitching Moment
Pressure and shear stress differentials times moment arms integrate
over the airplane surface to produce a net pitching moment
Center of mass establishes the moment arm center
Body - Axis Pitching Moment = M
B
= ! "p
z
x, y ( ) +"s
z
x, y ( )
#
$
%
&
x ! x
cm
( )dx dy
surface
''
+ "p
x
y, z ( ) +"s
x
y, z ( )
#
$
%
&
"p
x
z ! z
cm
( )dydz
surface
''
Pitching Moment
M
B
! " Z
i
x
i
" x
cm
( )
i=1
I
#
+ X
i
z
i
" z
cm
( ) + Interference Effects + Pure Couples
i=1
I
#
Distributed effects can be aggregated
to local centers of pressure
Pure Couple
Net force = 0
Rockets Cambered Lifting Surface
Fuselage
Cross-sectional area, A
x positive to the right
At small #
Positive lift with dA/dx > 0
Negative lift with dA/dx < 0
Net moment # 0
Net Center of Pressure
Local centers of pressure can be aggregated
at a net center of pressure (or neutral point)
along the body x axis
x
cp
net
=
x
cp
C
n ( )
wing
+ x
cp
C
n ( )
fuselage
+ x
cp
C
n ( )
tail
+...
!
"
#
$
C
N
total
Static Margin
Static Margin =SM =
100 x
cm
! x
cp
net
( )
B
c
, %
"100 h
cm
!h
cp
net
( )
%
Static margin reects the distance between the
center of mass and the net center of pressure
Body axes
Normalized by mean aerodynamic chord
Does not reect z position of c.p.
Static Margin
Static Margin = SM =
100 x
cm
! x
cpnet
( )
c
, %
" 100 h
cm
! h
cpnet
( )%
Pitch-Moment Coefcient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
M
B
= C
m
q Sc ! C
m
o
+ C
m
"
"
( )
q Sc
For small angle of attack and no control deection
M
B
= C
m
q Sc ! C
m
o
"C
N
#
h
cm
"h
cp
net
( )
#
$
%
&
'
q Sc
! C
m
o
"C
L
#
h
cm
"h
cp
net
( )
#
$
%
&
'
q Sc
For small angle of attack and no control deection
Typically, static margin is positive and %C
m
/%#
is negative for static pitch stability
Effect of Static Margin
on Pitching Moment
= C
m
o
+
!C
m
!"
"
#
$
%
&
'
(q Sc = C
m
o
+C
m
"
"
( )
q Sc
= 0 in trimmed (equilibrium) flight
Pitch-Moment Coefcient
Sensitivity to Angle of Attack
For small angle of attack and no control deection
C
m
!
" #C
N
!net
h
cm
#h
cp
net
( )
" #C
L
!net
h
cm
#h
cp
net
( )
= #C
L
!net
x
cm
# x
cp
net
c
$
%
&
'
(
)
" #C
L
!wing
x
cm
# x
cp
wing
c
$
%
&
'
(
)#C
L
!ht
x
cm
# x
cp
ht
c
$
%
&
'
(
)
= #C
L
!wing
l
wing
c
$
%
&
'
(
)
#C
L
!ht
l
ht
c
$
%
&
'
(
)
referenced to wing area, S
= C
m
!wing
+C
m
!ht
= "C
L
!total
Static Margin (%)
100
#
$
%
&
'
(
Horizontal Tail Lift Sensitivity
to Angle of Attack
!C
L
!"
#
$
%
&
'
(
horizontail
tail
)
*
+
+
,
-
.
.
aircraft
reference
= C
L
"ht
( )
aircraft
= C
L
"ht
( )
ht
1/
!0
!"
#
$
%
&
'
(1
elas
S
ht
S
#
$
%
&
'
(
V
ht
V
N
#
$
%
&
'
(
2
Downwash effect on
aft horizontal tail
Upwash effect on a
canard (i.e., forward)
surface
V
ht
: Airspeed at the horizontal tail [Flow over body (), Scrubbing (), Propeller slipstream (+)]
! : Downwash angle due to wing lift at the horizontal tail
"! "# : Sensitivity of downwash angle to angle of attack
$
elas
: Correction for aeroelastic effect
Tail Moment Sensitivity to
Angle of Attack

C
m
!
ht
= " C
L
!
ht
( )
ht
V
ht
V
N
#
$
%
&
'
(
2
1"
)*
)!
#
$
%
&
'
(+
elas
S
ht
S
#
$
%
&
'
(
l
ht
c
#
$
%
&
'
(
= " C
L
!
ht
( )
ht
V
ht
V
N
#
$
%
&
'
(
2
1"
)*
)!
#
$
%
&
'
(+
elas
V
HT

V
HT
=
S
ht
l
ht
Sc
= Horizontal Tail Volume Ratio
Effects of Static Margin and Elevator
Deection on Pitching Coefcient
Zero crossing
determines trim angle
of attack, i.e., sum of
moments = 0
Negative slope
required for static
stability
Slope, %C
m
/%!, varies
with static margin
Control deection shift
curve up and down,
affecting trim angle of
attack
!C
m
!"
!
Trim
= "
1
C
m
!
C
m
o
+C
m
#E
#E
( )
M
B
= C
m
o
+ C
m
!
! + C
m
"E
"E
( )
q Sc
Subsonic Pitching Coefcient
vs. Angle of Attack (0 < ! < 90)
Lateral-Directional Effects
of Sideslip Angle
Rolling and Yawing Moments
of the Airplane
L
B
! Z
i
y
i
" y
cm
( )
i=1
I
#
" Y
i
z
i
" z
cm
( ) + Interference Effects + Pure Couples
i=1
I
#
Distributed effects can be aggregated to local
centers of pressure
N
B
! Y
i
x
i
" x
cm
( )
i=1
I
#
" X
i
y
i
" y
cm
( ) + Interference Effects + Pure Couples
i=1
I
#
Rolling Moment
Yawing Moment
Sideslip Angle Produces Side Force,
Yawing Moment, and Rolling Moment
! Sideslip usually a small
angle ( 5 deg)
! Side force generally not a
signicant effect
! Yawing and rolling
moments are principal
effects
Side Force due to Sideslip Angle
Y !
"C
Y
"#
qS# = C
Y
#
qS#
C
Y
!
" C
Y
!
( )
Fuselage
+ C
Y
!
( )
Vertical Tail
+ C
Y
!
( )
Wing
C
Y
!
( )
Vertical Tail
"
#C
Y
#!
$
%
&
'
(
)
vt
*
vt
S
Vertical Tail
S
C
Y
!
( )
Fuselage
" +2
S
Base
S
; S
B
=
,d
Base
2
4
C
Y
!
( )
Wing
" +C
D
Parasite, Wing
+ k-
2
!
vt
= Vertical tail efficiency
k =
"AR
1+ 1+ AR
2
# = Wing dihedral angle, rad
Fuselage, vertical tail, and wing are main contributors
Yawing Moment due to Sideslip Angle
N !
"C
n
"#
$V
2
2
%
&
'
(
)
*Sb# = C
n
#
$V
2
2
%
&
'
(
)
*Sb#
! Side force contributions times
respective moment arms
Non-dimensional stability
derivative
C
n
!
" C
n
!
( )
Vertical Tail
+ C
n
!
( )
Fuselage
+ C
n
!
( )
Wing
+ C
n
!
( )
Propeller

C
n
!
( )
Vertical Tail
" #C
Y
!vt
$
vt
S
vt
l
vt
Sb
! #C
Y
!vt
$
vt
V
VT
Vertical tail contribution

V
VT
=
S
vt
l
vt
Sb
= Vertical Tail Volume Ratio
!
vt
=!
elas
1+
"#
"$
( )
V
vt
2
V
N
2
%
&
'
(
)
*
Yawing Moment due to Sideslip Angle

l
vt
! Vertical tail length (+)
= distance from center of mass to tail center of pressure
= x
cm
! x
cp
vt
[x is positive forward; both are negative numbers]
C
n
!
( )
Fuselage
=
"2K Volume
Fuselage
Sb
K = 1!
d
max
Length
fuselage
"
#
$
%
&
'
1.3
Fuselage contribution
C
n
!
( )
Wing
= 0.75C
L
N
"+ fcn #, AR, $ ( )C
L
N
2
Wing (differential lift and
induced drag) contribution
Yawing Moment due to Sideslip Angle
L ! C
l
"
qSb"
C
l
!
" C
l
!
( )
Wing
+ C
l
!
( )
Wing#Fuselage
+ C
l
!
( )
Vertical Tail
Rolling Moment due to Sideslip Angle
Dihedral effect
Vertical tail effect
Rolling Moment due to Sideslip Angle
Crossow effects depend on
vertical location of the wing
Example of Conguration and
Flap Effects
NACA 64
1
-012 Chord Section Lift,
Drag, and Moment (NACA TR-824)
C
L, 60 ap
C
L, w/o

ap
C
L
C
m, w/o ap
C
D
C
m, 60 ap
Drag Bucket

#
Smooth ~ Laminar
Rough ~ Turbulent
C
Do
Estimate (Raymer)
Next Time:
Aircraft Performance

Reading
Flight Dynamics, 107-115, 118-130
Virtual Textbook, Parts 6,7
Supplemental Material
Downwash and Elasticity Also
Effect Elevator Sensitivity
!C
L
!"E
#
$
%
&
'
(
horizontail
tail
)
*
+
+
,
-
.
.
aircraft
reference
= C
L
"E
( )
aircraft
=
V
tail
V
N
#
$
%
&
'
(
2
1/
!0
!1
#
$
%
&
'
(2
elas
S
ht
S
#
$
%
&
'
( C
L
"E
( )
ht
Pitch Up and Deep Stall
Possibility of 2 stable equilibrium
(trim) points with same control setting
Low !
High !
High-angle trim is called deep stall
Low lift
High drag
Large control moment required to
regain low-angle trim
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IpZ8YukAwwI&feature=related
Anatomy of a Cirrus Stall Accident
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nm_hoHhbFo
Some Videos
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saeejPWQTHw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmseXJ7DV4c&feature=related
! First ight of B-58 Hustler, 1956
! Century series ghters, bombers, 1959
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMcuVhzCrX8&feature=related
! Bird of Prey, 1990s, and X-45, 2000s
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVjaiMXvCTQ
! XF-92A, 1948