Marisa Evans-Looney

Tanner Smith
Bryn Joyner
Elliot Isenberg
Emily Wieser

Compiled Research for Natural Gas

Chemically what is natural gas?
(Bryn)
Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly
includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even lesser percentage of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. Natural gas is a mixture: it is 75% methane (CH
4
), 15% ethane
(C
2
H
6
), and 5% other hydrocarbons: such as propane (C
3
H
8
) and butane (C
4
H
10
).
"Natural Gas." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"NaturalGas.org." NaturalGas.org. N.p., 2004. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"Union Gas." Chemical Composition of Natural Gas -. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"U.S. Energy EIA: Independent Statistics and Analysis." Natural Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr.
2014.

Describe shale formations and coal bed methane formations and how the natural gas is
contained with these formations.
(Tanner)
How much natural gas is known to be stored in these formations in the United
States? In the World? How much of our energy needs could this natural gas meet?
The Natural Gas found in shale formations was formed from the remains of plants, animals, and
other small organisms that lived millions of years ago. These organisms were once living, and
when they died and were buried over time, they were heated and compressed by the earths crust
for millions of years. When referring to natural gases, this process is often called thermogenic
methane generation. There are shale basins and formations all across the globe. In the United
States alone, we posses 567 trillion cubic feet of technically recoverable shale gas, according to
the U.S energy Administrations report from 2013. 567 trillion cubic feet of shale gas represents
enough gas for the United States to consume over the course of 22 years.
"Information On:." Basics of Shale Gas: SHIP. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2014
Explain the basic process of extraction of natural gas from shale formations including the
use of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling (fracking).
(Tanner)
What is the goal of the hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling?
The hydraulic Fracturing process of extracting natural gas from shale is not as simple as it seems.
The oil shale layer depth varies depending on the geology of the landscape, but can be over 8,700
feet deep underground. This is over six times the height of the empire state building. There are
thousands of feet of steel pipe sent vertically down until it reaches the oil shale layer. Once the
shale layer is reached, the pipe is then drilled horizontally into the oil shale layer for about three
to five thousand feet. The pipe is contained in a metal casing for ultimate protection. Once the
pipes are in the oil shale layer, there are multiple initial explosions to crack the oil shale. These
cracks that the explosions create are filled with the fracking fluid. Fracking fluid is then dispersed
into the shale layer splitting and cracking through creating space for the gas to leak out of the
shale. Fracturing allows for extended use in older oil and natural gas fields. It also allows for the
production of oil and natural gas from formations that were once believed to be impossible to
produce, such as common occurring tight shale structures. The fracking process overall provides
better results when it comes to extracting the gas. This innovative tactic can be used on one
location for a long period of time. Some wells can produce longer than others, therefore it can
sometimes be almost like a gamble.
What chemicals and tools are used in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling?
There is a lot of controversy on whether or not fracking fluid is harmful to the environment.
Although 90% of the fluid is water, and 9% of the fluid is made of sand, there is still a large
variety of chemicals inside fracking fluid. The number of chemicals in a typical fracking process
depends on the conditions of the well being fractured. Depending on the characteristics of the
water and the shale formation being fractured, the amount of chemicals being used could range
from 3 to 87 on average.
What steps are involved in the process of natural gas extraction from shale
formations via hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling?
(See question one for answer)
What safety equipment and practices are employed to safeguard humans and the
environment during natural gas extraction through hydraulic fracturing and
horizontal drilling?
The standard employees on a fracking site act similar to the everyday construction worker safety
wise. They wear hard hats and often times gloves when getting down and dirty with damaged
equipment or malfunctioning equipment. Overall, there are transformers and other heavy duty
equipment that do the majority of the heavy lifting and generally only require supervision until
there is a malfunction. The NRDC (Natural Recourses Defense Council) provides safeguards to
benefit the environment. The NRDC safeguards include,
1. Putting the most sensitive lands, including critical watersheds, completely off limits to
fracking;
2. Not allowing leaky systems by setting clean air standards that ensure methane leaks are
well under one percent of production to reduce global warming pollution, and requiring
green completions and other techniques to reduce air pollution;
3. Mandating sound well drilling and construction standards by requiring the strongest well
siting, casing and cementing and other drilling best practices;
4. Protecting the landscape, air, and water from pollution by closing Clean Air, Clean
Water and Safe Drinking Water loopholes, reducing toxic waste, and holding toxic oil
and gas waste to the same standards as other types of hazardous waste, funding robust
inspection and enforcement programs, and disclosing fully all chemicals;
5. Using gas to replace dirtier fossil fuels like coal by prioritizing renewables and
efficiency, implementing recently established mercury, sulfur and other clean air
standards, and setting strong power plant carbon pollution standards; and
6. Allowing communities to protect themselves and their future by restricting fracking
through comprehensive zoning and planning.

What is the final state of the land once the drilling and natural gas extraction has
been completed?
Fracking impacts the land around the site greatly. As before and after pictures clearly display,
fracking sites have the potential to turn forests into deserts. This is not because of the fracking
process alone. At all fracking sites there are massive amounts of imports of materials from trucks
that make quite the impact to the vegetation in the area. There are many things necessary for the
construction of a shale gas site such as well pads, access roads, and utility corridors. According to
estimates, the average size of a multi-well pad for drilling and fracturing is 3.5 acres. Large
numbers of wells require the exploitation of shale gas. According to the shale gas information
platform, for the U.S. Barnett shale, almost 15,000 wells were drilled by the end of 2010. An
average well density of 1.15 wells per km was estimated for natural gas fracking hotspots in the
United States.

One other major environmental concern is the production of green house gasses and increased
temperature of the atmosphere. The natural gas produced from shale contains (methane, CH
4
)
which creates greenhouse gas when released into the atmosphere. Emissions from other on site
producers such as truck traffic add to the overall emission. Also, when natural gas is produced on
fracking sites or in power plants, it is converted into CO
2
which also acts as a greenhouse gas
when released into the atmosphere. There have been multiple estimations that within the next five
years figurative methane emissions will increase immensely.
"Hydraulic Fracturing: The Process." Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.
"What Is Fracking?" Energy From Shale. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
"What Goes In & Out of Hydraulic Fracking." Dangers of Fracking. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr.
2014.
"What Is Hydraulic Fracturing?" Top Stories RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2014.

Explain how natural gas is extracted from coal bed methane formations.
(Bryn)

Coal bed methane is ground where coal is found in the seams, we are able to extract it from these
seams and then use it to fuel many different thing. But because it is found under ground, it is non-
renewable.
To extract it a steel-encased hole is drilled into coal seam about 330-4,920ft below ground, where
the purpose is to pump all the water out of the well. Doing this lowers the pressure due to natural
production or the pumping of water from the coalbed, the methane that was held in place by water
pressure, moves towards the surface. It is then captured and transported through pipelines to
storing facilities or shipped off to power plants.
"Coal Bed Methane." Energy Justice Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"Coal Bed Methane Extraction." Princeton University. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"Coalbed Methane." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
Keith, Kristin, and Jim Bauder. "Frequently Asked Questions." Coal Bed Methane. N.p.,
2003. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
Lennon, Linda. "Coalbed Methane." Coalbed Methane. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.

What are local environmental consequences to natural gas extraction through horizontal
drilling and hydraulic fracturing?
(Marisa)
The majority of environmental concerns about due to hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling
fall into five main categories: groundwater, surface water, local ecosystem, air quality and local
geological effects. These concerns relate to these categories' consequences. Many of the water
concerns and consequences are linked to the amount of chemicals used in the fracturing liquid, 29
chemicals out of the 650 products are known carcinogens.
Each shale gas well requires 2.3 to 3.8 million gallons of water per year plus an extra 40,000 to
1,000,000 gallons of water for the initial drilling, while coal bed methane wells use 50,000 to
350,000 gallons of water. The water used usually comes from one specific place or watershed.
Because of the large amount of water being withdrawn from underground water reservoirs,
bacteria growth is promoted in those reservoirs. Well bores can also sometimes be drilled through
underground wells of drinking water, along with fractures in old wells being used as pathways to
water sources for different contaminates.
After the water has been mixed with chemicals and used in the drilling some of it can end up
unusable. This unusable water is injected into containment wells, and some of the wells have
been linked to unusual amounts of small seismic activity. It is believed that when large amounts
of water are being injected, slips or opening of the fractures can lead to changes in seismic
activity. The process of transferring and containing the wastewater can result in spills. These
spills have the potential to reach nearby water sources and to contaminate them.
Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing produce approximately 5.3 billion tons of CO
2
a year
and it is estimated that by 2030 they could by producing up to 11 billion tons a year. The wells
produce high levels of nitrogen oxide along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide and
minimum amounts of sulfur dioxide and particulates.
EPA. Study of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources. Rep.
no. 601/R-12/011. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Study of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on
Drinking Water Resources. Dec. 2012. Web. 16 Apr. 2014.

Describe the general process the natural gas undergoes after extraction to prepare it for
combustion. You do not need to include every step in the refinement process, but you
should describe several of the general chemical and physical properties used to refine the
gas and you should list the main contaminants that are being removed from the gas.
(Elliot)

Natural gas is never refined it is generally treated or processed.

Natural gas processing consists of separating all the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the
pure natural gas.

The process that natural gas goes through:
Oil and Condensate Removal
Water Removal
Separation of Natural gas liquids
Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

Dangers in collecting Natural Gas:
Water: 1 to 8 million gallons of is used in Hydrofracking
Chemicals: 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used.
Toxic Chemicals: Lead, Uranium, Mercury, Radium, Methanol, Hydrochloric Acid,
Formaldehyde, and Ethylene Glycol.

Oil and Condensate Removal:
Any condensate that is obtained after the transition of a gas substance into a liquid state due to a
drop in pressure or temperature. There are not only gas fields but also gas condensate fields in
the surface. When pressure and temperature decrease as a result of drilling a well, gas condensate
a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons separated from gas is formed.

Water Removal:
Glycol dehydration is the most common way of removing water and the natural gas liquids from
the natural gas. When natural gas is first removed from the wells it contains water vapor. The
water vapor needs to be removed to reduce pipeline corrosion and eliminate line blockage caused
by hydration formation.

Separation of Natural Gas Liquids:
Removing the liquids and solids from the gas stream is important for the refining process.
Effective removal of these contaminants can prevent costly problems and downtime with
downstream equipment like compressors, turbines, and burners. In addition, hydrocarbons and
solid contaminants can induce foaming in an amine contactor tower and can contribute to
premature catalyst changeouts in catalytic processes. In compressors that use oil to lubricate
cylinders, the lube oil often gets into the discharge gas causing contamination downstream.

Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal:
The process of sulfur and carbon dioxide removal is important because the sulfur and carbon
dioxide are called acid gases. The process called scrubbing uses acid gas binding organic liquids
that contain no water and are similar to oily compounds. These liquids capture acid gases near
room temperature.


Describe the design of a natural gas power plant. Your description should at least include
turbines (gas and steam), heat exchanger, generator, compressor and coolant systems.
(Marisa)
There are two types of natural gas power plants; simple cycles and combined cycles. The
combined cycle starts off like the simple cycle. Gas turbines are commonly used. They draw air
in and then compress it. The air then goes into the combustion section. There it is infused with
natural gas and burned at about 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The hot air and gas then expands into
the turbine section where they spin the rotating blades. As the blades spin they turn a generator
which produces energy.
The simple cycle natural gas power plant is a plant that burns natural gas to power a turbine
which connects to a generator and the generator produces the electricity. Air flows through a
compressor and then into a combustion chamber where it is mixed with natural gas and then
ignited in order to get it to expand and become high pressured. The gas flows through the turbine
which spins due to the pressure of the expanding air and gas. The simple cycle power plant can
stand on its own or can be combined to create a combined cycle power plant. If it joins to make a
combined cycle power plant then the gases continue through a pipe after turning the turbine into
another section.
The combined cycle, as seen in figure 1, uses the exhaust from the simple cycle to heat water that
is running through pipes in the boiler. Because the exhaust is so hot it is able to heat the water so
that it turns to steam, the steam then travels through a turbine with enough pressure to turn in it.
The turbine then turns the rotating shaft inside of the generator to create electricity. Because the
combined cycle is a closed loop the steam then flows into a condenser which cools the steam
back into water. The condenser has a continuous supply of cold water flowing through it.
Figure 1: A diagram of the simple and combined natural gas power plant.


"Energy.gov." How Gas Turbine Power Plants Work. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
"Inside the Power Plant." Calpine. Calpine, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
Natural Gas Combined Cycle Power Plant. Digital image. National Energy Education
Development Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

Describe the process of combustion of natural gas.
(Emily)
What are the products, reactants, energy released in a balanced chemical equation?

The reactants of the combustion of natural gas comprise of one mole of CH
4
(Methane) and two
moles of O
2
(Oxygen gas) molecules. Although there are a few more variations of natural gas
found in wells, methane ends up to be more than 85% of the natural gas produced. The products
of the balanced chemical equation turn out to be to be one mole of CO
2
(Carbon Dioxide) and two
moles of H
2
O (Water.) (Example 1) The energy released in a balanced equation of combustion is
890 kJ/mol of CH
4
.

Example 1: Chemical Equation of Combustion of Methane





How much of the reactants are necessary to produce a kilowatt-hour of electrical
energy?

3.41 cf of natural gas is required to produce 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy.
How much of the products are made per kilowatt-hour?

There is 174.71g of CO
2
in one kilowatt-hour
There is 143.04 g of H
2
O in one kilowatt-hour
(See Figure 2)
Demonstrate the mass conserved in this process.
(See Figure 2)

Figure 2: A demonstration of mass conserved within the process of combustion, demonstration
of energy conserved within the process of combustion, and demonstration of how the products
made per 1 kh was found.

Demonstrate that energy is conserved in the process.
(See Figure 2)
There are two different types of chemical reactions that involve the transference and conservation
of energy: Endothermic and Exothermic reactions. Within the combustion of natural gas, an
exothermic reaction is taking place. This means that the potential energy stored in the bonds of
the reactants transfer into the kinetic energy, emitted thermally, from the bonds of the products.
Energy can change forms but no energy can be added or taken from a chemical reaction or the
bonds of the compounds.
"Combustion." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Apr. 2014. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion>.
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Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014. <http://www.kylesconverter.com/energy,-work,-and-
heat/kilowatt--hours-to-cubic-feet-of-natural-gas>.
"Dynamic Periodic Table." Dynamic Periodic Table. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.ptable.com>.
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<https://www.wou.edu/las/physci/GS361/Energy_From_Fossil_Fuels.htm>.
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<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion>.
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<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane>.
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<http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch01/final/c01s04.pdf>.
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<http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Stoich/Equation/balance4.gif>.
" Natural Gas and the Environment NaturalGas.org." NaturalGasorg. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr.
2014. <http://naturalgas.org/environment/naturalgas/>.

Describe the science involved in global climate change and how it relates to emissions from
natural gas power plants.
(Elliot)
The Greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is reradiated in all directions. This is related to
global climate change because of our advances in the coal and natural gas industries. Coal and
natural gas emissions increase the concentration of greenhouse gases, which ultimately warm the
earth.

The greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and CFCs.
Any gas that traps heat can be considered a greenhouse gas.

Greenhouse gases are related to global warming also known as climate change. These gases are
released by cars, power plants, or anything powered by coal or natural gas.

"Scrubbing Sulfur: New Process Removes Sulfur Components, Carbon Dioxide From Power
Plant Emissions." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.

"Water Removal from Natural Gas." Water Removal from Natural Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr.
2014

"Dehydration of Natural Gas." Dehydration of Natural Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.

"Natural Gas | Honeywell UOP." Honeywell UOP. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.

"Glycol Dehydration." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Apr. 2014. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
"What Is gas Condensate." What Is gas Condensate. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
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throughout WV. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
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2014.
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Apr. 2014.
"Spectra Energy." Spectra Energy. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.


What are the best estimates for the purely financial cost of natural gas generated
electricity?

(Bryn)
Over the year of 2013 the purely financial cost of natural gas varied quite a bit but stayed around
three or four dollars. The price of gas is measured in units of MMBtu which is a one millionth of
British Thermal Unit and it incorporates the other costs involved in generating the electricity.
This unit can be translated into cubic feet by using a series of equations or dimensional analysis.
In March 2013, Henry Hub prices stabilized at a range between $4.28/MMBtu and
$4.67/MMBtu. Between March 2013 and April 2013 the prices declined $0.02/MMBtu, settling
at $4.47/MMBtu. In May 2013, June 2013, and July 2013 the prices dropped slightly to around
$4.10/MMBtu. But in August 2013 and September 2013 the prices dropped pretty significantly to
around $3.28/MMBtu. October 2013, November 2013, and December 2013 levelized around the
high $3/MMBtu. And in January 2014, February 2014, and March 2014 the prices spiked way up
to around $5.60-$6.30/MMBtu.
(See Figure 13)


What are the levelized costs per KWh?
The levelized cost of energy is the constant price per unit of energy that causes the investment to
break even, which means it will have a discounted value equal to zero (goggle definition).
A conventional combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the
same source of heat and converting it into mechanical energy, which in turn usually drives
electrical generators. In 2012 the conventional CC had a levelized capital cost of $14.3/MWh, its
fixed operation and maintenance (O&M) cost was $1.7/MWh, the variable O&M cost, including
fuel, was $49.1, and the total system levelized cost of energy was $66.3/MWh. A conventional
combustion turbine is also known as the gas turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. In
2012 the CCT has levelized capital cost of $40.2, its fixed operation and maintenance (O&M)
cost was $2.8/MWh, the variable O&M cost, including fuel, was $82.0, and had the total system
levelized cost of energy was $128.4/MWh.
"Combined Cycle." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"Combined Cycle." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
"Gas Turbine." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.

What are the fuel costs annually or per KWh? Construction costs for a new plant?
Operating and maintenance costs?

In United States the total upstream costs, which is where the oil is extracted, was $33.76. The
total onshore cost was $31.38 and the total offshore cost was $51.60.
For a new natural gas power plant, the conventional CC would be $933.77/MWh, the advanced
CC would be $1,041.64/MWh, the advanced CC with CCS would be $2,133.57/MWh, the
conventional CT would be $995.88/MWh, the advanced CT would be $693.41/MWh, and the
fuel cells would be $7,151.00/MWh.
As for the operating and maintenance costs of a power plant for conventional CC would be
$13.17/kW-yr, the advanced CC would be $15.37/kW-yr, the advanced CC with CCS would be
$31.79/kW-yr, the conventional CT would be $7.34/kW-yr, the advanced CT would be
$7.04/kW-yr, and the fuel cells would cost $0.00/kW-yr.
"EIA: Independent Statistics and Analysis." Short-Term Energy Outlook. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr.
2014.
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Information Administration. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
"U.S. EIA: Independent Statistics and Analysis." EIA. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.
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(EIA). N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
"U.S. Natural Gas Prices." U.S. Natural Gas Prices. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.

What units of measure are used to quantify natural gas?
Natural gas can be measured in many different ways and it is usually used to show how much
natural gas is consumed by an entire country or a single resident. The energy content and other
forms of energy, such as the heat that can be produced, is measured in British Thermal Unit (Btu)
and the quantities of natural gas is measured in cubic feet.
1 cubic foot (cf) = 1,027 Btu
100 cubic feet (1 ccf) = 1 therm (approximate)
1,000 cubic feet (1 Mcf) = 1,027,000 Btu (1 MMBtu)
1,000 cubic feet (1 Mcf) = 1 dekatherm (10 therms)
1 million (1,000,000) cubic feet (1 Mmcf) = 1,027,000,000 Btu
1 billion (1,000,000,000 cubic feet (1 bcf) = 1.027 trillion Btu
1 trillion (1,000,000,000,000) cubic feet (1Tcf) = 1.027 quadrillion Btu
"How to Measure Natural Gas ." How to Measure Natural Gas. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.