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1
What Is Photography?
The painter constructs,
the photographer discloses.
SUSAN SONTAG
You don't take a photograph,
you make it.
ANSEL ADAMS
without an understanding of how it was accom-
plished. It is clear that scientists in the Western
world from at least the time of Leonardo da Vinci
(c. 1490) were aware of the camera obscura, and
at some point it was discovered that the image
T
here are two sides to photography. First,
photography is the capture and display of
images by means of lm or an electronic
sensor, and, second, photography is the art of tak-
ing and presenting photographs. As commonly
practiced, photography is inseparable from cam-
eras. Of course, photography means writing with
light and writing is really the operative word.
When photography was invented in 1839, the
thing that was discovered was the means for per-
manently capturing images. Cameras of various
kinds had, in fact, been available for centuries.
Te original camera, known as the camera
obscura (see Figure 1.1), was nothing more than
a dark room with a small hole (aperture ) in one
wall and an inverted image on the opposite wall
created by light rays passing through the aperture.
Te wonderful image-forming property of a small
aperture was noted by the philosophers Mo-Ti in
China and Aristotle in Greece in the 5th and 4th
centuries , respectively, although apparently
FIGURE 1.1. The camera obscura was used by
Reinerus Gemma-Frisius in 1544 to observe an
eclipse of the sun.
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daguerreotypes, unfortunately, could not easily
be reproduced. Te striking images obtained by
Daguerre were an instant hit, however, and most
contemporaries considered him to be the inventor
of photography. (See Figure 1.2.)
In marked contrast , Talbot s images were ini-
tially unpleasing because the (bright) exposed ar-
eas were found to be dark on the paper. In other
words, a negative image was produced. Tat turned
out to be a great advantage, however, because the
negative could be combined with another sheet of
sensitized paper and exposed to light to produce a
positive copy, and that procedure could be repeat-
ed to produce multiple copies. Of course, paper is
translucent rather than transparent, and it was not
until the 1850s that transparent negatives could be
obtained. Te terms photography and photograph
are usually attributed to Sir John Herschel , who
included them in a paper that he read to the Royal
Society of London in 1839. Herschel also deserves
credit for advancing photographic science by dis-
covering how to stabilize silver images, however,
credit for the name photography is controversial.
Te term photography may actually have been in-
troduced earlier by an artist named Hercules Flor-
ence working in Brazil in 1833. Florence , who used
sensitized paper to copy drawings, did not report
his work, and as a consequence, he had little inu-
ence on the development of photography.
For the next 160 years, silver-sensitized paper
and lm coupled with the negativeipositive pro-
cess, dominated photography, and it was only af-
ter the year 2000 that photoelectric detectors and
powerful, yet inexpensive, computers challenged
lm-based photography. Replacing lm with sen-
sors and computer memory has not yet basically
changed photography, however, computer ma-
nipulation of images has turned out to be a rev-
olutionary development. Even images captured
on lm are now routinely scanned into comput-
ers and digitized so that they are also subject to
modication. If computer image manipulations
were limited to the types of things that photogra-
phers were already doing in the dark room to cor-
rect exposure, hold back or burn in areas, change
quality and intensity could be improved by en-
larging the aperture and inserting a convex lens of
the appropriate focal length . Te portable camera
obscura, a box with a lens on one side and some
means of viewing the image, became popular with
artists as an aid in representing perspective in
paintings. For example, the 16th-century Dutch
painter Johannes Vermeer (16321675) almost
certainly used a camera obscura to see the correct
representation of perspective for his paintings. By
the 19th century these devices were essentially
box cameras without photographic lm .
In the early 19th century, many individuals
were experimenting with sensitized materials that
darkened when exposed to light and produced
eeting images, so proper credit for the invention
of photography is diuse and controversial. Pho-
tography as we know it dates from 1839 when two
men independently reported processes for captur-
ing images in the camera obscura . Teir disclo-
sures initiated explosive developments in image-
making around the world. Te Frenchman Louis
Mande Daguerre discovered a method for produc-
ing a permanent image on a silver surface, while,
in England, Henry Fox Talbot created permanent
images on paper treated with a mixture containing
silver chloride . In Daguerre s images, the areas ex-
posed to light and properly processed were highly
reecting, and, therefore, there was a natural (pos-
itive) appearance though, of course, without color
(monochrome). Tese images, which were called
FIGURE 1.2. Louis Mand Daguerre (lef) and Henry
Fox Talbot (right).
Johnson.indb 2 3/18/2010 9:39:06 AM
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do Is there any merit in maintaining photography
with minimum manipulation for recording the
world as it is Te future will tell. In fact, truth
is found in some novels and paintings and in some
photographs, but it must be tested and veried by
wise readers and observers.
Questions raised by the concepts of reality and
truth in visual images are much more complex
than may be thought. Later in the book I discuss
the operation of the human visual system and its
relation to our awareness of the world. It is fair to
say that our eyes and brain create the illusion of
a full-color, three-dimensional world. It is an illu-
sion, because the images projected on the retinas
of our eyes do not provide enough information for
the construction of a unique worldview. Te brain
lls in details based on a sort of automatic infer-
ence system that is inuenced by both the evolu-
tion of the human brain and the experience of the
individual. Te result is that we see, at rst glance,
petty much what we expect to see. One should
also realize that digital cameras basically compute
pictures from captured light. Te computation is
not straightforward, and there is a lot of room for
enhancement of the nal image. Te new eld
of computational photography is inuencing the
images produced by our cameras and the special
eects we see in movies. It is an interesting time to
be alive and maybe a little disturbing as well.
Further Reading
N. Rosenblum. World History of Photography,
Tird Edition. New York: Abbeville Press,
1997. (Tis is a tour of photography from 1839
through the lm era, including both art and the
technical details.)
M. R. Peres (Editor). Focal Encyclopedia of Pho-
tography, Fourth Edition. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
2007. (Although it is uneven and already some-
what dated, this text provides extensive cover-
age of theory, applications, and science.)
contrast , etc., there would be no fundamental
change in photography. But now the changes can
be so extensive and subtle that the boundaries of
photography are continuously being tested.
It has been said that photographers reveal while
artists create. Software for manipulating photo-
graphic images and even creating realistic images
from scratch is fundamentally changing this equa-
tion. Illustrators using computer graphics have al-
most unlimited ability to produce realistic images
of any type. Photojournalists, on the other hand,
must have their creative inclinations severely lim-
ited by a code of professional ethics and perhaps
by authentication software that can spot even mi-
croscopic changes in digital images.
Anyone who has viewed recent movies knows
that amazing things can be done to produce re-
alistic images of things that never existed. Te
opening scenes in Day After Tomorrow show a
ight over ocean, ice, and clis in Antarctica. It
is beautiful and impressive. How was it done A
helicopter ight over those remote areas would be
costly and dangerous, so the producer decided to
create the scenes entirely with computer graph-
ics. And what about the magnicent scenes in the
epic Troy Does anyone believe that 1000 or even
100 ships were constructed, or that 75,000 Greek
warriors took part in the battle We can all enjoy
the endless possibilities for image-making, but we
can no longer (if ever we did) believe in what the
images show.
So, ultimately, what is photography Does it
matter that wrinkles can be removed from faces
and heads can be switched Do we care if it is easy
to move an alligator from a zoo to a natural area or
a hummingbird from a feeder to a ower Tese
tricks are still rare enough that gullible observers
may marvel at how such di cult photographs
could be obtained. I think we are seeing the emer-
gence of a new art form, but I am not sure where
that leaves photography. Will pure photography
remain when everyone has an incentive to im-
prove the images they obtain and it is so easy to
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Johnson.indb 3 3/18/2010 9:39:10 AM
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