Chapter 14 - Information Technology Management

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Information Technology
Management
Va!cric Bryan !"#$%&%&'()" +'(,-.%#(%,
F!nrida At!antic Univcrsity Laync Ynung
Busincss Rc!atinnship Managcr
Indianapn!is, IN
Dnnna Gn!dstcin
GI5 Cnnrdinatnr
Pa!m Bcach Cnunty 5chnn! District
$%&'()*+,'% ./01%'2'34 ,5 * &6%7*)/%+*2 &'(0/ ,%
(/51*8,%3 '(3*%,9*+,'%5 :4 *8824,%3 ,%;/5+)/%+ ,%
0')86+,%3 *%7 0'))6%,0*+,'%5 +' 8(')'+/ 0')8/+,<
+,;/ *7;*%+*3/= 065+')/( 5/(;,0/= *%7 '+1/( 5+(*+/3,0
benehls. (CharIes . Wang, 1994)
Informalion lechnoIogy is a heId lhal changes
daiIy. This chaler rovides an overviev of hov lechnoI<
ogy imacls ark and recrealion managers. Hovever,
:/0*65/ +/01%'2'34 01*%3/5 5' (*8,724= 8*(> *%7 (/0(/<
*+,'% )*%*3/(5 )65+ 5+*4 687*+/7 '% :'+1 +/01%'2'3,0*2
deveIomenls and aIicalions lo managemenl.
As arl of a reviev for lhis chaler, lhe recrealion,
ark, and Ieisure manager viII be exosed lo a number
'& +/()5 0(60,*2 &'( 6%7/(5+*%7,%3 +1/ ,)8*0+ '& +/01<
noIogy in lhe managing of informalion. SeIecl lerms
have been dehned lhrough a vocabuIary seclion in lhe
comendium, vhiIe olher need-lo-knov lerms have
onIy been highIighled. SeveraI Inlernel siles have been
rovided lo assisl in lhe aradigm shih for mangers lo
eecliveIy manage and conlroI informalion.
?/+*,25 0'%0/(%,%3 +1/ +/01%,0*2 +/()5 65/7 ,% +1,5
chaler can be found on lhe nol-for-rohl Inlernel sile
Wikiedia, erhas lhe Iargesl on-Iine encycIoedia
on lhe Inlernel. The concel of an on-Iine encycIoedia
is a foreshadoving of vhere lechnoIogy is laking lhe
Ieisure service induslry. Il is imorlanl lo knov lhese
lerms (see Comendium 14-1 Signihcanl IT Terms:
Scavenger Hunl).
Informalion lechnoIogy (IT) is one comonenl of
managemenl syslems. This chaler is an overviev of
informalion lechnoIogy, vilh lhe foIIoving seclions:
vhal is informalion lechnoIogy`
+1/ )*%*3/(@5 (/58'%5,:,2,+,/5A
,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5A
7,5*5+/( (/0';/(4 *%7 :65,%/55 0'%+,%6,+4A
B
B
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$. *5 * )*%*3/)/%+ +''2A
6%7/(5+*%7,%3 $. ,%&(*5+(60+6(/A *%7
IT Ianning.
Once a nev lechnoIogy roIIs over you, if you're
%'+ 8*(+ '& +1/ 5+/*)('22/(= 4'6@(/ 8*(+ '& +1/ ('*7.
(Slevarl rand)
What is IT?
C 3'*2 '& )*%*3/)/%+ ,5 +' 8(';,7/ +1/ (,31+ +''25 &'(
sla lo eorlIessIy access and slore lhe informalion
required lo manage or rovide a service. A ark and
(/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'% )*4 :/ 0')8(,5/7 '& )*%4
oeralionaI and adminislralive funclionaI areas. Iach
has an informalion comonenl. Informalion lechnoI<
ogy (IT) is lhe means by vhich area ersonneI erform
lheir informalion lasks. The informalion comonenl is
comosed of six basic lasks or funclions (DieboId, 1985).
(See Ixhibil 14.1 beIov).
$%&'()*+,'% +/01%'2'34 ,5 *% 6):(/22* +/()
+1*+ 0';/(5 * ;*5+ *((*4 '& 0')86+/( 7,50,82,%/5 +1*+
8/(),+ '(3*%,9*+,'%5 +' )*%*3/ +1/,( ,%&'()*+,'%
resources. UIlimaleIy, informalion lechnoIogy serves as
* jun!ancnia| jcrcc in rcsnaping crganizaiicns |q app|qing
intcsincni in ccnpuiing an! ccnnunicaiicns ic prcncic
ccnpciiiitc a!taniagc, cusicncr scrticc, an! cincr siraicgic
|cncis (Wang, 1994, . 3).
The number one benehl of informalion lechnoIogy is
lhal il emovers eoIe lo do vhal lhey vanl lo do.
Il Iels eoIe be crealive. Il Iels eoIe be roduclive.
$+ 2/+5 8/'82/ 2/*(% +1,%35 +1/4 7,7%@+ +1,%> +1/4 0'627
Iearn before, and so, in a sense, il is aII aboul olenliaI.
(Sleve aIImer, Chief Ixeculive Ocer of Microsoh, on
Wooidoo! Quolalions. Relrieved December 31, 2008,
from hu://vvv.vooidoo.com)
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14
!"D |njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni
Evolution of IT Management
Comulers are nol nev lo ark and recrealion organiza<
lion managemenl. To beuer undersland hov lo manage
$. +'7*4= ,+ ,5 %/0/55*(4 +' 2''> *+ +1/ +1(// 8(/;,'65 /(*5
of IT managemenl: dala rocessing (DI), managemenl
informalion syslems (MIS), and informalion services
(IS). These modeIs of IT organizalion may sliII be arl
of exisling IT services, because lhe ark and recrealion
managers vere lrained and syslems designed during
lhe lime eriods vhen lhey emerged.
The Data Processing Era
In lhe 1960s and 1970s, comuler funclions vere
'(3*%,9/7 ,%+' * 58/0,*2 7,;,5,'% 0*22/7 !aia prcccssing=
slaed by ersonneI skiIIed in lhe use of comulers.
.1/5/ 7,;,5,'%5 656*224 5/(;,0/7 +1/ /%+,(/ '(3*%,9*<
lionlhal is, lhe municiaIily of vhich arks and
recrealion vas a arl. The lradilionaI dala rocessing
modeI has lhree main comonenls. (See Comendium
14-2 for Scenario of Dala Irocessing ModeI):
dala enlry: day-lo-day roduclion dala enlry,
oeralions: day-lo-day mainlenance, rouline
reorl generalion, backu, elc., and
aIicalions: sohvare deveIomenl, mainle<
nance, and suorl.
.1/ !aia prcccssing nc!c| vas ecienl because:
lhe comulers vere cenlraIized and oeraled
by lechnicaI sla,
lhe aIicalions vere designed and lighlIy
8('3(*))/7 +' 0*8+6(/ +1/ (/E6,(/)/%+5 '&
+1/ :65,%/55 6%,+5A *%7
dala enlry vas done by skiIIed oeralors.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
.1,5 )'7/2 (/E6,(/7 * 8''2 '& +/01%,0*224 5>,22/7 $.
vorkers. IssenliaIIy, for a cosl, an aulomalion sle vas
,%+('760/7 +' 3/+ )'(/ *006(*+/ *%7 +,)/24 ,%&'()*<
lion. A lyicaI dala rocessing lask for ark and recre<
alion agencies vouId be recrealion aclivily regislralion.
The rocess vouId be as foIIovs:
:2*%> (/3,5+(*+,'%5 &'()5 *(/ 7,5+(,:6+/7A
0')82/+/7 (/3,5+(*+,'% &'()5 *(/ (/0/,;/7 :4
+1/ (/0(/*+,'% :65,%/55 6%,+A
&'()5 *(/ :*+01/7= :4 7*4 '( 0/%+/(= *%7 +*>/%
+' 7*+* 8('0/55,%3A
&'()5 *(/ /%+/(/7 *%7 *% F/7,+ (/8'(+G ,5 0(/<
aled vilh each balch,
lhe recrealion business unil vouId reconciIe lhe
balch vilh lhe edil reorl,
7*+* 8('0/55,%3 ,5 *7;,5/7 '& *%4 01*%3/5 +'
+1/ :*+01= *%7 ,& %//7/7 *%'+1/( /7,+ (/8'(+ ,5
0(/*+/7 *%7 +1/ :*+01 ,5 (/0'%0,2/7 *3*,%A *%7
once lhe balch is verihed, a comuler oeralor
enlers lhe dala inlo a hnance rogram and a
8/(,'7,0 (/8'(+ ,5 ,556/7 +' +1/ (/0(/*+,'% :65,<
ness unil.
In simIe lerms, regislralions are droed o al
dala rocessing Monday lhrough Thursday, aII verihca<
lion is done by Iriday noon, and a veekIy reorl is run
Iriday and dislribuled on Monday.
.1,5 )'7/2 ,5 * 0/%+(*2,9/7 )/+1'7 '& )*%*3,%3
IT. AII lhe resources for comuling vere cenlraIized
in one budgel. In some governmenlaI unils, incIuding
universilies, lhis division vas arl of lhe hnance dearl<
menl. The comulers vere Iarge mainframes hidden
in a reslricled area, oul of sighl. Some business unils
(usuaIIy lhe hnance oce) had lerminaIs connecled lo
lhe mainframe. AII Ieuers and memos vere done by
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Exhibit 14.1
Basic Functions of Information Technology
Input CoIIecling dala using various eIeclronic devices
Cnmmunicatinn C00/55 *%7 )';/)/%+ '& 7*+* &(') 82*0/ +' 82*0/
Prnccssing .(*%5&/((,%3 '& 7*+* &(') '%/ &'() +' *%'+1/(
5tnragc Relaining dala for fulure reference
Rctricva! AbiIily lo recaII dala vhen needed
Output AbiIily lo lransform dala inlo a usabIe formal secihed by lhe user
DieboId, 1985. See lhe foIIoving siles for currenl aIicalion of lhese IT funclions: hu://vvv.IiuIerock.org/CilyDearlmenls/
InformalionTechnoIogy/
hu://vvv.cilyofsaIem.nel/Dearlmenls/InformalionTechnoIogy/Iages/defauIl.asx
hu://vvv.ci.henderson.nv.us/informalion_lechnoIogy/informalion_securily_services.h
hu://vvv.indiana.edu/-r324/lech.df
|njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni 307
lyevriler and dislribuled lhrough inler/inlra-oce
maiI and lhe oslaI service. The comuling resources
vere focused on rocessing dala.
As IT malured, more business unils vanled lo be
invoIved. Since lhe IT budgel vas nol unIimiled, ro|<
ecls vere riorilized. usiness unils lhal did nol have
lhe budgel for IT ro|ecls or vere nol considered high
riorily did nol gel ro|ecls done. Ixeculives became
;/(4 &(65+(*+/7 *%7 0(/*+/7 * :65,%/55 %//7 &'( 5)*22/(=
cosl-eeclive comulers. Comulers scaIed dovn lo
meel lhe needs of a singIe dearlmenl.
Management Information Systems Era
In lhe 1980s, smaIIer and Iess exensive comulers
1/28/7 )*%*3/(5 82*0/ +/(),%*25 '% +1/,( 7/5>5 +'
monilor daiIy business. The shih lo managers having
7,(/0+ *00/55 +' ,%&'()*+,'% 01*%3/7 +1/ /)81*5,5
of comuling. The comuler funclions vere referred
lo as Managemenl Informalion Syslems (MIS). (See
Comendium 14-3 Scenario for an MIS ModeI.)
There vas a ma|or shih from manuaI record-kee<
ing syslems lo eIeclronic dala enlry. Inslead of having
a dala enlry division vilh skiIIed comuler ersonneI,
lhe ark and recrealion oeralion couId do ils ovn
/%+(4= 7,(/0+24 ,%+' +1/ ),%, '( )*,%&(*)/ 0')86+/(A
hovever, MIS seciaIisls vere emIoyed, and lhere
may have been an MIS division or unil. The ma|or eecl
on lhe vorkforce vas lhal nov managers, suervisors,
secrelaries, and olher sla had lo have basic comuler
skiIIs lo do lheir |obs.
The success of dearlmenls geuing mini-comul<
ers (dearlmenlaI comulers) changed lhe governmenls'
0'%+('2 '& 0')86+,%3 &(') 0/%+(*2,9/7 )*%*3/)/%+ +'
decenlraIized. This meanl ark and recrealion dearl<
)/%+5 :/3*% 1,(,%3 $. 8('&/55,'%*25 +' '8/(*+/ +1/ 0')<
ulers and vrile rograms. They reorled lo someone
vilhin ark and recrealion, usuaIIy lhe hnance oce.
During lhis lime, il vas common raclice for mayors
*%7 0,+4 )*%*3/(5 +' 86+ +1/ (/58'%5,:,2,+4 '& )*%*3,%3
informalion in lhe hands of lhe dearlmenl direclors. A
by-roducl of lhal decision vas lhal each dearlmenl
:/3*% 2''>,%3 &'( * 0')86+/( 5'26+,'% +1*+ 5688'(+/7
lheir business. The comuling dearlmenl for lhe cily
Iacked lhe resources lo assisl in lhe acquisilion rocess.
The end resuIl vas dearlmenls having beuer conlroI
of informalion, bul lhe cily as a vhoIe nol being abIe lo
share eIeclronic informalion easiIy.
The 1990s ushered in ersonaI comulers (ICs)
on a mass scaIe. Sla en|oyed lhe freedom of immediale
access lo comuler funclions vilhoul deending on lhe
MIS division in Iarger organizalions or lhe MIS exerl
in smaIIer ones. Nelvorking desklo unils logelher fur<
lher increased lhe vaIue of lhe IC inveslmenl. During
lhe earIy 1990s, lhe lradilionaI mainframe oeralion
conlinued and a nev comuler unil vas deveIoed lhal
suorled lhe IC users al lhe desklo. This movemenl
lo suorl users al lhe desklo vilh simIe o-lhe-
sheIf comuler aIicalions (e-maiI, vord rocessing,
sreadsheels, and smaII dalabases) vas referred lo as
oce aulomalion. During lhis lime, lhree comuler
environmenls lhal coexisled:
mainframe comuling: Iarge generaI aIica<
lions (e.g., accounling),
dearlmenlaI comuling: organizalion-se<
cihc dalabases (e.g., faciIily scheduIing), and
ersonaI comuling: oce aulomalion (e.g.,
vord rocessing).
The ark and recrealion execulive during lhis
lime vas nol equied lo manage eIeclronic informa<
lion. There vas IiuIe or no lechnoIogy incIuded in
Ieisure service degree rograms. There vere a number
of sohvare vendors lhal seciaIized in ark and rec<
realion soIulions and rovided consuIling. Hovever,
execulives became fruslraled vilh lhe erceived cosl of
lechnoIogy and Iack of measurabIe resuIls. Iarl of lhe
robIem vas IT rofessionaIs vho became ark and
recrealion sla ceased or sIoved lheir IT lraining and
Iearning. As lhe environmenl became more comIex,
lhe IT sla vas Iess equied lo manage, Ieading lo
rising consuIling cosls.
Information Services Era
Around lhe year 2000, businesses and governmenl
began lo viev comuler funclions as one informalion
resource lhal has many comonenls, each of vhich
uses lechnoIogicaI advances. The Y2K scare reveaIed
vuInerabiIilies in informalion syslem managemenl. The
vorId vailed in anlicialion for comulers lo crash and
send counlries inlo anarchy. As il lurned oul, il vas a
%'%</;/%+= '%24 :/0*65/ 0')8*%,/5 *%7 3';/(%)/%+
used IS Ieadershi lo idenlify, Ian, and imIemenl
soIulions for aII agencies and dearlmenls. The rin<
ciaI comonenls (mainframe comuler oeralions,
nelvork infraslruclure, servers, desklo suorl, and
leIecommunicalions) are nov referred lo as Informalion
Services (IS). The ma|or shih in governmenl during lhis
lime vas lhe emergence of lhe underslanding lhal
informalion has slralegic decision-making vaIue. Many
cilies began lo ask lhe chief informalion ocer (CIO)
lo |oin/advise lhe cabinel. One of lhe oulcomes vas lhe
,%+('760+,'% '& 5+*%7*(75 *5 * 8*(+ '& )*%*3,%3 +/01%'2<
'34 0'5+5= ,%0267,%3 5+*%7*(75 &'( 8/(5'%*2 0')86+/(5=
e-maiI, vord rocessing and olher urchases.
Cily Ieaders are nov required lo lake a Ieader<
shi roIe in managing informalion. During lhis lime
of change, ark and recrealion execulives resonded
dierenlIy. Some idenlihed IS (lhe oeralion of mini-
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308 |njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni
comulers, vriling sohvare, elc.) as a non-core service,
and resonded by soIiciling lhe IS dearlmenl or con<
lraclors for direcl suorl. Olher direclors eIecled lo
slay vilh a dislribuled aroach, noling lhal some IS
dearlmenls may nol have roer resources.
./2/0'))6%,0*+,'%5 :/0*)/ *%'+1/( 5/(;,0/
inheriled by IS managers. TeIehony has a simiIar
infraslruclure lo comuler nelvorks, as veII as a dala
comonenl. Oce inslaIIalions usuaIIy require a voice
conneclion and a dala conneclion. Under lhe conlroI of
IS, lhese can be coordinaled.
The Inlernel is nov a sohislicaled Iace lo do
business. Cily Ieaders deend on IS lo rovide rolec<
lion from unvanled auacks and inaroriale use by
sla. This IeveI of comIexily has caused Ieisure service
managers lo lhink lvice aboul having fuII resonsibiIily
for lhe comuler funclion. The lerm enlerrise vas
inlroduced and refers lo aII users vilhin governmenl
connecled lo lhe same nelvork. IS vas asked lo man<
*3/ +1/ /%+/(8(,5/ *%7 8(';,7/ *%7 /%&'(0/ 5+*%7*(75
for using services.
Information Technology Era
Looking forvard lo lhe year 2020, lhe ark and rec<
(/*+,'% )*%*3/( ,5 3',%3 +' 1*;/ )*%4 01',0/5 *:'6+
hov lo manage informalion. Managers of loday have
had lechnoIogy courses in coIIege and mosl IikeIy ovn
a home comuler. The markelIace is ooded vilh aII
5'(+5 '& 0'))6%,0*+,'%= /%+/(+*,%)/%+= *%7 ,%&'()*<
lion devices lhal aII have lhe same core auribules as a
basic comuler. This is referred lo as lechnoIogy. Hence,
+1,5 ,5 +1/ injcrnaiicn iccnnc|cgq cra. Il is a Iace vhere
lhere is exisling infraslruclure lo connecl various lech<
noIogies lo meel or exceed business needs.
.1/ &'065 '& $. ,5 +' *55,5+ 7/8*(+)/%+5 ,% :/0'),%3
lechnoIogy savvy, lhal is ecienl and focused on cus<
lomer needs. This is done by buiIding on lhe Iegacy of
each era of IT managemenl:
7*+* 8('0/55,%3H+1/ :65,%/55 8('0/55 ,5 >/4=
545+/)5 )65+ /%1*%0/ +1/ 8('0/55A
MISbusiness unils are resonsibIe for infor<
)*+,'%= %'+ $. 8/'82/A
ISslandards enhance organizalion, informa<
+,'% ,5 5+(*+/3,0A *%7
$.H)*%4 +/01%'2'3,/5= 65,%3 +1/ (,31+ +/01<
noIogy for lhe righl |ob.
Whal is IT` Il is lhe sludy, design, deveIomenl,
and suorl of comuler-based informalion syslems.
Wilh lhe crealion of lhe Inlernel, a nev basic funclion has
://% *77/7 +' $.= *%7 +1*+ ,5 5/06(,+4= 8('+/0+,%3 ,%&'()*<
lion. Il is imorlanl lo undersland lhe various eras of IT
)*%*3/)/%+ :/0*65/ %'+ *22 7/8*(+)/%+5 1*;/ *01,/;/7
lhe same lechnoIogicaI malurily. This is because lhere has
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been signihcanl inveslmenl in lechnoIogy. UnliI lhere is
* (/*2 :65,%/55 %//7 +' 01*%3/ $.= 8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'%
dearlmenls shouId gel lhe mosl oul of lheir inveslmenl.
This means sla members shouId adal lo lhe currenl
environmenl, and Ian for lhe fulure.
Why IT?
ecoming more roduclive by using informalion lechnoI<
'34 +' )*>/ )*%*3/)/%+ 7/0,5,'%5 ,5 +1/ 62+,)*+/ 3'*2
of informalion lechnoIogy managemenl. Informalion
+/01%'2'34 )*%*3/)/%+ ,5 * )/*%5 +' )*>/ +1/ 0'%<
neclion belveen lhe ark and recrealion business and
lhe cuslomers served, vhelher lhose cuslomers are in a
ark, cily, universily, or a naluraI reserve. Informalion
lechnoIogy managemenl has become, and viII conlinue
lo be, a vaIue-add lo lhe organizalion.
IT Solves Business Problems
If lhere are no business robIems, lhere is IiuIe need
for IT. Managemenl loday requires lhe delaiIed mea<
56(/)/%+ '& 5/(;,0/ 7/2,;/(4 *%7 +1/ 0'%5/E6/%+,*2
anaIysis and reviev of lhal service. Informalion lech<
noIogy viII nol make beuer managers. IT viII increase
lhe avaiIabiIily of informalion. Il aIIovs lhe manager
lo viev informalion in dierenl vays, and assisl in
lhe decision-making rocess. IT does nol shul dovn
inecienl recrealion cenlers, managers do. A man<
*3/( )65+ 2/*(% +' &(*)/ ,%&'()*+,'% (/E6/5+5 5' *5
lo address business robIems. (See Assessing Needs
seclion, beIov.)
IT Increases Personal Productivity
Iarl of any good agency is lhe desire lo see ils emIoy<
ees grov rofessionaIIy and ersonaIIy. IT skiIIs are
lhe Ianguage of business. }usl aboul every device
)*%6&*0+6(/7 +'7*4 1*5 * >/48*7= >/4:'*(7= '( 5/+ '&
buuons as an inlerface. IeoIe vho use a number of
lhese devices Iearn lhey are simiIar in oeralion. Seuing
a digilaI valch is much Iike seuing lhe limer on a VCR.
Using a bank machine is much Iike navigaling lhrough
an aulomaled voice resonse leIehone syslem. Using
a comuler is much lhe same.
The advenl of lhe GrahicaI User Inlerface (GUI)
has made lhe oeralion of a comuler easier lo Iearn.
This inlerface (lhe Iook and feeI) aIIovs lhe user lo
Iearn inluiliveIy. Inslead of reading manuaIs, lhe user
5,)824 2''>5 *+ +1/ 50(//% *%7 5/2/0+5 +1/ '8+,'%5 +1*+
make sense. Sohvare aIicalions are vriuen vilh
1/28 '%<50(//% ,% +1/ 0')86+/( 8('3(*)= ,%5+/*7 '& ,%
Iarge, inlimidaling manuaIs. As users need assislance,
lhey simIy ress lhe HeI buuon. Iarl of lhe reaIized
eciency of an organizalion is lhe rogressive deveIo<
menl of informalion skiIIs.
CuIluraIIy, IT makes a Iarge vorId Iook smaII.
Those vho have lhe skiIIs and knovIedge lo navigale
cybersace viII arliciale fuIIy in lhe gIobaI viIIage
of lhe fulure. Il is lo lhem lhal roserily viII beIong.
(Irank . Wilhrov, 1997)
C%4 ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5 *(/ *;*,2*:2/ +' +1/ 5)*22
dearlmenl as veII as lhe Iarge ark dislricls and even
cororalions. Il is IT lhal connecls a dearlmenl lo ils
consliluenls, vendors, and communily. The chaIIenge
is seIecling lhe lechnoIogies lhal viII kee lhe dearl<
menl focused on ils mission, vhiIe slaying comforlabIy
vilhin lhe resources aIIocaled.
The Manager and IT
}usl as managers are resonsibIe for lhe hysicaI
resources, human resources, and hnanciaI resources of an
'(3*%,9*+,'%= 5' *(/ +1/4 (/58'%5,:2/ *%7 *00'6%+*:2/ &'(
lhe informalion resources. A manager is nol required lo
knov everylhing aboul comulers and IT. Hovever, lhe
manager musl shov Ieadershi by acknovIedging lhe
5+(*+/3,0 ,)8'(+*%0/ '& $. *%7 56:5/E6/%+24 *22'0*+,%3
lime and money for ils roer deIoymenl. The slralegic
7,(/0+,'% '& *% $. (/5'6(0/ ,5 +1/ 62+,)*+/ (/58'%5,:,2,+4
of lhe organizalion and ils manager. The manager is an
inlegraI arl of lhe informalion cuIlure. The informa<
+,'% 062+6(/ 01*%3/ (/E6,(/5 +1/ )*%*3/( +' )*>/ *22
7/8*(+)/%+*2 ,%&'()*+,'% /2/0+('%,0*224 *00/55,:2/ &'(
eciency, easy access, reviev, and decision-making.
.1/(/ *(/ +1(// :*5,0 $. )*%*3/)/%+ 50/%*(,'5 &'(
Ieisure service agencies.
$. *5 * 0'(/ 5/(;,0/H* 8*(> 7,5+(,0+ ,5 +1/ :/5+
examIe, because il has uIlimale conlroI of
+1/ '8/(*+,'%5= )*%*3/)/%+= *%7 ,%&'()*+,'%
funclions, aII of lhe business unils vilhin lhe
7,5+(,0+ (/8'(+ +' +1/ 7,(/0+'(= +1/ 7,(/0+'( ,5
*00'6%+*:2/ +' +1/ 8*(> :'*(7= *%7 $. 7/0,5,'%5
*(/ 8*(+ '& +1/ :65,%/55A
$. *5 * (/E6,(/7 5688'(+ 5/(;,0/H)*%4
)6%,0,8*2 *%7 0'6%+4 3';/(%)/%+5 (/E6,(/
dearlmenls lo use lhe sanclioned hnanciaI,
86(01*5,%3= 16)*% (/5'6(0/ *%7 $. 5/(;,0/5A
+1/(/ *(/ )*%4 ;*(,*+,'%5 '& +1,5 )'7/2= *%7
*22 ,%;'2;/ * 0'5+ (/0';/(4 8('0/55 +' 5688'(+
+1/ 5/(;,0/5A *%7
$. *5 *% /2/0+/7 5/(;,0/H)*%4 8(,;*+/ (/0<
realion businesses, smaII/ruraI dearlmenls,
lheraeulic recrealion (TR) raclices don'l need
* &6224 7/82'4/7 $. (/5'6(0/A +1/4 86(01*5/
+1/ /E6,8)/%+ +1/4 %//7= *%7 5//> $. 5/(;,0/
roviders for lhe resl.
1.
2.
3.
IT managemenl is inlerlvined in aII asecls of
business, educalion, and rofessionaI disciIines.
Hov can cuslomers' needs be mel` The organiza<
lion's resonse lo lhis queslion viII diclale lhe fulure.
I(3*%,9*+,'%5 +1*+ *2,3% +1/,( ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5
lo ansver lhis queslion viII move quickIy inlo lhe
21
5+
cenlury. Iark and recrealion organizalions are in
various slages of IT evoIulion. Managed change is lhe
key. IT cannol imrove service deIivery if execulives,
)*%*3/(5= 568/(;,5'(5= *%7 &6%0+,'%*2 8/(5'%%/2 7'
%'+ /):(*0/ ,+= *%7 01*%3/ +1/,( 545+/) '& 5/(;,0/
deIivery.
Change can be inlroduced anyvhere in lhe orga<
%,9*+,'%= :6+ +' :/ 5600/55&62= ,+ )65+ :/ /):(*0/7 &(')
lhe lo. IT musl vork hand-in-hand vilh imIemenling
lhe mission of lhe organizalion. }ob one for manage<
menl is geuing a handIe on lhe business lransaclion
rocess. This change requires lhe formuIalion of cIear
business requiremenls, foIIoved by lhe crealion of an
informalion syslem lhal enabIes lheir fuIhIImenl. The
manager musl be commiued lo change, secihcaIIy,
moving from a manuaI lo an eIeclronic syslem. If lhe
(/58'%5,:,2,+4 &'( $. ,5 7/2/3*+/7 +' *%'+1/( 2/;/2 ,% +1/
organizalion, and lhere is no execlalion of change,
lhen lhere viII be increased adminislralive cosls due
lo arliaIIy imIemenled syslems and IiuIe service
enhancemenl.
Change conlinues vilh managemenl. Are lhe
dala being revieved` Hov limeIy and accurale is il`
Irocesses musl be ul in Iace lo conlinuaIIy imrove
lhe quaIily of lhe dala. Once lhe dala are reIiabIe, lhey are
ready lo be used for managemenl decisions. RegardIess
of hov successfuI an organizalion is in roviding ser<
vices, il musl conlinue lo ask, ShouId ve be roviding
lhis aclivily or rogram` ShouId ve be mainlaining lhis
ark al such a high IeveI` To ansver lhese queslions,
managemenl musl be commiued lo deveIoing an IT
dashboard, an informalion syslem lhal lies hnanciaI
,%&'()*+,'%= 5/(;,0/ 8/(&'()*%0/ 7*+*= *%7 )*(>/+,%3
informalion logelher. The advanlage lo lhe organiza<
+,'% ,5 +1*+ 7/8*(+)/%+*2 ,%&'()*+,'% ,5 2/;/(*3/7 &'(
managemenl decision-making.
There viII aIvays be some sla vho are for and
some sla vho are againsl change. The day-lo-day
service deIivery resonsibiIilies faII lo lhe suervisors.
.1/5/ ,%7,;,76*25 6%7/(5+*%7 +1/ (/E6,(/)/%+5 '& 8('<
;,7,%3 3''7 5/(;,0/ *%7 *(/ tcrq 5>/8+,0*2 *:'6+ 7',%3
somelhing lhey do nol erceive lo be benehciaI. Time
is vaIuabIe. The more oeralionaI sla are freed from
*7),%,5+(*+,;/ +*5>5= +1/ )'(/ 5/(;,0/ 7/2,;/(4 0*% :/
reaIized. Suervisors rovide a veaIlh of oeralionaI
knovIedge. IT funclions shouId be vieved by man<
agemenl and sla as essenliaI business rocesses lhal
8(';,7/ ,)8'(+*%+ ,%&'()*+,'% &'( '8/(*+,'%5= )*%<
agemenl, and decision-making. This oulIook aIIovs
)*%*3/(5 +' ,7/%+,&4 545+/)5 +1*+ *(/ (/76%7*%+ *%7
inecienl and seek incremenlaI change, lhus imrov<
ing lhe IT oeralions of an agency.
C% '(3*%,9*+,'% )*4 %//7 +' :/ (/'(3*%,9/7 +'
reecl lhe IT vay of lhinking. Il is u lo lhe manager lo
serve as a change agenl and lo:
7/;/2'8 +1/ 36,7/2,%/5 &'( )*>,%3 7/0,5,'%5
on vhal and hov much lo invesl in lhe man<
agemenl informalion syslems for hardvare,
8/(5'%%/2= 545+/) (/7/5,3%= 683(*7/5= *%7
7/;/2'8)/%+ '& 7/5,3%A
0(/*+/ * 6%,&'() ,%&'()*+,'% ,%&(*5+(60+6(/
lo cailaIize on lhe nelvork of comulers,
7*+*:*5/5= ,%&'()*+,'% 8'2,0,/5= )/+1'75= 8('<
0/76(/5= *%7 8(*0+,0/5A
aIIov for more leIecommunicalions,
dehne lhe roIes of lhe informalion manage<
menl rofessionaI as a conduil belveen lhe
65/(5= *%7 *5 *% ,%+/3(*2 82*4/( ,% +1/ :65,%/55
)'7/2A *%7
dehne accelabIe erformance by aII lhe eoIe
vho feed informalion inlo lhe ark and recre<
alion syslem.
Information Resources
C% '(3*%,9*+,'%@5 ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5 *(/ 01*(*0+/(<
ized by lhe sources and lyes of informalion.
Sources
Ivery organizalion is defined by lhe informalion
resources il is emovered lo mainlain. Informalion
sources are lhe documenls, hIes, and dalabasesbolh
8*8/( *%7 /2/0+('%,0H+1*+ *% '(3*%,9*+,'% 0(/*+/5
and mainlains in order lo manage or rovide services.
Many resources are mandaled in lhe gctcrnancc: arlicIes
'& ,%0'(8'(*+,'%= 01*(+/(= '( /%*:2,%3 2/3,52*+,'% '&
an organizalion. Some resources are crealed as a |csi
praciicc cj nanagcncni, in vhich informalion is a rofes<
sionaI requiremenl or execlalion. Olher informalion
(/5'6(0/5 *(/ 0(/*+/7 *5 * (/562+ '& +1/ prcjcssicna| !is-
cip|inc cr nisicrica| praciicc. (To viev samIes of some of
+1/ ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5 +1*+ 0'))'%24 '(,3,%*+/ *5
documenls, hIes, and dalabases, see Mandale Resources
in Comendium 14-4.)
/01&(&,%"#%&2) #(0 3)"2&$)
3%#%&,%&$,45(6'"1#%&'(
I(3*%,9*+,'%5 51'627 )*,%+*,% *88('8(,*+/ 5/(;,0/ 5+*<
+,5+,05 ,% '(7/( +' 82*%= ,%+/(8(/+= *%7 /;*26*+/ 8*(> *%7
recrealion rograms and services. The adminislralive
reorling syslem shouId rovide managemenl vilh
informalion on lhe aclivilies of lhe organizalion.
B
B
B
B
B
C88('8(,*+/ (/0'(75 '% ,%7,;,76*2 8*(+,0,8*%+5
*%7 3('685 51'627 :/ )*,%+*,%/7 ,% * &'() +1*+ 2/%75
,+5/2& +' 56))*(,9*+,'% *%7 8(';,7/5 65/&62 ,%&'()*<
lion. IxamIes incIude lhe roorlion of consliluenls
(/0/,;,%3 5/(;,0/5A %6):/( '& 8*(+,0,8*%+5 (/3,5+/(/7A
number of grous and sessions, auendance, comosi<
lion characlerislics of lhe arlicianls as veII as lhe con<
5+,+6/%04= ,%0267,%3 *3/= 3/%7/(= 062+6(*2 :*0>3('6%7=
)*(,+*2 5+*+65= /760*+,'%*2 2/;/2= '0068*+,'%= 2/%3+1 '&
lime in communily, and eecls of rograms on ar<
licianls vhen measured, such as IeveI of rohciency,
Iearning of nev skiIIs, changes in behavior auerns or
nev inleresls exressed, elc.
Informalion aIso may be used lo redicl vork<
2'*75= 7/+/(),%/ 8/(5'%%/2 *%7 '+1/( (/5'6(0/ %//75=
and reare budgels. IxamIes of dala sources are ro<
gram auendance, equimenl and maleriaI invenlories,
vork orders, and budgel adminislralion records.
IroerIy designed adminislralive reorls viII
reecl comaralive dala and lrends on aclivilies. AII
(/0'(75 *%7 (/8'(+5 51'627 0'%&'() +' 6%,&'() *%7
06((/%+ )/+1'75 '& )*,%+*,%,%3 (/0'(75 *%7 (/8'(+,%3
dala as may be deveIoed from lime lo lime vilhin lhe
rofessionaI heId, so lhal IocaI dala may be used for
comaralive informalion vilh olher ark and recre<
alion organizalions.
MonlhIy reorls shouId rovide heads of organi<
zalionaI comonenls vilh an oorlunily lo accounl for
lhe aclivilies in lheir unils during lhe revious monlh.
Adminislralive mauers may be discussed in lhe reorl.
Comaralive dala on aclivilies of lhe revious monlh,
5*)/ )'%+1 76(,%3 +1/ 8(/;,'65 4/*(= *%7 4/*(<+'<7*+/=
are vaIuabIe sources of managemenl informalion. The
)'%+124 (/8'(+ )*4 *25' 8/(),+ +1/ 1/*75 '& '(3*%,<
zalionaI unils lo idenlify lhe ob|eclives of lheir unils
for lhe nexl monlh. Then, lhe annuaI reorl may be a
summary of lhe monlhIy reorls. The reorl shouId
8(';,7/ 0')8*(*+,;/ 7*+* *%7 5+*+,5+,05 *%7 *00'6%+ &'(
lhe aclivilies of lhe organizalion.
Information Types
CoIIecled informalion faIIs inlo four generaI calegories,
8/(5'%*2 ,%&'()*+,'%= '8/(*+,'%*2 ,%&'()*+,'%= *7),%<
islralive informalion, and dearlmenlaI informalion.
!)",'(#. 5(6'"1#%&'(
Pcrscna| injcrnaiicn ,% $. 2*%36*3/ *77(/55/5 *22 ,+/)5
crealed by lhe rofessionaI for and by lhe individuaI.
Il incIudes eIeclronic maiI (e-maiI), voice maiI (v-maiI),
faxing, aging, chauing, brovsing (surhng), video con<
ferencing, and leIehoning (voice). IersonaI informa<
lion can be crealed by using oce aulomalion roducls
(vord rocessing, sreadsheels, business grahics,
and olher aIicalions). The dislinclion of ersonaI
,%&'()*+,'% ,5 +1*+ ,+ )*4 :/ 5+'(/7 /,+1/( 2'0*224 '%
* 8/(5'%*2 0')86+/( '( ,% * 8(,;*+/ *(/* '% +1/ %/+<
vork caIIed a home drive. Some of lhis informalion is
nol business-reIaled (iclures of famiIy and friends, a
humorous video cIi, music hIes, elc.). When such er<
5'%*2 ,%&'()*+,'% *006)62*+/5 ,+ :/0')/5 * (/5'6(0/
robIem for IT backu and slorage. This issue has Ied
+' 5+(,0+ 8'2,0,/5 (/3*(7,%3 +1/ 0(/*+,'% *%7 5+'(*3/ '&
ersonaI informalion.
78)"#%&'(#. 5(6'"1#%&'(
Opcraiicna| injcrnaiicn refers lo informalion reecling
lhe business funclion of an organizalion. OeralionaI
,%&'()*+,'% ,5 65/7 &'( 7*4<+'<7*4 :65,%/55 )*%*3/<
menl. Irogram regislralion informalion is imorlanl
lo lhe business funclion of a recrealion cenler. Work-
order syslems are imorlanl lo ark mainlenance. The
sohvare aIicalions reIaled lo lhese IT funclions are
referred lo as verlicaI markels, vhich means lhal lhey
are seciaIIy vriuen for a secihc disciIine. Sorls
scheduIing sohvare and membershi sohvare faII inlo
lhe verlicaI markel calegory.
/01&(&,%"#%&2) 5(6'"1#%&'(
A!ninisiraiitc injcrnaiicn (/&/(5 +' *882,0*+,'%5 +1*+ *(/
needed in aII seclions vilhin an organizalion. Human
(/5'6(0/5= 8*4('22= *%7 *00'6%+,%3 *882,0*+,'%5 *(/ $.
services lhal are used in aII areas of business. Iven an
'(3*%,9*+,'% +1*+ 7'/5 %'+ *7),%,5+/( '%/ '& +1/5/ *882,<
calions may be invoIved vilh lhe vorkov lhrough lhe
use of lime cards, urchase orders, and check requesls.
Adminislralive syslems are usuaIIy cIoseIy valched lo
)*>/ 56(/ +1/ 545+/)5 *(/ 0'((/0+24 65/7 *%7 +' /%56(/
dala inlegrily. Adminislralive syslems conlain informa<
lion lhal users vanl on a eriodic basis.
9)8#"%1)(%#. 5(6'"1#%&'(
Ocparincnia| injcrnaiicn is any informalion (ersonaI,
adminislralive, or oeralionaI) lhal is used for orga<
%,9*+,'% :65,%/55 5601 *5 )*(>/+,%3 *%7 *55/55)/%+
looIs for surveys, user slalislics, elc., lo vhich everyone
needs access.
.1/ 7,5+,%0+,'%5 *)'%3 +1/5/ ,%&'()*+,'% +48/5
are imorlanl. AII users creale a cerlain amounl of
ersonaI informalion. This informalion may nol be
on lhe organizalion nelvork, lhus il may nol be su<
orled. DearlmenlaI informalion nusi :/ 5+'(/7 '% +1/
organizalion nelvork, so lhal il can be suorled and
accessed by olher sla members. Users nol auached
lo lhe nelvork musl idenlify rocedures for suorl<
ing dearlmenlaI informalion. (See seclion on disasler
recovery, beIov.)
Many users handIe dearlmenlaI informalion
Iike ersonaI informalion. Il is slored in an area nol
roulineIy suorled, and il is nol accessibIe lo olhers.
.48,0*224= +1/ 5+*%7*(75 &'( 0(/*+,%3 +1,5 ,%&'()*+,'%
are deveIoed by lhe user. As such, il is nol easiIy
merged, sorled, or inlegraled vilh olher dearlmen<
laI informalion. Many sla members erceive lheir
dalabases lo be lhe ociaI records of lhe organizalion,
hovever, lhey Iack accuracy and recision because
informalion vas never verihed and slandards for dala
enlry vere Iacking.
Iach informalion resource has a cosl associ<
aled vilh managing il. As lhe number of informalion
resources increases, so does lhe comIexily of lhe orga<
nizalion. The vaIue of informalion lo lhe organizalion
increases, as more eoIe vho need il can access il.
One goaI for an organizalion seeking eak eciency is
lo design an informalion syslem lhal aIIovs aII sla lo
1*;/ *00/55 +' *%4 ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/ %/0/55*(4 +'
gel lheir |obs done, vhiIe rolecling informalion lhal
is conhdenliaI or onIy shouId be avaiIabIe lo cerlain
grous. The cosls of such a syslem increase vilh lhe
comIexily of lhe organizalion. ComIexily becomes
grealer if lhe organizalion:
increases sla (sla addilions),
,%0(/*5/5 +1/ %6):/( '& '(3*%,9*+,'% 5/(;,0/5
oered (nev services),
increases lhe number of sla Iocalions (nev
faciIilies),
reslricls sla access (addilionaI securily admin<
islralion),
hires comuler-iIIilerale slaff (no lraining
execlalions), and
2*0>5 * +/01%'2'34 82*% *%7 /%3*3/5 ,% 6%(/<
slricled buying and imIemenlalion.
$%&'()*+,'% ,5 +1/ (/562+ '& 0'22/0+,'%= )*%,862*<
lion, and anaIysis. Informalion has a cosl, a vaIue, and
a sheIf Iife. There is no vaIue lo informalion unIess
someone needs il. The vaIue of informalion increases if
lhe user can have access lo il in any form desired vilh
*% ,))/7,*+/ +6(%*('6%7= an! if il is currenl. This can
onIy be accomIished vilh a good business Ian over<
Iaid vilh a good IT Ian. The uIlimale goaI is lo connecl
aII business unils logelher vilh a common inlerface and
lo enforce a managemenl execlalion lhal each unil
kees ils informalion u-lo-dale. The informalion musl
be correcl, accessibIe, and limeIy (see Ixhibil 14.2 and
Comendium 14-5).
IT as a Management Tool
Can you leII me, Iease, vhich vay I oughl lo go from
here` asked AIice. Thal deends a good deaI on vhere
you vanl lo gel lo, said lhe cal. (Levis CarroII)
B
B
B
B
B
B
Ivery organizalion has ieces of lhe informalion
lechnoIogy uzzIe. Some organizalions have a simIe
comuler syslem design, vilh a fev comulers con<
necled lo servers aII vilhin lhe same buiIding, vhiIe
olhers have a comIex syslem of remole Iocalions,
muIliIe Iines of business, and a mobiIe sla. In any
0*5/= *22 545+/)5 51'627 8(';,7/ (/2,*:2/ ,%&'()*+,'%
lo be used in managemenl decision-making. An aro<
8(,*+/ ,%&'()*+,'% 545+/) 51'627 /%0')8*55 8/(5'%*2
,%&'()*+,'%= :65,%/55 ,%&'()*+,'%= *%7 *7),%,5+(*+,;/
informalion.
Universilies are a muIlifaceled nelvork of
oce comIexes, cIassrooms, comuler Iabs, vire<
Iess access, mass slorage, and seciaIly servers. There
is aIvays some orlion of lhe nelvork lhal is being
ugraded or a nev lechnoIogy imIemenled for
Iearning and educalion. In mosl coIIeges, IT resources
are seciaIized lo rovide quick and knovIedgeabIe
soIulions lo everyday sludenl/facuIly needs. A caII lo
lhe HeI desk couId be rouled lo one of lhe foIIoving
seciaIized leams:
* +/*01,%3 +/01%'2'3,/5 +/*) +1*+ *55,5+5 &*062+4
vilh cIassroom and comuler Iab syslems,
* 5/06(,+4 +/*) +1*+ )*%*3/5 +1/ 2'3,%
*00'6%+5A
* 7/5>+'8 +/*) +1*+ ,%5+*225 *%7 )*,%+*,%5 +1/
0')86+/( *55/+5A
* 0'%562+,%3 +/*) +1*+ 8(';,7/5 *55,5+*%0/ +'
facuIly/sla regarding basic comuler ques<
+,'%5A *%7
a lraining leam comrised of sub|ecl mauer
exerls for inslruclion regarding lhe seciaIly
syslems (i.e., On-course, Iackboard, and olher
syslems).
B
B
B
B
B
Records Management
Il is vilaI for every organizalion, no mauer hov Iarge or
smaII, simIe or comIex, lo have a records managemenl
syslem. Records are lhe IifebIood of an organizalion. A
mark of IT exceIIence is roer records managemenl.
UsuaIIy, lhere is a record syslem for each Iine of
business in an organizalion. Iark rangers may use a
simIe ersonaI dalabase for lracking accidenl reorls.
They may use lhe cily's sohislicaled Comuler Aided
Disalch (CAD) syslem for deIoying ersonneI and
recording criminaI aclivily. They may use lhe dearl<
menl's hnance syslem for lracking budgels. Using lhis
examIe, lhe rangers vouId be resonsibIe for lhe dala
E6*2,+4 *%7 :*0>68 '& +1/ *00,7/%+ (/8'(+5= +1/ 8'2,0/
dearlmenl vouId be resonsibIe for lhe CAD syslem,
and lhe dearlmenl hnance oce vouId be resonsibIe
for lhe budgel syslem. Cily IT vouId be resonsibIe for
0'%%/0+,%3 65/(5 +' *22 +1/ 7*+*:*5/5 *%7 8(';,7,%3 *
safe Iace for backu.
.1/ 8(,)*(4 &6%0+,'% '& 3''7 (/0'(7 >//8,%3 ,5
accounlabiIily lo lhe user and organizalion. Records
managemenl is a slevardshi rocess lhal accounls for
+1/ 65/ *%7 5+*+65 '& '(3*%,9*+,'% (/5'6(0/5 *%7 *775
inlegrily lo decision making. IT is an imorlanl looI
for galhering, sloring, and recaIIing informalion. There
)65+ :/ 5+*%7*(75 &'( *22 (/0'(7 >//8,%3 545+/)5= /2/0<
lronic or manuaI. Consider lhese ilems vhen evaIualing
a records managemenl syslem:
vhal records musl be mainlained`
vhal is lhe relenlion oIicy for dearlmenl
informalion`
vho viII eslabIish an invenlory of records vilh
a hIing syslem for ease of relrievaI`
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.2
Value of Information Factors
Cnrrcctncss Acccssibi!ity Timc!incss
Prccisinn:
Whal is execled is vhal is coIIecled.
5ccurity:
Informalion avaiIabIe lo users vho
need il.
Rcspnnsc timc:
$%&'()*+,'% (/+(,/;*2 &(') (/E6/5+ +'
deIivery is reasonabIe lime.
Accuracy:
Whal is coIIecled is vhal is enlered.
On-!inc:
$%&'()*+,'% 0*% :/ *00/55/7 &(')
user's vorkslalion.
Up-tn-datc:
Informalion is currenl.
Bug-Ircc:
Whal is enlered is vhal is reorled.
Barricr-Ircc:
$%&'()*+,'% ,% %'+ (/E6/5+/7
lhrough anolher.
Wnrk nw:
?*+* /%+(4 +' ,%&'()*+,'% '6+86+ ,5
ecienl.
Uti!ity:
Whal is enlered can be used for
informalion.
Equipmcnt:
Aroriale hardvare for informa<
lion rocessing for user.
Rc!iab!c:
Informalion is avaiIabIe vhen
needed.
hov are records secured from unaulhorized use`
hov are records rolecled from ossibIe hre/
valer damage (disasler conlroI)`
vho is aulhorized lo use lhe records`
hov Iong shouId records be relained (relenlion
scheduIe) consislenl vilh IegaI requiremenls`
vho is resonsibIe for managing lhe records
syslem` and
hov can records be managed more economi<
caIIy or ecienlIy`
The ma|or arks and recrealion business informalion
syslems faII inlo lhree cIassihcalions:
+(*%5*0+,'% 8('0/55,%3 545+/)5H545+/)5 +1*+
lrack lhe delaiIs of lransaclions vilh lhe ubIic,
545+/)5 ,%0267/ *0+,;,+4 (/3,5+(*+,'%= &*0,2,+4
501/762,%3 *%7 )/):/(51,8 545+/)5= +' %*)/
a fev,
vork managemenl syslemslhose syslems lhal
are used for vork orders, vork requesls, inven<
lories, limekeeing and ro|ecl managemenl,
syslems incIude lhose lhal comule moving
scheduIes, riorilize vork requesls submiued
by cenler direclors, and comule lhe lime il viII
lake for a simIe conslruclion ro|ecl, such as
:6,27,%3 * 51/2+/( '( 82*43('6%7A *%7
0*5/ )*%*3/)/%+ 545+/)5H+1'5/ 545+/)5 +1*+
lrack informalion regarding a secihc erson
'( 0*5/ /;/%+ 5601 *5 +1/ (/0'(75 *55'0,*+/7
vilh lheraeulic recrealion lheraisls vorking
vilh cIienls or lhose records associaled vilh a
ark ranger soIving a vandaIism case vilhin
a ark.
C7),%,5+(*+,;/ 545+/)5 *(/ +1'5/ +1*+ 8(';,7/
*55,5+*%0/ +' +1/ '8/(*+,'%*2 7,;,5,'%5 *%7 '+1/( *3/%04
suorl funclions. They shouId incIude al Ieasl e-maiI,
hnanciaI, ersonneI and rogram records, roerly
invenlories, IegaI documenls, and accidenl reorls.
See Chalers 19 and 20 for delaiIs regarding hnanciaI
records, ersonneI records are dehned in Chalers 16,
17, and 18, and records needed eseciaIIy for Ianning
are discussed in Chalers 7, 8, and 11. An informalion/
7'06)/%+*+,'% 545+/) &'( (,5> )*%*3/)/%+ ,5 /55/%+,*2
(see Chaler 21, Risk Managemenl).
The Internet
The Inlernel is a Iace lhal aIIovs ark and recrealion
dearlmenls lo reach beyond lheir vaIIs lo conducl
business, communicale vilh eoIe, erform research,
and rovide informalion aboul rograms and services.
In 1969, lhe Dearlmenl of Defense (DOD) inilialed
an exerimenl lo connecl DOD and a number of
miIilary research conlraclors, lhrough a ro|ecl caIIed
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1.
2.
3.
ARIANIT in 1969. A Iarge number of universilies
doing miIilary-funded research vere iniliaIIy invoIved
in lhis exerimenl lo rovide a means lo reroule infor<
malion lhrough a syslem of nelvorks Iinked in case of
an enemy auack (Levine & aroudi, 1994). The auack
never occurred, bul lhe exerimenl roved lo be a suc<
cess: lhe Inlernel vas born. A nev vay lo disseminale
informalion across nelvorks using Inlernel IrolocoI
(II) vas crealed.
The II is lhe lechnicaI scheme lhal enabIes ackels
'& ,%&'()*+,'% +' :/ ('6+/7 &(') '%/ 1'5+ +' *%'+1/(
*5 %/0/55*(4= (/3*(72/55 '& +1/ 0')86+/( 0(/*+,%3 +1/
originaI ackel of informalion. The Inlernel is acluaIIy
a gIobaI coIIeclion of nelvorks lhal ass lhese ackels
+' /*01 '+1/( 65,%3 +1,5 6%,;/(5*2 2*%36*3/= *%7 '+1/(
2*%36*3/5 +1*+ 1*;/ ://% 0(/*+/7 5,%0/ +1/ '(,3,%*2
design, such as Transmission ConlroI IrolocoI/Inlernel
IrolocoI (TCI/II). The Inlernel is lhe molher of aII nel<
vorks. Il is a coIIeclion of lhousands of sub nelvorks in
more lhan 90 counlries around lhe vorId. The Inlernel
aIIovs olhervise incomalibIe comuler syslems or
nelvorks of comulers lo laIk lo one anolher, seak a
0'))'% 2*%36*3/= *%7 +' +(*%5),+ *%7 (/0/,;/ 7*+* ;,*
7/7,0*+/7= 1,31<58//7 +/2/0'))6%,0*+,'%5 2,%/5 65,%3
numericaI addresses. This mega-nelvork is aIso knovn
as lhe WorId Wide Web, or Web.
Some fealures of lhe Inlernel have increased
$%+/(%/+ 65/ :4 /%+,+,/5 ,% +1/ 86:2,0 5/0+'(= 8(,;*+/<&'(<
rohl seclor, commerciaI seclor, and rivale, nonrohl
seclor:
soflvare aIicalions caIIed |rcuscrs (such
as Microsoh Inlernel IxIorer and Nelscae
Navigalor) aIIov individuaIs lo viev and
exIore muIlimedia informalion on lhe Web, lhe
Web brovsers inlerreled lhe hyerlexl marku
Ianguage (HTML) and disIayed lhe documenls
as Web ages, as of December 2008, Inlernel
IxIorer and Iirefox vere ranked as lhe num<
ber one brovsers (see hu://vvv.v3schooIs.
com/brovsers/brovsers_slals.as ),
overfuI scarcn cngincs make hnding infor<
malion easier, Search looIs, such as Archie,
Goher, Veronica, }ughead, and WebcravIer,
vere reIaced vilh MageIIan, Ixcile, Lycos,
*%7 $%&'5//>A +'7*4= 65/(5 *(/ 3/%/(*224 )'(/
famiIiar vilh Live Search, GoogIe, Yahoo!
Search, and Ask.com,
|nicrnci Scrticc Prcti!crs (|SP) 5/+ 68 51'8 +'
connecl eoIe vilh lhe Inlernel, subscribers
8*4 * )'7/5+ 0'5+ +' *00/55 +1/ $%+/(%/+A 0')8*<
%,/5 *%7 (/0(/*+,'%= 8*(> *%7 2/,56(/ *3/%0,/5
vanled a prcscncc cn inc nci because lhey sav lhe
markeling olenliaI of lhis medium and |oined
+1/ )';/ +' +1/ $%+/(%/+A
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|-iratc| (/;'26+,'%,9/7 +1/ 1'58,+*2,+4 ,%765+(4
+' ,%0267/ *,(2,%/= (/%+*2 0*(= 1'+/2= (/5+*6(*%+
*%7 /%+/(+*,%)/%+A
|-ccnncrcc aIIoved lhe secure lransfer of
)'%/4 /2/0+('%,0*224 +' /%*:2/ :65,%/55
lransaclions, a vide variely of commerce is
conducled in lhis vay vilh eIeclronic funds
+(*%5&/(= $%+/(%/+ )*(>/+,%3= /2/0+('%,0 7*+*
,%+/(01*%3/= ,%;/%+'(4 )*%*3/)/%+ 545+/)5=
*%7 *6+')*+/7 7*+* 0'22/0+,'% 545+/)5A
uikis 1*;/ 8(';,7/7 * &'(6) &'( * 3('68 '&
$%+/(%/+ 65/(5 +' 0'22*:'(*+/= 0(/*+/= )*,%+*,%=
*%7 ;/(,&4 +1/ *6+1/%+,0,+4 '& ,%&'()*+,'% +'
be shared vilh lhe masses, Wikiedia, lhe
&(// /%0402'8/7,* *+ hu://en.vikiedia.org/
viki/Wikiedia, is an examIe of one of lhese
&'(6)5 ,% *0+,'%A 5,+/5 5601 *5 +1,5 0*% :/ 65/7
lo coIIaboraliveIy dehne lerms, udale hislori<
0*2 ,%&'()*+,'% *:'6+ 8*(>5 *%7 )'%6)/%+5=
'( )*>/ 56))*(4 (/8'(+5 '& +1/ 5+*+/ '& 2/,56(/
in lhe Uniled Slales and beyond,
ti!cc cr au!ic sircaning ,5 * +/01%'2'34 +1*+
0')8(/55/5 *%7 +(*%58'(+5 +1/ ;,7/' '( *67,'
media hIe such lhal lhere is IiuIe dislorlion, and
+1/ E6*2,+4 '& +1/ ;,7/' '( *67,' *%7 1,31A .1,5
deIivery melhod is a greal vay for geuing nevs
*%7 +(*,%,%3 +' * ;*(,/+4 '& *67,/%0/5= ,%<1'65/
*%7 :/4'%7A
lhe Inlernel is nov lhe number one carrier
'& c-nai|, ,% )*%4 0*5/5= +1/ $%+/(%/+ 1*5 *25'
:/0')/ +1/ *00/55 8',%+ &'( 81'%/ 5/(;,0/ *%7
7,3,+*2 ;',0/<)*,2 0/%+/(5= :'+1 ,% 1')/ *%7 ,%
:65,%/55 /%;,('%)/%+5A
* uc|inar is a lechnoIogy lhal aIIovs a number of
8/'82/ +' 8*(+,0,8*+/ ,% * 2,;/ +(*,%,%3 8('3(*)
'% +1/ $%+/(%/+ +1*+ ,%0267/5 *67,' *%7 ;,7/' '&
a comuler vorkslalion from lhe resenler, il is
lyicaIIy one-vay from lhe seaker lo lhe audi<
ence, vilh Iimiled audience inleraclion (veb<
casl), a vebinar can be coIIaboralive, by aIIoving
for queslion and ansver sessions belveen lhe
audience and lhe resenler, vilh added confer<
/%0/ 81'%/5= )'(/ ,%+/(*0+,'% ,5 &/*5,:2/ &'(
lraining or beuer informalion exchanges,
Skye.com and ooVoo.com are sohvare lech<
noIogies lhal aIIov users from around lhe gIobe
+' 0'%%/0+ 65,%3 +1/ $%+/(%/+ &'( pcini-ic-pcini
ti!cc pncnc ca||s an! PC ic pncnc ca||s as veII
as inslanl messaging, hIe lransfer, and video
0'%&/(/%0,%3 0*225 +' '+1/( 65/(5 '& +1/ 5/(;,0/
and lo free-of-charge numbers, vhiIe caIIs lo
olher IandIines (convenlionaI leIehones) and
)':,2/ 81'%/5 0*% :/ )*7/ &'( * &//A
pc!casiing aIIovs muIlimedia conlenl lo be
crealed in one Iocalion (such as a Ieclure or a
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vorksho) and dislribuled across lhe Inlernel
lo be Iayed on demand on a comuler (IC
or mobiIe) or media Iayer device, such as an
MI3 Iayer, an iIod, a Web-enhanced hone,
or orlabIe dala assislanl (IDA),
siles such as Iacebook and MySace, are free-
*00/55 sccia| nciucrking Web siles lhal can nov
be used as vorkIace nelvorks lo share infor<
)*+,'% *:'6+ 2/,56(/ 8('3(*)5 *%7 5/(;,0/5 +'
* 32':*2 )*(>/+A
ti!cc ccnjcrcncing, such as GoToMeeling, is
* +/01%'2'34 +1*+ 0'))6%,0*+/5 *67,' *%7
;,7/' &'( * 2,;/ )//+,%3 5' +1*+ 8*(+,0,8*%+5 0*%
5// /*01 '+1/( *%7 )*+/(,*25 :/,%3 7,50655/7A ,%
5')/ 0*5/5= +1/ 0'%&/(/%0,%3 ,5 &(') '%/ 1'5+
5,+/ +' )*%4 5,+/5= *%7 ,% 5')/ 0*5/5 &(') 7/5><
lo ICs lo desklo ICs, using aIicalions,
such as Adobe Iresenler, can aIIov voice-over
%*((*+,'% *%7 )62+,)/7,* 0'%+/%+ +' +(*%5&'()
IoverIoinl resenlalions inlo rich exeriences
lhal audiences can viev al lheir convenience,
insiani ncssaging (|M) ,5 * &'() '& (/*2<+,)/
0'))6%,0*+,'%A +1/ 65/( ,5 /%*:2/7 +' 5/%7
shorl lexl or lyed messages across lhe Inlernel,
many IM services have begun lo oer video
conferencing fealures (Voice Over II or VoII)
and Web conferencing services, Web conferenc<
,%3 5/(;,0/5 ,%+/3(*+/ :'+1 ;,7/' 0'%&/(/%0,%3
and IM caabiIilies,
c|ccircnic auciicn siics (Ibay.com, Amazon.com,
GoodviII.com, elc.) are used lo verify rices
&'( ,+/)5= 2'0*+/ 8*(+5 &'( '6+7*+/7 /E6,8<
menl, and hns seciaIized suIies or ilems,
,% 5')/ 0*5/5= +1/ 5,+/5 5633/5+ )*(>/+,%3 *%7
(/;/%6/<8('760,%3 5+(*+/3,/5 &'( 7/8*(+)/%+5
+' /)62*+/A
|SS jcc!s *(/ (/82*0,%3 +1/ '27 2,5+5/(; *5 *
)/+1'7 '& 8651,%3 ,%&'()*+,'% ,% +1/ &'()
of an e-maiI lo eIeclronic maiI boxes, inslead
'& (/0/,;,%3 *% /<)*,2 +1*+ ,5 0,(062*+/7 &(') *
2,5+5/(;/= 65/(5 (/0/,;/ * %'+,0/ +1*+ +1/ ,%&'()*<
lion exisls, and
||cg siics *(/ 8'5+,%35 7,582*4/7 ,% (/;/(5/
01('%'2'3,0*2 '(7/( 65,%3 0'%;/(5*+,'%*2
slyIe vilh lexl, hyerlexl, images, and Iinks.
$%7,;,76*25 *0('55 (/3,'%5= '( /;/% 0'%+,%/%+5=
can share vievs or informalion for coIIeclive
exchanges.
.1/ $%+/(%/+ ,5 +1/ )'5+ 65/7 *%7 ;/(5*+,2/ '& +1/
+/01%'2'3,/5 &'( *22 '(3*%,9*+,'%5= 8(,;*+/ *%7 86:2,0=
business and Ieisure. Il rovides service and rogram
funclions, exlernaI communicalion, and relrievaI of
,%&'()*+,'% 65/&62 ,% +1/ *7),%,5+(*+,'% '& +1/ '(3*<
nizalion. Mosl siles aIso have Iinks, vhich give
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more sources of informalion. (Nole: Web siles and
Web addressesknovn as uniform resource Iocalors
(URLs)may change!) Many organizalions have lheir
ovn Inlernel siles, and use lhem lo rovide lhe ubIic
vilh informalion regarding lhe organizalion.
Organizalions use lhe Inlernel:
as a gIobaI looI for communicalions (lo conlacl
a erson in anolher Iocalion),
*5 * )/*%5 +' 0'22*:'(*+/ +' 5'2;/ 8(':2/)5H
F%/+5G '( F2,5+5G 5/+ 68 :4 '(3*%,9*+,'%5 &'(
members or lhose inleresled in a secihc loic
+' ':+*,% ,%&'()*+,'% '% * 3,;/% 8(':2/) 5,+6*<
lionfor examIe, lhe SIRINIT Iisl (2,5+5/(;J
Iislserv.uga.edu), and lhe Iisl of lhe NalionaI
Recrealion and Iark Associalion (NRIANIT)
(hu://Iisls.nra.org/maiIman/Iislinfo/nranel),
As a markeling looI for lhe organizalion, (nol
'%24 &'( *7;/(+,5,%3 * 5/(;,0/ '( 8('760+=
:6+ *25' +' )*>/ (/5/(;*+,'%5= '( 86(01*5/ *
roducl), for examIe, WiIderness Science &
Managemenl al lhe Universily of Idaho (hu://
vvv.cnr.uidaho.edu/viIderness/),
as a vay lo secure lhe Ialesl informalion on a
loic or a lrend, for examIe, lhe Web cenler
for sociaI research melhods by WiIIiam M.K.
Trochim (hu://vvv.sociaIresearchmelhods.
nel/) and lhe iuerrool Icosyslem Managemenl
Research Iro|ecl (hu://vvv.fs.fed.us/rm/eco
arlner/),
*5 * 5'6(0/ &'( 3';/(%)/%+ 7'06)/%+5 '(
ociaI slalislics, for examIe, lhe Americans
vilh DisabiIilies Acl (hll://vvv.|an.vvu.
edu/Iinks/adaIinks.hlm),
as a means lo urchase/order oce suIies,
books, or roducls, such as hu://vvv.oce
deol.com/,
as a communicalions media vilh consumers,
vilh ubIic access for regislralion, reservalions,
'( 0'))6%,0*+,'% :*0> +' +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'%=
such as hu://bIoominglon.in.gov/documenls/
vievDocumenl.h`documenl_id2471,
*5 * 8('&/55,'%*2 '(3*%,9*+,'% 0'%+*0+ &'( ,%&'(<
malion, services, and roducls, for examIe,
lhe Canadian Associalion for Leisure Sludies,
hu://vvv.caIs.uvalerIoo.ca/,
as a conlacl vilh federaI or slale organizalions,
for examIe, USDA Ioresl Service: hu://vvv.
fs.fed.usA
as a Iink lo olher informalion, for examIe,
Michigan Slale Universily, Del. of Iark,
Recrealion & Tourism Resources: hus://vvv.
carrs.msu.edu/A *%7
*5 * )/*%5 +' +(*,% /)82'4//5 *+ +1/,( 7/5>5= &'(
examIe hu://vvv.desklolraining.co.uk/.
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Does lhis eIeclronic medium oer soIulions for lhe
recrealion, ark and Ieisure heId` Or do lhe advanlages
of lhis medium oulveigh lhe cosls and lhe inherenl
8(':2/)5 '& ;,(65/5= 6%50(6862'65 ;/%7'(5= )*(>/+,%3
scams, and so on` The queslions may be irreIevanl, as
+1/ 65/ '& +/2/0'))6%,0*+,'%5 1*5 :/0')/ )'(/ *%7
more acceled as lhe norm in lhe vorkIace and in
commerce. See Ixhibil 14.3 regarding lhe grovlh of
e-commerce. According lo Iorresler Research (hu://
vvv.sescommerce.com/ecommerce-grovlh.as), U.S.
on-Iine relaiI sending reached $175 biIIion in 2007 and
is execled lo grov lo anolher $335 biIIion by 2012.
(See vork by erliI Lindberg al hu://home.earlhIink.
nel/-Iindberg_b/GICGrvlh.hlm &'( *77,+,'%*2 ,%&'(<
malion on lhe grovlh of e-commerce.)
The number of Webheads, eoIe vho use lhe
Inlernel, is groving daiIy. In Augusl 2003, 173,100, 000
Americans vere on Iine, and by }une 2008, 220,141,969
Americans vere on Iine (NieIsen/NelRalings, as ciled al
Inlernel WorId Slals). Of lhe lo len Ianguages soken
vorIdvide, IngIish seakers are more IikeIy lo be users
of lhe Inlernel. In order of usage, lhe lo len Ianguages
reresenl 84.9 ercenl of Inlernel users and are rere<
senled as foIIovs: IngIish (29.4 ercenl of vorIdvide
users), Chinese (18.0 ercenl), Sanish (8.5 ercenl),
}aanese (6.4 ercenl), Irench (4.7 ercenl), German
(4.2 ercenl), Arabic (4.1 ercenl), Iorluguese (4.0
ercenl), Korean (2.4 ercenl): and IlaIian (2.4 ercenl)
(See hu://vvv.inlernelvorIdslals.com/slals14.hlm ).
ased on dala from Inlernel Syslems Consorlium, Inc.
(hu://vvv.isc.org/), loday lhere are over 72 miIIion
aclive domains or hosls (.com, .nel, .org, .info, .biz, .us)
on lhe Inlernel, a big dierence from Iess lhan 10 years
ago, vhen lhe overaII number vas |usl over 193,000
(.com, .nel, .org). (See Ixhibil 14.4).
So does lhis mean lhal recrealion, ark, and Ieisure
agencies shouId shy avay from lhe use of lhe Inlernel`
No more lhan ve shouId avoid using lhe friendIy
YeIIov Iages lo do searches, lo coIIaborale vilh olh<
ers, lo do mass markeling, and so on. Il means lhal ve
shouId be informed users vho la lhe ossibiIilies of lhe
Inlernel and do nol faII rey lo some of lhe ilfaIIs. The
number of siles lhal have been reared |usl lo address
hov lo evaIuale maleriaIs on lhe Inlernel serves as a
varning of lhe eriIs lhal may exisl. See lhe foIIoving
as examIes:
hu://info.Iib.uh.edu/r/v8/n3/smil8n3.hlmI,
hu://vvv.vuv.ac.nz / sla / aIaslair_smilh / evaIn /
evaIn.hlm,
hu://vvv.IIrx.com/fealures/vebevaI.hlm, and
hu://vvv.bcs.org / oces / Iis / modeIs / lis / evaI.
hlmI.
ul dierences do exisl belveen our friendIy
YeIIov Iages and lhe Inlernel, as shovn in Ixhibil 14.5.
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Intranets and Organizational
Communication
An inlranel is basicaIIy a rivale Inlernel. Inlranel
+/01%'2'34 ,5 &6%7*)/%+*224 +1/ 5*)/ *5 $%+/(%/+ +/01<
noIogy, aII based around HTML and hyerlexl lransfer
rolocoI (HTTI). Hyerlexl describes lhe abiIily lo
|um around a lexl documenl by choosing keyvords,
or anchors, as lhey are caIIed in HTML.
.1/ ,%+(*%/+ ,5 +1/ )/+1'7 '& ,)82/)/%+,%3
vhal vas once caIIed lhe aerIess oce. y using
inlranel lechnoIogy, couIed vilh cuslom rogram<
),%3 *%7 ,%+/(&*0/5= *% /%+,(/ '(3*%,9*+,'% 0*% :/ (6%
using IiuIe lo no aer. esides being environmenlaIIy
5'6%7= ,%+(*%/+ +/01%'2'34 )*>/5 ,+ /*5,/( +' )*%*3/
*%7 1*%72/ +1/ ;*5+ *)'6%+ '& ,%&'()*+,'% %/0/55*(4
lo run even lhe smaIIesl business. On lhe olher end of
lhe seclrum, inlranel lechnoIogy is inhnileIy scaIabIe
aII lhe vay lo muIlinalionaI cororalions, by using vari<
ous dislribuled comuling lechnoIogies. In ScousdaIe,
C(,9'%*= *% ,%+(*%/+ ,5 65/7 +' 0'%%/0+ +1/ (/0(/*+,'%
cenler vilh lhe mainlenance comound. This has
reduced aervork and increased lhe quaIily of com<
municalion belveen lhe lvo faciIilies.
.1/ ,%&'()*+,'% '% +1/ ,%+(*%/+ ,5 nci &'( 065+')<
ers lo see. Il is comrised of adminislralive informalion
mainlained by each seclion in lhe organizalion (each
dearlmenl in lhe governmenl). The inlerface lo access
lhis informalion (lhe brovser) is lhe same inlerface
used for lhe Inlernel. Wilh brovsers inslaIIed on each
comuler and Web siles deveIoed for each seclion, an
'(3*%,9*+,'% 0*% )*,%+*,% *%7 65/ ,%&'()*+,'% ;/(4
inexensiveIy. Inlranels oerale on lhe inlernaI nelvork
making erformance beuer lhan lhe Inlernel. Inlranels
are used for, bul nol Iimiled lo, lhe foIIoving:
7'06)/%+ )*%*3/)/%+A
7/8*(+)/%+*2 +(*,%,%3A
8'2,0,/5 *%7 8('0/76(/5A
0'(8'(*+/ 7,(/0+'(,/5A *%7
sharing of cuIluraI norms and vaIues vilhin
lhe organizalion.
TyicaI organizalionaI inlranels have |ob osl<
,%35= /)82'4// 1*%7:''>5= 0*2/%7*(5 '& /;/%+5= *%7
olher informalion secihc lo organizalion funclions.
B
B
B
B
B
C%'+1/( 0')8'%/%+ '& +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'% ,%+(*%/+ ,5 +1/
emIoyee area. Many limes, organizalions viII aIIocale
a orlion of lhe inlranel for sla lo osl ilems for saIe,
reliremenl arlies, or ersonaI announcemenls (birlhs,
dealhs, veddings, elc.). This sorl of use adds a human
louch lo lechnoIogy.
Electronic Messaging
According lo IIeclronic Messaging Associalion
(Comuler Lav Associalion, 1996), lhe ro|ecled
grovlh er year in lhe use of eIeclronic maiI viII con<
linue al 19 ercenl and above |usl for cororale America.
These hgures do nol incIude lhe educalion, govern<
menl, and consumer users lhal make u 80 ercenl of
olenliaI users.
ul messaging refers lo more lhan eIeclronic
maiI. ||ccircnic ncssaging (/&/(/%0/5 +1/ 0'22/0+,;/ +/01<
noIogies lhal enabIe one erson lo communicale vilh
anolher using a number of chosen mediums, such as:
/<)*,2A
faxing,
aging (aIha, digilaI, and voice),
radio (broadband),
leIehone (non-vireIess),
leIehone (ceIIuIar),
inlercom (ubIic address),
inlercom (leIehone),
8651 +/01%'2'34A
2,5+ 5/(;/(5A
aulomaled voice resonse (AVR),
fax-back,
*0+,;*+/7 >,'5>5A
'%<2,%/ 01*+ )'7/A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.3
Worldwide E-commerce Growth
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 pcrccnt nI tnta! sa!cs
TolaI ($ ) $657.0 $1,233.6 $2,231.2 $3,979.7 $6,789.8 8.6 ercenl
Norlh America $509.3 $908.6 $1,498.2 $2,339.0 $3,456.4 12.8 ercenl
Scurcc. Iorresler Research, 2004
Exhibit 14.4
Users of the Internet
Selember, 1996 19.2 M
Selember, 1997 25.3 M
Augusl, 2003 173.1 M
}une, 2008 220.1 M
Ciled from hu://vvv.inlernelvorIdslals.com/slals14.hlm
brovsing,
;,7/' 0'%&/(/%0,%3A
Iiclure-TeI, and
many more.
ul be avare lhal various fealures of lhe e-maiI
syslem require lhe urchase of addilionaI sohvare
and hardvare. The comIexily of lhe e-maiI syslem
viII require an exerl lo inslaII and mainlain il. As il
:/0')/5 )'(/ ,)8'(+*%+ +' 7*4<+'<7*4 '8/(*+,'%5=
more resources viII be required lo suorl il (assisl<
ing users, adminislralion, configuring users, elc).
Spanning, 65,%3 /2/0+('%,0 )/55*3/ 545+/)5 +' 5/%7
6%5'2,0,+/7 :62> )/55*3/5= *%7 aning= 8'5+,%3 7/2,:<
/(*+/24 1'5+,2/ )/55*3/5 '% +1/ $%+/(%/+ '( *% ,%+(*%/+=
0*% :/0')/ * 8(':2/). IoIicies regarding lhe use,
abuse, and rivale nalure of e-maiI musl be eslabIished.
Securily couId be a robIem. Some businesses viev
e-maiI as an eIeclronic signalure or aulhorizalion. Il is
8'55,:2/ +' ),5(/8(/5/%+ *% *3/%04 :4 65,%3 *%'+1/(@5
e-maiI lo order services.
B
B
B
B
The mosl videIy used iece of lechnoIogy in lhe
oce is lhe leIehone. The communicalions induslry
has grovn lo rovide high-seed services for dala com<
municalion lo connecl comulers. The combinalion of
;',0/ *%7 7*+* &6%0+,'%5 1*5 2/7 +' +1/ 7/;/2'8)/%+
of a vorIdvide nelvork of communicalion services.
.1,5 +/01%'2'34 )*>/5 ,+ 8'55,:2/ &'( %*+,'%*2 *%7
,%+/(%*+,'%*2 0')8*%,/5 +' 8(';,7/ 5/(;,0/5 +' 65/(5
vilhoul regard lo Iocalion. AirIine reservalion syslems
and aulomalic leIIer machines are good examIes of lhe
successfuI use of lhese lechnoIogies.
.1/ 7,50,82,%/ '& 7*+* 0'))6%,0*+,'%5 1*5 ,%+('<
duced a nev sel of lechnoIogy robIems. ReIiabiIily in
connecling lvo comulers for Iong eriods vas dicuIl
lo achieve. usiness and governmenl inslaIIed seciaI<
ized viring syslems vilhin lheir buiIdings lo accom<
modale comuler access. Ingineers had lo move a vasl
amounl of dala from oinl lo oinl vilhoul Iosing any of
lhe ieces. A number of comanies emerged during lhe
1990s lo meel lhe secihc needs of high-seed dala users.
This has Ied lo a gIobaI nelvork of high-seed dala Iines.
Exhibit 14.5
Comparison of Friendly Yellow Pages and the Internet
5TEP Our Fricnd!y Yc!!nw Pagcs Thc Intcrnct
1 $& 4'6 *(/ 5//>,%3 * 56882,/( &'( * 58/0,*2 8('760+=
lhe hrsl search is generaIIy lo lhe YeIIov Iages of
your friendIy leIehone book. If you knov exaclIy
vhal you vanl, you can quickIy narrov your search
lo a fev secihc loics lo relrieve informalion on a
vendor lhal may suIy lhe roducl you seek.
.1/(/ *(/ * ),22,'% *%7 '%/ 8('760+5= '( ,% +1,5 0*5/=
:,+5 *%7 8,/0/5 '& ,%&'()*+,'%= &'( +1/ 065+')/( +'
search. Using lhe search engines, il is anlicialed
lhal lhe search can be narroved and a sile can be
5/2/0+/7 +1*+ :/5+ (/8(/5/%+5 +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% +1*+
you are seeking. ul, as vilh our friendIy YeIIov
Iages, ilems are nol aIvays named as ve anliciale
lhe ilems shouId be named and ohen are nol found
in lhe calegories vhere ve hoe lo hnd lhem.
2 I%0/ 4'6 1*;/ 2'0*+/7 +1/ 8('760+= 4'6 )65+ +1/%
seIecl a comany vhich you feeI can besl rovide lhe
quaIily of roducl you are seeking. You may scan
ages lo hnd a name lhal Ieases you or a name lhal
is famiIiar, or Iook al lhe ads and read lhe hne rinl,
or |usl ick a name al random because il aeared
hrsl or Iasl on lhe Iisl.
As vilh our friendIy YeIIov Iages, once ve have
arrived al a sel of ilems lhal aears lo be vhal ve
vanl, il is dicuIl lo delermine from lhe Iayoul
'& +1/ 8*3/= '( +1/ 82*0/)/%+ '& +1/ 8*3/= +1*+ +1/
,%&'()*+,'% 8(/5/%+/7 ,5 &*0+6*2 *%7 0*% :/ +*>/%
al face vaIue.
! IvenluaIIy you viII narrov your search lo a fev
agencies lhal you may vish lo caII and ask queslions
+' ;/(,&4 +1/4 *(/ 5+,22 ,% :65,%/55 *%7 *(/ ,%7//7
Iegilimale.
Misinformalion, using a variely of muIlimedia lech<
niques (such as animaled images, morhing vhere
,)*3/5 +(*%5,+,'% &(') '%/ &'() +' *%'+1/(= '( /;/%
coIor and sound), can aIler lhe ercelion of lhe
viever. The informalion Iaced on lhe Inlernel is
onIy as reIiabIe as lhe eoIe vho are Iacing lhe
informalion lhere, much Iike our friendIy YeIIov
Iages.
4 IinaIIy you viII seIecl your vendor and Iace your
'(7/(
Nov lhere are many rivale and ubIic communicalion
nelvork comanies comeling for comuler users.
Wilh knovIedge doubIing every 17 monlhs (CalIeu,
1995, ryan, 1998), il has become necessary lo devise
|usl-in-lime soIulions for a muIlilude of recrealion and
ark crises. The roIiferalion of informalion has crealed
a dala smog, comosed of messages by leIehone, fax,
e-maiI, voice maiI, and agers. Communicalion aIone has
been sucienl |uslihcalion for organizalions lo invesl in
IT. Iark and recrealion ersonneI do nol aII vork lhe lra<
dilionaI 8 a.m. lo 5 .m. shihs, aIso, lhey vork in diverse
Iocalions. To gel imorlanl nolices, announcemenls, and
olher informalion inlo lhe hands of sla, eIeclronic maiI
has been lhe looI of choice. Via lhis looI, sla members
1*;/ ://% *:2/ +' 0'))6%,0*+/ )'(/ (/2,*:24= ,% * +,)/24
manner, and vilh Iess eorl lhan vilh normaI inlernaI
rouling. ul messaging refers lo more lhan eIeclronic
maiI. ||ccircnic ncssaging ,5 +1/ 0'22/0+,;/ +/01%'2'34 +1*+
enabIes one erson lo communicale vilh anolher.
To lhe user loday, lhe dislinclion belveen lhe voice
and dala Iines is being bIurred vilh nev ic|cpncnq +/01%'2<
'3,/5. The hone Iine is nov caabIe of sending messages
around lhe vorId in vhalever medium or lechnoIogy
end users seIecl. IeoIe are connecled 7 days a veek,
24 hours a day, somelimes Iive (leIehone and chauing)
and somelimes deIayed (e-maiI or v-maiI). As lhe messag<
,%3 0')8'%/%+ )';/5 +' 0'%76,+5 5601 *5 0*:2/= +1/ 58//7
'& 8('0/55,%3 +1/ /;/(<,%0(/*5,%3 *)'6%+5 '& ,%&'()*+,'%
increases, as veII as lhe demands for inslanl service or
inslanl gralihcalion of execlalions. The roIe of man<
agemenl is lo sorl oul vhal is necessary for business and
vhal sla members, lhe generaI ubIic, and cuslomers
have come lo execl as slandard business looIs needed for
communicalion, robIem soIving, and markeling.
C5 8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'%5 /;'2;/
+/01%'2'3,0*224= +1/4 *7'8+ * %6):/( '& )/55*3,%3
lechnoIogies. Iach lechnoIogy has a urose, funclion,
and cosl (bolh direcl and indirecl). The benehls of each
vary vilh lhe funclion lhey serve. The leIehone is sliII
+1/ 0'))6%,0*+,'% +''2 '& 01',0/ :4 :65,%/55/5 *('6%7
lhe gIobe. Since il lransmils over lhe hone Iines, as lhe
$%+/(%/+ :/0')/5 )'(/ 8'862*( +1/ 7/)*%7 &'( )'(/
leIehone services increases. olh high-seed and
;',0/<3(*7/ +/2/81'%/ 5/(;,0/5 1*;/ ,%0(/*5/7 7(*)*+,<
caIIy in lhe Iasl fev years lo accommodale lhe services
eoIe demand, such as:
*281* 8*3,%3 545+/)5A
aulomaled leIIer machines (ATMs),
0(/7,+ 0*(7 ;*2,7*+,'%A
fax machines,
Inlernel access lo ISIs,
more adminislralive Iine cosls auribuled lo IT
5/06(,+4 545+/)5A *%7
uliIily moniloring syslems.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Tracking leIehone charges in lhe asl vas easy.
There vas one charge for monlhIy use, one charge for
inslaIIalion, and delaiIed charges for Iong dislance.
.'7*4= * +/2/81'%/ :,22 0*% 0'%+*,% %6)/('65 5/(;,0/5
(caII vailing, caII forvarding, voice maiI, caIIer ID,
elc.). The Iong dislance service may come from severaI
roviders on one biII. Many ISI roviders require lhal
biIIing be a arl of lhe hone biII (lo decrease maiIing
cosls and guaranlee coIIeclions). In an organizalion
vilh numerous hone Iines, il is very dicuIl lo manage
cosls. Hovever, lhere musl be a syslem lo monilor Iine
0'5+5= ,% '(7/( +' /%56(/ +/2/81'%/ 2,%/5 *(/ %'+ 3',%3
unused or being abused.
Il is lhe lrend of many nev managers loday lo
1*;/ 7,(/0+ *%7 ,))/7,*+/ *00/55 +' 8/'82/ *%7 5/(<
vices. There is a cosl for issuing agers and ceII hones
lo emIoyees lo kee lhem in louch vilh cuslomers
and one anolher vhen in heId Iocalions, such as for
mainlenance caIIs, moniloring a crovd, al an alhIelic
heId, or as an emergency communicalion, elc. Ohen,
0')82,0*+/7 8'2,0,/5 *(/ 7/;/2'8/7 +' 8(/;/%+ *:65/A
consequenlIy, sla refuses lo use agers because of lhe
hassIe faclor. There musl be cIear business reasons for
issuing such devices and a reasonabIe execlalion for
use. These devices shouId aIso be monilored, logelher
vilh lhe hone Iines.
Voice maiI caabiIilies shouId be rovided lo sla
members vho execl caIIs from vendors, olher dearl<
menls, or organizalion sla members. IubIished hone
numbers (vhile ages) are designaled ubIic numbers.
.1/5/ *(/ 0'%5,7/(/7 ca|| pcinis= )/*%,%3 +1/ 8/(5'%
ansvering lhe hone shouId be reared lo assisl lhe
0*22/( '( :/ *:2/ +' ('6+/ +1/ 0*22 +' +1/ 8('8/( 5/0+,'%
vilhin lhe organizalion. Voice maiI usuaIIy shouId be
checked frequenlIy on ubIished numbers.
Some Iarger organizalions use a ca|| ccnicr
aroach lo handIing lhe ubIic. In a caII cenler, ansver<
ing lhe hone is lhe number one lask. CaII cenler vork<
ers have comuler equimenl lhal aIIovs lhem lo access
lhe informalion necessary lo assisl lhe caIIer. The ubIic
7,*25 '%/ %6):/(= *%7 +1/ 0*225 *(/ 2'33/7 65,%3 *%
aulomaled caII dislribulion (ACD) syslem. This syslem
,5 * +''2 65/7 +' 36*(*%+// 8(')8+ 5/(;,0/ &'( 0*22/(5 *%7
lime managemenl for caII cenler ersonneI.
C% *2+/(%*+,;/ +' +1/ 0*22 0/%+/( ,5 *% auicnaic!
tcicc rcspcnsc (AV|) sqsicn lo roule caIIs. TyicaIIy, a
065+')/( 0*225 * 0/%+(*2 %6):/( *%7 3/+5 *% *6+')*+/7
resonse, such as lhe one oulIined in Ixhibil 14.6. AVR
545+/)5 *(/ 3''7 &'( 50(//%,%3 *%7 ('6+,%3 0*225= :6+
may nol be vieved as good cuslomer service by eoIe
vho vish lo seak lo a Iive erson. AVR syslems can be
sel u lo disseminale informalion. The AVR syslem can
be Iinked lo a fax-back syslem lo aIIov an organizalion
lo fax common forms lo lhe requesling ubIic. The caIIer
foIIovs a sel of voice romls lo enler lhe fax number
lo send lhe documenl. The documenl is usuaIIy faxed
vilhin 10 minules.
The caIIer shouId aIvays have lhe caabiIily lo
2/*;/ * ;',0/ )*,2 )/55*3/ '( :/ +(*%5&/((/7 +' *% '8/(*<
lor. eing lraed in an AVR syslem vilhoul being abIe
+' 3/+ +' * 2,;/ 8/(5'% ,5 0'%5,7/(/7 tcicc nai| jai|. .1,5
silualion can be very useuing lo caIIers.
.1/ 5600/55 '& +1/5/ 545+/)5 7/8/%75 '% *% /*54
and ecienl syslem design, ubIic educalion (lrain<
ing), and managemenl commilmenl lo imIemenling
and suorling lhem. The hone numbers and codes
shouId be dislribuled vilh aII markeling maleriaIs.
$+ )*4 +*>/ +1(// +' &'6( 5/*5'%5 '& '8/(*+,'% :/&'(/
lhe ubIic begins lo use lhem reguIarIy. Il is essenliaI
+1*+ )*%*3/)/%+ 6%7/(5+*%75 +1*+ +1,5 +48/ '& 545+/)
invoIves change, and change lakes lime.
Ccnira|izc! jaxing is a nelvork roducl lhal aIIovs
sla lo send and receive faxes from lheir comulers. Mosl
fax leIehone Iines have Iong dislance caabiIily. If lhe fax
machine is unauended, il is one Iace lhal a erson couId
use lhe hone (voice) caabiIily of lhe fax lo make Iong
dislance caIIs. A fax rouler receives in-bound faxes. The
hrsl age is read lo delermine lo vhom lhe fax shouId be
rouled. The fax is lhen rouled lo a nearby nelvork rinler
or lo a designaled comuler. Iax services can be exlended
lo anyone auached lo lhe nelvork. One lo four hone
Iines can be aIIocaled lo lhe fax server. Iach fax senl is
queued in lhe fax server unliI a Iine becomes avaiIabIe.
Once lhe fax is senl, a message lo lhe sender is deIivered
(/3*(7,%3 +1/ 5600/55&62 '( 6%5600/55&62 +(*%5),55,'% '&
lhe fax. The cosl of such a syslem is aboul lhe same as
lhal of one high-end fax machine.
DecenlraIized faxing is lhe roIiferalion of fax
machines and hone Iines lo suorl lhe faxing ser<
vice in various arls of lhe organizalion. This rocess
is unaecled shouId lhe nelvork go dovn. The cosl of
ovning, suIying, and mainlaining a high number of
machines can be a drain.
|-nai| ,5 +1/ )'5+ ;/(5*+,2/ '& +1/ )/55*3,%3 +/01<
noIogies. I-maiI can be used lo send messages inside
and oulside of lhe organizalion (via lhe Inlernel). I-maiI
can be deIoyed from one of lvo Iocalions, lhe Inlernel
(using a brovser) or from lhe desklo using one of
many e-maiI aIicalions such as Microsoh OulIook
or NoveII Grouvise. The dierence is vhere lhe mes<
sages are slored. Inlernel e-maiI slores lhe message
'% +1/ $%+/(%/+ 5' ,+ 0*% :/ *00/55/7 &(') *('6%7 +1/
vorId. Desklo e-maiI uIIs lhe e-maiI dovn from lhe
Inlernel and saves il in a nelvork osl oce or on a IC
or Ialo. GeneraIIy, desklo e-maiI has grealer slorage
caacily and more fealures. Many IocaI governmenls
have bolh e-maiI syslems, a desklo cIienl and a Web
cIienl. In lhis scenario e-maiI is saved in a nelvork e-
maiI osl oce lhal can be accessed from your oce or
from lhe Inlernel.
I-maiI is a versaliIe lechnoIogy. Il is ossibIe
lo send e-maiI as faxes (by rouling an e-maiI lo a fax
machine) or lo an aIha ager. I-maiI has Iong been
used lo send auachmenls, vhich are olher hIes (docu<
menls, sreadsheels, dalabases, grahics, elc.). I-maiI
can be dislribuled lo muIliIe eoIe simuIlaneousIy.
Many limes, an e-maiI conversalion is more ecienl
lhan laIking on lhe hone. Mosl messages are shorl,
lo lhe oinl, and easy lo rinl, vhereas lhere is no
documenlalion for voice conversalions. I-maiI aIIovs
communicalion lo sla vilh divergenl scheduIes, in
remole Iocalions, or avay on business. The user can
subscribe lo seciaI services on lhe Inlernel lhal viII
Exhibit 14.6
AVR System Responses
Typica! AVR 5ystcm Initia! Rcspnnsc tn Custnmcr
F.1*%> 4'6= &'( 0*22,%3KG
Iress 1 is you vouId Iike lo reserve a sheIler.
Iress 2 if you vouId Iike lo regisler for a cIass.
If you knov your arly's exlension, enler il nov.
To laIk lo lhe oeralor, remain on lhe Iine.
Typica! AVR 5ystcm InInrmatinn Disscminatinn Rcspnnsc
Iress 3 if you vish lo hear lhis veek's evenls.
Iress 4 if you vouId Iike lhe fees and hours for lhe famiIy cenler.
Typica! AVR 5ystcm InInrmatinn Fax-Back Rcspnnsc
Iress 5 for a Irogram Regislralion form.
Iress 6 for a ma of lhe area.
e-maiI informalion lo him or her vhen il becomes
avaiIabIe (|isi scrtcrs). The user can buy lhings, ay
biIIs, requesl services, and communicale vilh vendors
around lhe vorId. There are sharevare versions and
Iicensed fuII-fealured versions. ul mosl of aII, il is lhe
vay business does business.
Various fealures of lhe e-maiI syslem require
addilionaI sohvare and hardvare lo be urchased.
There are bolh sharevare versions and Iicensed, fuII-
fealured versions of e-maiI sohvare. The comIexily
of lhe e-maiI syslem requires an exerl lo inslaII and
mainlain il. As il becomes more imorlanl lo day-lo-day
oeralions, more resources viII be required lo suorl il
(assisling users, adminislralion, conhguring users, elc.).
IoIicies regarding lhe use, abuse, and rivale nalure of
e-maiI musl be eslabIished. Securily couId be a robIem.
Some businesses viev e-maiI as an eIeclronic signalure
or aulhorizalion. Il couId be ossibIe lo misreresenl
+1/ '(3*%,9*+,'% :4 65,%3 *%'+1/(@5 /<)*,2 +' '(7/(
services. Iurlher, sla shouId undersland lhal e-maiI is
0'%5,7/(/7 * 86:2,0 7'06)/%+= *%7 6%7/( +1/ L(//7')
'& $%&'()*+,'% C0+= +1/ )/7,* *%7 '+1/(5 )*4 (/E6/5+
e-maiI memos from ubIic organizalions.
IIeclronic messaging is a overfuI looI. Il requires
lhoughlfuI imIemenlalion. Cosls musl be baIanced
vilh service eciency. Services are varied and com<
Iex and as such musl be managed arorialeIy. A
messaging audil is a vaIuabIe managemenl looI (see
Comendium 14.6 for a messaging audil exercise).
Geographic Information Systems
A geograhic informalion syslem (GIS) calures, slores,
*%*249/5= )*%*3/5= *%7 8(/5/%+5 7*+* +1*+ ,5 2,%>/7 +' *
secihc geograhic Iocalion. UliIizing lhe informalion
8(/5/%+/7 ,% ;,56*2 &'()= )*%*3/(5 0*% )*>/ 7/0,5,'%5
and acluaIIy viev lhe reIalionshis lhal lhose decisions
may have on lhal geograhic Iocalion. GIS is a lech<
noIogy lhal is groving in usage and ouIarily in lhe
Ieisure service heId.
GIS makes il ossibIe lo Iink, or inlegrale, infor<
malion lhal is dicuIl lo associale lhrough any olher
means. Il is a visuaIizalion looI lhal aIIovs Ianners,
7/0,5,'% )*>/(5 *%7 5/(;,0/ 8(';,7/(5 +' 5// +1/ ,)8*0+
of changes lo lhe vorId around lhem. GIS is imorlanl
because many services are rovided geograhicaIIy.
y using digilaI mas, saleIIile dala, aeriaI holos, and
'+1/( &'()5 '& 7*+*= *% ,%+/3(*+/7 *88('*01 0*% :/
deveIoed lhal idenlihes and ossibIy soIves a robIem.
A simIe muIlimedia descrilion of GIS can be found
'% +1/ $%+/(%/+ *+ vvv.gis.com.
The lyicaI Ieisure service agency uses GIS for
/0'%'),0 7/;/2'8)/%+= 8*(> 5/(;,0/5= (/0(/*+,'% 5/(<
vices Ianning, and many olher uroses. In reIalion lo
economic deveIomenl, GIS can:
7,582*4 0*8,+*2 ,)8(';/)/%+ 7'22*(5 58/%+ :4
* %/,31:'(1''7A
7,582*4 8('8/(+4 ;*26/5 56(('6%7,%3 8*(>
2*%75A *%7
anaIyze service area ouIalion.
In reIalion lo ark services, GIS can:
creale vaII mas for faciIilies shoving ark
2'0*+,'%5 *%7 5/(;,0/5A
caIcuIale moving acreage of arks,
invenlory Iocalions of ark amenilies (Iay<
ground equimenl, benches, elc), and
creale delaiIed ark Ians, shoving uliIi<
lies, slreels, lraiIs and buiIding Iocalions. (See
Chaler 13, Managemenl of Oeralions.)
In reIalion lo recrealion service Ianning, GIS can:
0*2062*+/ F6%7/(<5/(;/7G *(/*5A
82*% 86:2,0 +(*%58'(+*+,'% ('6+/5 +' 8*(>5 *%7
&*0,2,+,/5A *%7
idenlify consliluenls vilhin neighborhoods for
largel maiIing.
In reIalion lo ark Ianning, GIS can:
,7/%+,&4 7/5,(*:2/ '8/% 58*0/ &'( 2*%7 *0E6,5,<
+,'%A
0(/*+/ *% ,)8*0+ 50/%*(,' 51'627 5/(;,0/5 :/
increased/decreased, and
0(/*+/ 82*%5 &'( ,%;/%+'(4,%3 *%7 )*%*3,%3
urban slreel lrees.
I(3*%,9*+,'%5 *(/ ,%0(/*5,%324 (/E6,(/7 +' '8/(<
ale vilh lhe seed and eciency of business vhiIe fac<
ing ever more comIex oIilicaI and reguIalory issues.
I(3*%,9*+,'%5 )65+ 7,3/5+ *% ,))/%5/ *)'6%+ '&
,%&'()*+,'% +' 8/(&'() +1/,( 76+,/5 ,% * &*,( *%7 5'6%7
manner. A GIS has lhe dala managemenl looIs lo heI
organizalions accomIish lhis lask. GIS lechnoIogy
rovides a exibIe sel of looIs lo erform diverse func<
lions. More imorlanlIy, il makes dala sharing among
dearlmenls easy.
:;#% &, <53=
GIS is lhe rocess of crealing a digilaI reresenlalion of
ob|ecls from lhe reaI vorId. In GIS, ob|ecls are referred
lo as fealures. TyicaIIy, fealures are reresenled oinls,
Iines, and oIygons:
oinlfor disIaying lhings lhal have a hxed
Iocalion and don'l lake u area, such as a hre
147(*%+ '( +/2/81'%/ 8'2/A
Iinedescribes a Iinear fealure, such as a valer
Iine or sever Iine, Iines can aIso deicl eIeva<
+,'% ,% * 5/(,/5 '& ,)*3,%*(4 2,%/5 (/&/((/7 +' *5
0'%+'6( 2,%/5A *%7
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
8'243'%H* )62+,5,7/7 51*8/ ,7/%+,&4,%3 *(/*=
such as a buiIding foolrinl or arking Iol.
The coIIeclion of Iike fealures in a GIS is a caIIed a
Iayer. Ior examIe, aII lhe oIygons reresenling ark<
Iand are referred lo as lhe arks Iayer. Iach Iayer has a
labIe of dala lhal describes each fealure in lhe Iayer. This
is knovn as lhe auribule labIe. The auribule labIe for lhe
arks Iayer may conlain lhe ark name, area (in acres),
ark address, ark hone number, and ark manager.
The essenliaI eIemenl lhal dierenliales GIS from olher
lechnoIogies is lhe informalion lhal idenlihes vhere
each fealure is on a ma. Iach fealure is geosaliaIIy
referenced lo a reaI geograhic Iocalion.
There are a fev essenliaI Iayers lhal /%1*%0/ +1/
use of GIS. These are knovn as spccia| |aqcrs. SeciaI
Iayers incIude:
:'6%7*(4 2*4/(5H,)*3,%*(4 2,%/5 *('6%7
8'2,+,0*2 *%7 5/(;,0/ *(/*5 5601 *5 0'6%+(4=
5+*+/= *%7 0'6%+4= 5601 *5 9,8 0'7/5 *%7 501''2
7,5+(,0+5A
cenlerIinesimaginary Iines lhal run dovn lhe
),772/ '& * 5+(//+A /*01 &/*+6(/ ,5 * 5/3)/%+
*%7 /*01 5/3)/%+ 0'%+*,%5 ,%&'()*+,'% *:'6+
addressing, for examIe, in IndianaoIis IN,
Meridian Sl inlersecls vilh Washinglon Sl,
going 1 bIock Iasl on Washinglon Sl vouId
lake you lo 100 I Washinglon Sl, going 1 bIock
norlh on Meridian Sl vouId lake you lo 100 N
Meridian Sl, lhe auribule labIe of a cenlerIine
0'%+*,%5 +1/ 5+(//+ %*)/= 58//7 2,),+= 7,(/0+,'%
'& +(*;/2= &(') *77(/55= +' *77(/55 *%7 )601
)'(/A +1/ 0/%+/(2,%/ ,5 '%/ '& +1/ >/4 2*4/(5 65/7
for hnding addresses on a ma,
arceIa unil of Iand ovnershi, every arceI
of Iand on lhe earlh has an ovner, and mosl
8*(0/25 1*;/ * 8145,0*2 *77(/55A * 8*(0/2 2*4/(
,5 65/7 +' 7,5+,%36,51 8(,;*+/ &(') 3';/(%)/%+
Iand, a GIS is used lo aroximale vhal is
*0+6*224 56(;/4/7= 5' +1*+ +1/ :'6%7*(,/5 0*%
be revieved in lhe oce, lhus saving a lri lo
lhe heId,
:*5/ )*8 2*4/(5H*(/ +48,0*2 2*4/(5 65/7 '%
mosl mas, lhese Iayers incIude cilies, ma|or
5+(//+5= 8*(>5= 2*>/5= *%7 (,;/(5A ,& +1/ *(/* '&
,%+/(/5+ ,5 * 0,+4= +1/ :*5/ )*8 2*4/(5 ),31+
incIude schooIs, hre dearlmenls, commerciaI
*%7 ,%765+(,*2 *(/*5A *%7
*/(,*2 81'+'3(*814H* 0'22/0+,'% '& )*%4
(lhousands in some cases) holos, digilaIIy
sevn logelher in a mosaic lo orlray lhe Iand
as il is being used.
C/(,*2 81'+'3(*814 ,5 '%/ '& +1/ )'5+ 65/7 2*4<
ers of GIS, because il is visuaI and eoIe can reIale lo
B
B
B
B
B
B
lhe images. This Iayer does nol have an auribule labIe.
L'( 8(*0+,0*2 (/*5'%5= */(,*2 81'+'3(*814 ,5 7'%/ '%0/
a year in lhe sring, vhen lhere are no Ieaves on lhe
lrees or snov on lhe ground. In lhis vay users are abIe
lo see buiIding foolrinls and roads lhrough lhe lrees.
There are lvo lyes of holos avaiIabIe:
orlhogonaIIooking slraighl dovn al a sub<
|ecl, vhich gives lhe besl roorlionaI viev of
* 3/'3(*81,0 *(/* *%7 ,5 3''7 &'( )/*56(,%3
*(/* *%7 0')86+,%3 7,5+*%0/A *%7
obIiqueIooking dovn lhe side of a buiIding,
vhich gives lhe besl viev of enlrances and
exils in a buiIding, and is good for measuring
heighl.
There are six uroses for GIS in lhe Ieisure service
induslry.
|cscarcn/qucrq. Mosl eoIe use GIS lo exIore an
area lo gain beuer underslanding aboul lhe geograhy.
Queslions incIude: Hov big is il` Hov far is il from.`
Who ovns il` Who/vhere can I gel more informalion`
Whal is cIose by` Where is il/vhal is il`
|ntcnicrq. C 501''25 2*4/( ,5 *% ,%;/%+'(4 '& *22
lhe schooIs vilhin a secihed |urisdiclion, Iike slale or
0'6%+4A ,%;/%+'(,/5 *(/ 3/%/(*224 )*,%+*,%/7 :4 +1/
dearlmenl lhal ovns/conlroIs lhe dala, and invenlory
Iayers lyicaIIy have good auribule informalion,
Ana|qsis can be used lo comule lhe runo of
valer from a arking Iol, lhe hisloricaI change of a
secihed Iocalion from year lo year (using aeriaI ho<
lograhy), lhe change of ouIalion, race, income, and
*3/ '& * %/,31:'(1''7= 4'6+1 0(,)/ ,% %/,31:'(1''75
vilh and vilhoul recrealion rogramming and much
more, for examIe, on a ouIalion ma, various sizes
'& 7'+5 (/8(/5/%+ 0,+,/5H+1/ :,33/( +1/ 7'+= +1/ 1,31/(
+1/ 8'862*+,'%A
Map-naking '( 0*(+'3(*814 ,5 +1/ 7/5,3% *%7
8('760+,'% '& )*85= '( ;,56*2 (/8(/5/%+*+,'%5 '& 58*+,*2
dala, and is ohen mislaken for GIS, lhe ma is generaIIy
lhe end roducl in carlograhy, in GIS, lhe reIalionshis
belveen lhe various sources of dala, are more signih<
canl lo lhe anaIysis, yel GIS can aIso generale a ma
as a roducl. A good carlograhic quaIily ma has lhe
foIIoving characlerislics:
a cIearIy dehned ma area, vilh lhe sub|ecl (if
any) cenlered,
* 7/50(,8+,;/ +,+2/A
* 54):'2,9/7 )*8 >/4A
a Norlh arrov (comass rose),
* 8('8/(24 0,+/7 7*+* 5'6(0/A
*% *88('8(,*+/ 50*2/ :*(A *%7
a crealion dale vilh aulhor.
|cuiing ,5 +1/ 8('0/55 '& 7/+/(),%,%3 * 8*+1 &(')
one Iocalion lo anolher. MaQuesl and olher Inlernel
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
)*8 5/(;,0/5 1*;/ )*7/ +1,5 &6%0+,'% ;/(4 8'862*( &'(
geuing direclions. Rouling is based on lhe cenlerIine
Iayer. Inlernel based aIicalions udale cenlerIine
informalion eriodicaIIy lhrough lhe year. In many
cases nev subdivisions (u lo lhree years oId) may
nol aear. Anolher form of rouling invoIves buiId<
ing a lransorlalion modeI lo anaIyze lrac ov.
.1,5 )'7/2 0*% :/ 65/7 +' 8'%7/( 5'26+,'%5 &'( +1/5/
robIems:
vhere vouId lraffic go if ve cIosed lhe
bridge`
couId someone ride a bicycIe dovnlovn and
lake lhe bus home` and
,7/%+,&4 +1/ :/5+ /)/(3/%04 ('6+/5 +' 65/ 76(<
ing a ma|or sorling evenl.
Pu||ic prcscniaiicns. .1/ ;,56*2,9*+,'% 0')8'%/%+
of GIS aIIovs lhe resenler lo quickIy disIay informa<
+,'%= 5' +1*+ )'(/ +,)/ 0*% :/ 58/%+ '% 7/0,5,'%<)*><
,%3 ,% 86:2,0 )//+,%35A &(') 8'5+/(<5,9/7 0'2'( )*85=
lo aeriaI holograhy, lo comuler generaled 3D y
+1('6315=G *22 *(/ +''25 &'( 86:2,0 8(/5/%+*+,'% +1*+ +/22
a slory lhal vouId lake much Ionger lo communicale
by seaking or reading a reorl.
<53 #, #( 5(0-,%">
GIS is a muIli-biIIion-doIIar induslry emIoying hun<
dreds of lhousands of eoIe vorIdvide. GIS is laughl
,% 501''25= 0'22/3/5= *%7 6%,;/(5,+,/5 +1('631'6+ +1/
vorId. IrofessionaIs in every heId are increasingIy
avare of lhe advanlages of lhinking and vorking sa<
liaIIy. The modern era of GIS vas fueIed by lhe need for
3';/(%)/%+= ),2,+*(4 *%7 6+,2,+4 0')8*%,/5 +' )*%*3/
assels in a digilaI maing syslem. SimIe examIes
incIude uliIily comanies vorking lo documenl lhe
Iocalions of vires, cabIes, and ies, and governmenl
82*%%/(5 5+674,%3 +1/ ,)8*0+ '& 0'%5+(60+,'% ,% 6(:*%
areas.
IarIy GIS syslems required massive comuler
hardvare, oeraled by highIy skiIIed lechnicians using
rorielary soflvare. Dala coIIeclion vas ledious
and lime consuming. A fev commerciaI GIS vendors
aeared in lhe 1980s, surring a vider use of lhe
lechnoIogy. IvenluaIIy lhe cosl, over, and access lo
GIS services became more aordabIe. Today, many
GIS funclions can be accessed for no direcl cosl from
lhe Inlernel. Mosl desklo ICs are abIe lo funclion in
a GIS syslem.
+'18'()(%, '6 # <53
A vorking GIS inlegrales hve key comonenls:
hardvare,
sohvare,
7*+*A
B
B
B
B
B
B
8/'82/A *%7
melhods.
See hu://slore.esri.com/esri/index.cfm for samIes of
sohvare in use for GIS. See Ixhibil 14.7 for lhe como<
nenls of GIS.
A fuII-bIovn GIS syslem vilh aII lhe comonenls
,5 )601 +'' 0'5+24 &'( * +48,0*2 8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'%
dearlmenl lo manage. TyicaIIy, GIS services are arl
'& * 0'6%+4 '( (/3,'%*2 3';/(%)/%+ /%+,+4 +1*+ 0*% 2/;/(<
age lhe cosl across severaI agencies. Il is more IikeIy
+1*+ 2/,56(/ 5/(;,0/ *3/%0,/5 8*(+,0,8*+/ *5 65/(5 '& +1/
GIS and erhas mainlain a Iayer for arks, velIands,
foresls, or olher simiIar Iayers.
$+ ,5 %'+ 6%656*2 &'( * 7/8*(+)/%+ +' 8*4 *% *%%6*2
cosl for lhe mainlenance and use of GIS services. Ior
dearlmenls vilh modesl GIS needs, lhe Inlernel oers
5'26+,'%5 &'( 0(/*+,%3 5,)82/ 7*+* 2*4/(5 65,%3 M''32/
Iarlh or Microsoh VirluaI Iarlh lo accomIish lhe same
lasks using coIIeclions. As a arlicianl, ark sla may
access and use olher Iayers. Ior examIe, vhen a ma|or
viIdhre occurred al a nalionaI seashore, GIS/GIS soIu<
lions vere used lo manage lhe hre (see Ixhibil 14.8).
The ig Iiclure in SimIe Terms:
Given:
86:2,0 ,%&'()*+,'% 51'627 :/ *;*,2*:2/ *%7
shared vilh aII,
informalion is over, and conlroI of informa<
lion is uIlimale over,
lax increases lo suorl lechnoIogy advances
in governmenl are dicuIl lo |uslify, bul nol
,)8'55,:2/A *%7
il vouId be dicuIl lo ul a rice on a lechnoI<
'34 +1*+ 0'627 +,/ +1/ 7*+* '& )62+,<3';/(%)/%+
organizalions logelher.
il vouId be equaIIy as dicuIl lo ul a rice on
lhe Iosl benehl of nol being abIe lo lie dala from
muIli-governmenl organizalions logelher.
Assumlions:
)'%/4 ,5 %'+ * 8(':2/)A
8'2,+,0*2 0'%+('2 ,5 %'+ * 8(':2/)A
viIIingness of managemenl is nol a robIem,
*;*,2*:,2,+4 '& +/01%'2'34 ,5 %'+ * 8(':2/)A *%7
ubIic suorl is nol a robIem.
GIS is aIready a vaIuabIe looI vorking ubIicIy
and commerciaIIy. Via lhe Inlernel, anyone can Iocale
a lraveI roule from lheir home cily lo |usl aboul any
address in lhe Uniled Slales (vvv.maquesl.com).
C%4'%/ 0*% 86(01*5/ 7/;,0/5 +1/ 5,9/ '& 1*%7<1/27
0*2062*+'(5 +1*+ ,7/%+,&4 1'+/25= (/5+*6(*%+5= *%7 3*5
slalions on every ma|or highvay in America. GIS
syslems (discussed beIov) inslaIIed in cars can give
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
7(,;/(5 8,%8',%+ *006(*04 ,% 7/+/(),%,%3 +1/,( 2'0*<
lion if lhey gel Iosl. IubIic uliIilies ma lhe roules of
uliIily Iines, buried cabIe, righls-of-vay, and easemenls
lhroughoul a geograhic area. IubIic vorks dearl<
menls kee lrack of roads, severs, and roules for soIid
vasle icku. Many organizalions and dearlmenls are
molivaled lo deveIo a GIS. The ma orlion of GIS
is lhe same for aII users. Iach inleresl grou mainlains
ils ovn Iayers of dala. There are many Iayers aIready
deveIoed for ubIic use, such as soiI lyes, oodIains,
0'%+'6(5= *%7 '+1/(5 *;*,2*:2/ &'( 65/ :4 5+*+/ *%7 &/7<
eraI organizalions.
GuideIines for geuing slarled in GIS incIude lhe
foIIoving.
Idenlify lhe slralegic urose(s) for using GIS,
and don'l creale a GIS sho, unIess you have lhe
B
(/5'6(0/5A )'5+ (/3,'%*2 3';/(%)/%+*2 6%,+5
have a GIS, and il vouId be vise lo become a
arlner or cuslomer of one.
Idenlify lhe GIS users vilhin your agency
vho vouId mainlain lhe dala and maing
&6%0+,'%5A '(3*%,9*+,'%5 51'627 58/0,*2,9/ ,%
0(/*+,%3 2*4/(5 '& 7*+* *%7 %'+ ,% )*,%+*,%,%3
lhe vhoIe GIS syslem.
Organizalions can mainlain lheir ovn mas
(in lhe absence of a ma rovider) if lhe ma
,5 2,),+/7 +' :*5,0 &/*+6(/5 +1*+ 7' %'+ 01*%3/
ohen.
Seek guidance from olher cilies vilh GIS and/or
a GIS rovider/consuIlanl.
Ior a case sludy using GIS, go lo lhe foIIoving
Web address lo viev GIS Web TechnoIogy enehls
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.7
GIS Components
Hardwarc Hardvare can be as simIe as a IC accessing GIS from lhe Inlernel lo as comIex as a fuII bIovn
GIS oeralion vilh high-overed servers and slorage devices. Many GIS shos suorl Iarge for<
mal Iouers/rinlers used for roducing mas. TyicaIIy, a GIS sho is nol arl of a Ieisure service
agency, ralher lhe agencies conlracl for lhe services as needed.
5nwarc GIS sohvare rovides lhe funclions and looIs needed lo slore, anaIyze, and disIay geograhic
informalion. Key sohvare comonenls are looIs for lhe inul and maniuIalion of geograhic infor<
malion, a dalabase managemenl syslem (DMS) looI lhal suorl geograhic query, anaIysis, and
visuaIizalion, and a grahicaI user inlerface (GUI) for easy access lo looIs. TyicaIIy, lhere are lhree
Ialforms for GIS sohvare. There is lhe Web service or Web aIicalion, vhich can be rivaleIy or
ubIicIy accessed from lhe Inlernel. This melhod vouId |usl require a comalibIe Inlernel brovser
lo access. The nexl sle for users vouId be desklo sohvare. There are many vendors lhal suIy
simIe lo very comIex o-lhe-sheIf desklo aIicalions. These looIs are for lhose vho undersland
lhe basics of GIS. Nevcomers may hnd a high Iearning curve lo masler lhe sohvare. IinaIIy, lhere
is server-based sohvare for lhose organizalions lhal hosl GIS dala and aIicalions.
Data Dala (Iayers, labIes, holograhy, elc.) is lhe mosl imorlanl comonenl of a GIS. Some dala are
slalic and free lo lhe ubIic, such as counlry, slale and counly boundaries. Olher dala are dynamic,
and dicuIl lo oblain and mainlain, bul very usefuI if avaiIabIe, such as lree cover, velIand areas,
hydroIogy, crime, and many olhers. Iach Iayer of GIS dala is accomanied by meladala or infor<
malion aboul lhe Iayer (vho crealed il, vhen il vas crealed, hov il's mainlained, elc.). Il's good lo
queslion lhe dala vhen Iooking al a ma roviding anaIysis.
Pcnp!c The eoIe vho use GIS faII in lhree calegories: GIS suorl, dala roducers, and dala consumers.
GIS suorl are lhose vho mainlain GIS resources, lrain olhers in lhe lechnicaI use, and vrile cus<
lom aIicalions for seciaI use of GIS. Dala roducers are lhose vho creale and mainlain secihc
dala Iayers or carlograhic quaIily mas. Il is nol unusuaI for a ark and recrealion dearlmenl lo
)*,%+*,% * 8*(>5 2*4/( *%7 0(/*+/ )*85 &'( 86:2,0 8(/5/%+*+,'% *+ :'*(7= 0'6%0,2= *%7 86:2,0 )//+<
ings. Dala consumers are lhose vho query and do research using GIS looIs. Many of lhese looIs are
inluilive and easy lo Iearn. In any case, eoIe and business needs give GIS dala ils vaIue.
Mcthnds A GIS is a ma|or underlaking. Il requires dala slandards, sound Ianning and agency-vide arlici<
alion (hnancing and dala). Some lhings can be done economicaIIy, hovever, due lo lhe comIex
nalure of GIS, olher lasks require alience and Ianning. Il is vise lo communicale and coIIaborale
vilh lhe GIS communily lo exress needs and idenlify soIulions.
for Cily Governmenl-Case Sludies: hu://camus.
esri.com / camus / Iibrary / ibIiograhy / RecordDelaiI.
cfm`ID 9062&hidage 1&brovseonIy 0&CIID 949
009&CITOKIN28077264.
Global Positioning Systems
C g|c|a| pcsiiicning sqsicn (GPS) ,5 * 0'%5+/22*+,'% '&
many DOD saleIIiles lhal orbil lhe earlh aroximaleIy
every 12 hours. The osilion and lime informalion
lransmiued by lhese saleIIiles is used by a GIS receiver
lo lrianguIale a Iocalion on lhe earlh.
GIS vas deveIoed lo rovide a conlinuous,
24-hour, 3-D (osilion and eIevalion) coverage any<
vhere on earlh. Il rovides reIiabIe, reealabIe infor<
malion lhal is unaecled by rough lerrain and bad
vealher, and is highIy resislanl lo muIlialh errors and
inlerference.
Exhibit 14.8
Case Study: Fire Management Interactive Application of GIS at Point Reyes National Seashore
When a ma|or viIdhre occurred al Ioinl Reyes NalionaI Seashore, CaIifornia, GIS/GIS vere uliIized lo monilor
lhe daiIy sread of lhe hre, measure hre suression aclions, and assess damage lo slruclures and lo naluraI and
cuIluraI resources. To see hov il vorked, go lo hu://home.ns.gov/gis/aIicalions/documenls/ore/gisndx.hlm
and hu://home.ns.gov/gis/aIicalions/documenls/ore/hre.hlm.
Ioinl Reyes NalionaI Seashore is Iocaled in Marin Counly, CaIifornia, aroximaleIy 40 miIes norlhvesl of San
Irancisco. Il encomasses 71,046 acres of coaslaI dunes, coaslaI rairies, marine lerraces, coaslaI scrub, and foresls.
This geoIogicaIIy unique eninsuIa has arorialeIy been caIIed an IsIand in Time. IaII lends lo be hol and dry
and is lhe eriod of highesl hre danger vhen vegelalion is desiccaled.
Hnw thc BAER Tcam Uscd GI5/GP5
The viIdhre al Ioinl Reyes vas lhe area's mosl devaslaling viIdhre in 60 years, vilh more lhan 12,000 acres of
slale, federaI, and rivale Iands burned. The viIdhre vas alIy named lhe Vision Iire aher lhe sile of ignilion (Ml.
Vision), hovever, lhe Iessons Iearned from lhis hre aIso rovided lremendous insighls inlo hre managemenl. The
hre began in an iIIegaI camground on Slale Iark Iands, and roeIIed by hol, dry, 50 mh vinds, sread raidIy
lhrough severaI decadenl vegelalion communilies from lhe isho ine/DougIas hr aIong lhe Inverness Ridge, lo
sand dunes aIong lhe Iacihc Ocean. The rale of sread of lhe hre reached 3,100 acres er hour.
The suerinlendenl of Ioinl Reyes NalionaI Seashore caIIed in a leam of exerls from lhe Dearlmenl of Inlerior,
lhe urn Area Imergency RehabiIilalion (AIR) leam. The AIR leam vas made u of resource seciaIisls vilh
exerlise in Ianls, animaIs, soiIs, valer resources, cuIluraI resources, slruclures, and roads and lraiIs from agen<
cies incIuding lhe U.S. Ioresl Service, NalionaI Iark Service, U.S. Iish and WiIdIife Service, U.S. ureau of Land
Managemenl, and ureau of Indian Aairs. A ma|or comonenl of lhe leam vas GIS reIaled. The rimary lask of
lhe AIR leam vas lo roduce a reorl documenling lhe hre and hre suression eecls on lhe ark and lo make
recommendalions for miligalion and managemenl.
IniliaIIy, lhe mosl crilicaI informalion required from lhe GIS Iab vas lhe hre erimeler. Tvice each day, a heIicoler
vilh a GIS unil on-board ev lhe hre erimeler, and a ma vas romlIy roduced for lhe hrehghlers. Anolher
crilicaI dala Iayer vas lhe Iocalion and condilion of slruclures deslroyed by lhe hre. CaIifornia Dearlmenl of Ioreslry,
Marin Counly Iire, and NalionaI Iark Service ersonneI surveyed homes in lhe burn area vilh GIS unils (TrimbIe
Navigalion, Ll. IroXL, and asic IIus) and coIIecled dala on lhe condilion and Iocalion of slruclures. Wilhin four
days of lhe hre ignilion, and vhiIe lhe hre vas sliII burning, lhe dala vere converled lo a GIS dala Iayer and overIaid
vilh a counly arceI ma lo idenlify lhe ovners of lhe slruclures.
Dala vere aIso galhered using GIS on Iocalion of hand Iines, buIIdozer Iines, roads, lraiIs, hre suression eecls,
noxious veeds, vegelalion Iols, holo oinls, and survey oinls. GIS vas lhen used for maing, measuring, and
moniloring osl-hre anaIysis of burn eecls and rehabiIilalion rescrilions. As users erceived lhe abiIily of GIS
lo measure and caIcuIale informalion, lhey requesled reorls on acreages, Iinear dislances, and so forlh.
The hre conlinued lo are u over lhe nexl 10 days, re-lhrealening homes aIong lhe ark boundary. Nol unliI 12
days aher ignilion vas lhe hre decIared conlroIIed.
As arl of lhe NalionaI Iark Service (NIS) hre recovery eorl, severaI sludies vere inilialed lo evaIuale hre and hre
suression eecls on lhe ecoIogicaI inlegrily of communilies vilhin and ad|acenl lo lhe burn area.
The saleIIiles broadcasl on lvo carrier frequencies
in lhe L-band of lhe eIeclromagnelic seclrum (L1,
vhich is 1575.42MHz, or L2, vhich is 1227.6MHz).
I% +1/5/ 0*((,/( &(/E6/%0,/5 *(/ :('*70*5+ 0'7/5= )601
2,>/ (*7,' '( +/2/;,5,'% 5+*+,'%5 :('*70*5+ ,%&'()*+,'%
on lheir channeIs (frequencies). The saleIIiles broadcasl
lvo codes, a miIilary-onIy encryled code (IIS) and a
civiI-access or slandard osilioning (SIS) code.
GIS and GIS are arl of sile-secihc managemenl
lechnoIogy. Olher asecls incIude sensors and variabIe-
rale lechnoIogy (VRT). Sensors give quick, indirecl,
reaI-lime measuremenls of soiI and Ianls, vhich can
heI in mainlenance oeralions. Sensors can measure
soiI organic mauer conlenl, soiI and Ianl moislure, soiI
and Ianl nulrienl IeveIs, and esl incidence. VRT vas
7/;/2'8/7 +' 1/28 *8824 8(/0,5/ *)'6%+5 '& 01/),0*25A
a sensor-based VRT ensures lhal lhe correcl amounl
'& 2,E6,7 %,+('3/% ,5 *882,/7 +' +1/ *(/*5 :/,%3 &/(+,2<
izedmosl commonIy goIf courses. There are sensors
'% +1/ &('%+ '& +1/ 58(*4/( +1*+ 0'((/58'%7 +' +1/ %'992/
sray vidlh. In lhe back of lhe srayer, are four nozzIes
lhal are sized according lo dierenl aIicalion rales.
As lhe srayer crosses lhe heId, lhe sensors olicaIIy
7/+/0+ +1/ 2/;/2 '& %,+('3/% ,% +1/ 82*%+5= *77,%3 %,+('<
gen al dierenl rales deending uon lhe Ianl needs.
Researchers are vorking on VRT lechnoIogy for olher
Iiquid and dry maleriaIs.
Disaster Recovery and
Business Continuity
Comuler crashes are bound lo haen. An agency
lhal is deendenl on informalion resources (comul<
ers) is more al-risk during a crash. Irom a high IeveI,
lhe direclor (or agency head) is uIlimaleIy resonsibIe
&'( 7/8*(+)/%+ ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5= :/0*65/ 1/ ,5 +1/
onIy erson vho can sel oIicy, rovide budgel, and
suorl lhe enforcemenl of safe comuling slandards.
IT sla can make recommendalions, reorl abuse, and
idenlify risky circumslances.
IT sla use informalion and buiId lrusl vilhin lhe
*3/%04 +' /%0'6(*3/ 8/'82/ +' /%3*3/ ,% 5*&/<0')86+<
ing raclices. IxamIes of safe comuling raclices
incIude:
Iog in your comuler vilh a unique name and
assvord,
change assvords eriodicaIIy,
save aII business informalion lo a nelvork drive
daiIy, if a nelvork is nol avaiIabIe lhen lo back-
u media (i.e., laes, exlernaI drives, elc.),
(/5+(,0+ $%+/(%/+ 65*3/ +' +1'5/ 5,+/5 +1*+ *(/
:65,%/55<'(,/%+/7 *%7 +(65+/7A
do nol oen e-maiI auachmenls unIess lhe
source is knovn,
B
B
B
B
B
Iog o lhe comuler vhen Ieaving for Iunch or
+1/ 7*4A *%7
enabIe screensaver lo require assvord uon
reenlry.
Disaster Mitigation and Security
A disasler recovery Ian begins vilh miligalion of a
disasler. Disasler revenlion encomasses lhree areas:
0')86+/( ('') 5/06(,+4A
7*+* 5/06(,+4A *%7
nelvork securily.
+'18-%)" ?''1 3)$-"&%>
Slricl oIicies lo secure your nelvork equimenl and
5/(;/(5 ),+,3*+/ +1/ ,556/5 '& ,%+/%+,'%*2 *%7 *00,<
denlaI lamering vilh equimenl. AIvays consuIl
an IT exerl vhen deveIoing lhis lye of seciaIized
area. A good Ian begins by Iacing lhe servers and
nelvork equimenl in a roer room and Iimiling lhe
number of eoIe vho have access. Comuler rooms
vary grealIy in size and comIexily. Mosl archilecls
are famiIiar vilh buiIding codes regarding a comuler
room such as: lemeralure conlroI, buiIding maleriaIs,
oor, enlry/exil doors, hre suression, and so on. Some
dearlmenls viII relrohl a cIosel or slorage area lo be
a comuler room.
9#%#4/88.&$#%&'( 3)$-"&%>
.1,5 8/(+*,%5 +' +1/ 8'2,0,/5 *%7 8('0/76(/5 * 7/8*(+<
menl has in Iace for managing dala. One oIicy mighl
be lhal aII business dala (documenls, sreadsheels, elc)
musl be saved lo lhe nelvork and nol lhe IocaI drive (C:
drive). Anolher oIicy mighl be lhal aII dearlmenl dala
on lhe nelvork are backed u once a nighl. The back-u
media is laken o-sile lo a secure Iocalion.
Many |urisdiclions (incIuding slale and federaI
governmenl) have secihc ruIes aboul backus, se<
cihcaIIy, lhal il is unaccelabIe lo lake backu media
lo a ersonaI residence, vhere dala securily couId
be comromised, Iosl, or sloIen. The oIicies vork
+' 8('+/0+ +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% *55/+5 51'627 5')/+1,%3
haen lo lhe IC or lhe nelvork. Many lechniques
(such as seuing lhe defauIl documenl direclory lo lhe
nelvork) may be imIemenled lo achieve lhe desired
resuIl and reduce lhe imacl on users. ImIemenling
assvords is anolher vay lo miligale dala disaslers.
Such raclices aIso mainlain Iogs, such lhal lracking
65/( *0+,;,+4 *55,5+5 ,% 7/+/(),%,%3 +1/ 0*65/ '& 5601
incidenls. Iassvords may be imIemenled al various
IeveIs (e.g., al Iogin lo a secihc vorkslalion, vhen
enlering an aIicalion, and vhen enlering from a
vireIess device. Il is besl lo confer vilh IT exerls lo
delermine lhe besl raclice for a given agency. In lhe
end, il requires a vigiIanl IT sla, cooeraling com<
B
B
B
B
B
uler users and good IT oIicies. See Comendium
14.7 for a samIe oIicy.
@)%A'"B 3)$-"&%>
This deaIs vilh auacks and oulages lo lhe infraslruclure
or somelhing lhal disabIes a vorkslalion's abiIily lo gel
lo a server or nelvork rinler. Infraslruclure incIudes aII
lhe svilches, roulers ,and hubs (lhe IiuIe bIack boxes)
lhal connecl aII lhe vires and cabIes logelher, vhich
form a nelvork. The nelvork aIso incIudes aII lhe
vorkslalions auached, vhelher by cabIe or vireIess,
Ialo or desklo. Iarl of nelvork securily incIudes
hov lhe nelvork connecls vilh lhe Inlernel, usuaIIy
lhrough a hrevaII. AII lhe e-maiI assing lo and from
lhe e-maiI server is scanned for viruses. IiIe lransfers
on and o lhe nelvork may be scanned, screened, or
rohibiled, deending on lhe oIicies of lhe nelvork
environmenl. Deending on lhe risk and vuInerabiIily
of lhe nelvork, each device may be connecled lo an
uninlerrulibIe over suIy (UIS), a bauery backu.
TyicaIIy, lhe servers, nelvork equimenl, and com<
municalion equimenl are on over backu. The goaI
,5 +' 8(/;/%+ *% /;/%+ +1*+ 7,5*:2/5 *% *3/%04@5 *:,2,+4
lo conducl business.
C-,&(),, +'(%&(-&%> !.#( DC+!E
Your agency's CI shouId seII oul lhe rocess of
resloring IT services aher a disasler lo a IeveI vhere lhe
oeralions of an agency can accelabIy conlinue. Ior
examIe, a vindslorm may bIov dovn over Iines, dis<
abIing a recrealion cenler's cuslomer service funclion. A
business conlinuily ob|eclive may be lo enabIe lhe cus<
lomer service funclion in anolher Iocalion. SecihcaIIy,
voice and dala services are redeIoyed lo a nev Iocalion
in such a vay lhal a cuslomer caIIing vouId nol delecl
a change in service. This change does nol haen e<
cienlIy vilhoul rearalion and Ianning.
When Disaster Strikes
M,;/% +1/(/ *(/ ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5= * :65,%/55 '8/(<
alion, and a disasler (of any kind, manmade or naluraI),
vhal is lhe execlalion of managemenl shouId lhe
informalion resource nol be avaiIabIe` Il deends on lhe
CI your agency has seIecled and imIemenled. The
olions can be idenlihed in one of seven liers (as dehned
by disasler recovery seciaIisls), dehned beIov.
Tler 0. No Og-Slte DutuPosslbI
@' ?)$'2)">
usinesses vilh a Tier 0 business conlinuily soIulion
1*;/ %' CI. There is no saved informalion, no docu<
)/%+*+,'%= %' :*0>68 hardvare= *%7 %' 0'%+,%3/%04
Ian. The lime necessary lo recover in lhis inslance is
unrediclabIe. In facl, il may nol be ossibIe lo recover
al aII.
F&)" GH 9#%# C#$B-8 A&%; @' I'% 3&%)
usinesses lhal use Tier 1 conlinuily soIulions back u
lheir dala and send lhese backus lo an o-sile slorage
faciIily. The melhod of lransorling lhese backus is
ohen referred lo as lhe Iick-u Truck Access Melhod
(ITAM). Deending on hov ohen backus are crealed
*%7 51,88/7= +1/5/ '(3*%,9*+,'%5 )65+ :/ 8(/8*(/7
lo accel severaI days lo veeks of dala Ioss, bul lheir
backus are secure o-sile. Hovever, lhis lier Iacks lhe
syslems on vhich lo reslore dala.
F&)" JH 9#%# C#$B-8 A&%; # I'% 3&%)
usinesses using Tier 2 business conlinuily soIulions
make reguIar backus on lae. This is combined vilh an
o-sile faciIily and infraslruclure (knovn as a nci siic), al
vhich lo reslore syslems from lhose laes in lhe evenl
of a disasler. This soIulion viII sliII resuIl in lhe need lo
recreale severaI hours or even days vorlh of dala, bul
lhe recovery lime is more rediclabIe.
F&)" KH L.)$%"'(&$ M#-.%&(N
Tier 3 soIulions buiId on lhe comonenls of Tier 2.
C77,+,'%*224= 5')/ ),55,'%<0(,+,0*2 7*+* *(/ /2/0+('%,<
caIIy vauIled lhrough IIeclronic Remole VauIling (IRV)
lechnoIogies. The eIeclronicaIIy vauIled dala is lyicaIIy
more currenl lhan lhal vhich is shied via ITAM.
As a resuIl, lhere is Iess dala recrealion or Ioss aher a
disasler occurs.
IRV requires high-seed communicalion circuils,
some form of channeI exlension equimenl and eilher
8145,0*2 '( ;,(+6*2 +*8/ 7/;,0/5= *%7 *% *6+')*+/7 +*8/
Iibrary al lhe remole sile. IM's Ieer-lo-Ieer VTS and
Sun's VSM CIuslering are lvo examIes of lhis lye
imIemenlalion.
Tler 4. Polnt-ln-Tlme Coples
Tier 4 soIulions are used by businesses lhal require bolh
3(/*+/( 7*+* 06((/%04 *%7 &*5+/( (/0';/(4 +1*% 65/(5 '&
Iover liers. Ralher lhan reIying IargeIy on shiing lae,
as is common on lhe Iover liers, Tier 4 soIulions begin lo
incororale more disk-based soIulions. SeveraI hours of
7*+* 2'55 *(/ 5+,22 8'55,:2/= :6+ ,+ ,5 /*5,/( +' )*>/ 5601
oinl-in-lime (IiT) coies vilh grealer frequency lhan
lae backus, even vhen eIeclronicaIIy vauIled.
F&)" OH F"#(,#$%&'( 5(%)N"&%>
Tier 5 soIulions are used by businesses vilh a require<
menl for consislency of dala belveen lhe roduclion
and recovery dala cenlers. There is IiuIe lo no dala Ioss in
such soIulions, hovever, lhe resence of lhis funclionaI<
ily is enlireIy deendenl on lhe aIicalion in use.
Tler 6. Zero or Neur-Zero Dutu Loss
.,/( D :65,%/55 0'%+,%6,+4 5'26+,'%5 )*,%+*,% +1/ 1,31<
esl IeveIs of dala currency. They are used by businesses
vilh IiuIe or no loIerance for dala Ioss and vhich need
lo reslore dala lo aIicalions raidIy. These soIulions
1*;/ %' 7/8/%7/%0/ '% +1/ *882,0*+,'%5 '( *882,0*+,'%5
sla lo rovide dala consislency. Tier 6 soIulions ohen
(/E6,(/ 5')/ &'() '& !isk nirrcring. There are various
54%01('%'65 *%7 *54%01('%'65 5'26+,'%5 *;*,2*:2/
&(') +1/ )*,%&(*)/ slorage vendors. Iach soIulion is
somevhal dierenl, oering dierenl caabiIilies and
roviding dierenl rccctcrq pcini *%7 rccctcrq iinc ob|ec<
lives. Ohen, some form of aulomaled lae soIulion is aIso
required. Hovever, lhis can vary somevhal deending
on lhe amounl and lye of dala residing on lae.
F&)" PH I&N;.> /-%'1#%)0Q C-,&(),,
5(%)N"#%)0 3'.-%&'(
Tier 7 soIulions incIude aII lhe ma|or comonenls being
used for a Tier 6 soIulion vilh lhe addilionaI inlegralion
of aulomalion. This aIIovs a Tier 7 soIulion lo ensure
consislency of dala above lhal vhich is granled by Tier
6 soIulions. AddilionaIIy, recovery of lhe aIicalions is
aulomaled, aIIoving for resloralion of syslems and aIi<
calions much fasler and more reIiabIy lhan vouId be os<
sibIe lhrough manuaI business conlinuily rocedures.
The CI (vhich is a resonsibiIily of lhe agency
direclor) idenlifies lhe IeveI of disasler recovery
required. The cosl for rearalion and imIemenlalion
0*% :/ 0')86+/7 :4 ,7/%+,&4,%3 +1/ 0')8'%/%+5 %//7/7
lo salisfy lhe lier of recovery seIecled. This rocess
requires lhe cooeralive vork of IT exerls, key dala<
base managers, and ark and recrealion managemenl. A
direclor or agency head has lhe righl lo knov vhal lhe
7,5*5+/( (/0';/(4 82*% ,5 &'( +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/
regardIess of vho direclIy manages il (i.e., designaled
governmenl agency, a conlraclor ,or in-house.)
Malware: Malicious Software
Ma|uarc is lhe generaI cIassihcalion of Inlernel-based
sohvare lhal aecls lhe erformance of vorkslalions
and servers. MaIvare incIudes viruses, advare, and sy<
vare. Iach iIIness requires a secihc medicaI Ian.
F;")#%, 6"'1 M&"-,),
Hov can you gel a virus` A virus is acluaIIy a com<
uler rogram. The mosl common vay lo sread a
virus is auaching a hIe lo an e-maiI. }usl oening a
message lhal conlains a virus can aclivale il. Viruses
can be acquired by lransferring hIes from comuler lo
comuler, incIuding over lhe Inlernel. Comulers nol
8('8/(24 8('+/0+/7 *(/ *+ 1,31/( (,5> '& 0'%+(*0+,%3 *
virus. Viruses can sread around lhe vorId in Iess lhan
24 hours. Iach virus has a dehnilion lhal idenlihes lhe
origin and melhod of removaI. These dehnilions can be
found al any of lhe ouIar virus roleclion Web siles
(i.e., Symanlec, McAfee, and olhers).
Take lhese recaulions againsl viruses:
do nol oen messages vilh auachmenls unIess
you knov lhe sender,
7/2/+/ +1/)A *%7
if you do decide lo oen auachmenl, save il hrsl
lo your hard drive so your anlivirus sohvare
can acl on il.
Virus vrilers are vorking around lhe cIock lo
auack you, lhe anlivirus vendors and Microsoh are vork<
ing around lhe cIock lo heI rolecl you. Some common
anlivirus comanies are Iisled in Ixhibil 14.9.
Whal is your risk` Viruses can carry a damaging
8*42'*7= 5601 *5 * ucrn '( Trcjan ncrsc prcgran. When
a virus infecls your e-maiI or olher hIes, il can:
make coies of ilseIf, ossibIy hIIing u your
7,5> 7(,;/A
5/%7 ,+5/2& +' /;/(4'%/ /25/ '% 4'6( /<)*,2 2,5+A
reformal your disk drive and/or deIele your
hIes and rograms, and
inslaII hidden rograms, such as iraled soh<
vare, lhal can be dislribuled and soId using
your comuler.
Irolecl yourseIf againsl viruses vilh lhese sles:
kee your anlivirus sohvare u-lo-dale,
roulineIy examine your comuler for lhe res<
/%0/ '& ,%&/0+,'%A
3/+ 5')/ '& +1/ :/5+ 8('+/0+,'% *;*,2*:2/ &(')
anlivirus sohvare,
scan incoming e-maiI and auachmenls, raclice
good erimeler roleclionscan hIes before
4'6 '8/% +1/)A
sign u for aulomalic udales vilh your anli<
;,(65 ;/%7'(A 2/+ +1/ 8('3(*) 1/28 8('+/0+ 4'6
:4 *6+')*+,0*224 687*+,%3 +1/ ;,(65 5,3%*+6(/
hIes,
scheduIe veekIy disk drive scans, scheduIe
4'6( *%+,;,(65 8('3(*) +' 01/0> 4'6( 545+/)
vhiIe you sIee, il viII have a reorl vailing
for you in lhe morning.
make sure il's vorking, check lhe anlivirus icon
'% 4'6( +*5> :*( (/362*(24 +' )*>/ 56(/ 4'6(
sohvare is aclive, and
vhen you ugrade your comuler's oeraling
syslem or olher sohvare rograms, gel lhe Ial<
esl version of your anlivirus sohvare, loo.
Hov do you knov if your comuler has a virus`
Walch for lhe foIIoving symloms. You shouId con<
+*0+ 4'6( $. 7/8*(+)/%+ ,& *%4 '& +1/5/ '006( '% 4'6(
comuler:
comuler sIovs dovnlhis couId indicale
6%*6+1'(,9/7 *0+,;,+4 3',%3 '% ,% +1/ :*0><
3('6%7A *%7
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
6%656*2 :/1*;,'( '& 4'6( 0')86+/(H+*>/
%'+,0/ ,& *882,0*+,'%5 *(/ %'+ '8/(*+,%3 0'(<
reclIy or if conlenl in hIes aears scrambIed.
F;")#%, 6"'1 /0A#") #(0 38>A#")
Much Iike a virus, markeling comanies Iace ro<
grams on your comuler vilh lhe inlenlion of moni<
loring vhere you go on lhe Inlernel. Many of lhese
rograms are aclivaled vhen you slarl your comuler
and make an eorl lo conlacl a server on lhe Inlernel.
A!uarc 8('3(*)5 +(4 +' ,%+/(0/8+ *%7 (/7,(/0+ 4'6(
Inlernel use lo a secihc server or aIicalion. Spquarc
rograms search your comuler for assvords and
8/(5'%*2 ,%&'()*+,'% 5' +1*+ ,+ 0*% :/ +(*%5&/((/7 +' *%
Inlernel server. The inlenl for some of lhese rograms
,5 +' ,7/%+,&4 4'6( 8(/&/(/%0/5 5' +1*+ *75 &'( 8('760+5
in vhich you may be inleresled are disIayed romi<
nenlIy (o-u ads). Olher maIvare rograms incIude
keyboard Ioggers, vhich delecl your keyslrokes (vhen
enlering a assvord), so lhal il can be saved and used
Ialer by inlruders vishing lo gain access lo your Inlernel
accounls.
Some of lhis aclivily may be innocuous. Il lruIy
cuslomizes a Web sile making il easier lo gel lhe infor<
malion you need each lime you visil. This informalion
is kel in hIes caIIed ccckics.
Want a cnnkic? Cookies are smaII lexl hIes lhal some
Web siles creale vhen you visil, and use lo slore infor<
malion on your comuler. Some siles use lhis dala lo
deIiver cuslomized conlenl, such as IocaI nevs or slock
quoles.
B You can use lhe Inlernel IxIorer rivacy seuings
lo secify hov lhe brovser shouId handIe cookies, such
as aIIoving aII, revenling aII, or romling you before
Iacing a cookie on your comuler (so you can aIIov
or bIock each lime)
Passwnrds: Acccss tn dcviccs, app!icatinns, and
accnunts. Think of your assvord as if il vere a key
lo your home and everylhing you ovn, incIuding your
reulalion. Whal couId someone do if lhey had your
assvords`
*00/55 ,%&'()*+,'% '% 4'6( 0')86+/(= 5601 *5
your hnanciaI records, e-maiI messages, slored
Iisls of assvords, and rivale informalion,
oen nev accounls and buy, buy, buy,
01*%3/ 4'6( )*,2,%3 *77(/55= *%7 1*;/ ,+/)5
lhey urchase (and biIIs) senl lo lhem,
vilhdrav money from your bank,
:64 '( 5/22 5+'0>5A
*8824 &'( 2'*%5= ,%0267,%3 )'(+3*3/5A *%7
8(/+/%7 +' :/ 4'6 ,% '%2,%/ 01*+5 '( '+1/( '%2,%/
*0+,;,+,/5= 5601 *5 *60+,'%5A
01*%3/ *00/55 +' 7/;,0/5= *882,0*+,'%5= *%7
accounls so you can'l gel il.
$& *% ,7/%+,+4 +1,/& 01*%3/5 +1/ )*,2,%3 *77(/55 &'(
your accounls, you may nol knov you have a robIem
unliI you gel a hone caII from a coIIeclions agency.
Hackers use diclionary and olher sohvare looIs lhal
run raidIy lhrough lhousands of IikeIy assvords,
Iooking for easy marks. HeI rolecl your securily by
using unIikeIy or slrong assvords, managing your
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Exhibit 14.9
Virus Protection
Sohvare IubIisher Iroducl
Microsoh Inlernel Conneclion IirevaII for Windovs XI
hu://vvv.microsoh.com/vindovsx/using/nelvorking/Iearnmore/icf.msx
Symanlec Norlon IersonaI IirevaII 2002 (Symanlec)
hu://vvv.symanlec.com/sabu/nis/nf/
McAfee McAfee.com IersonaI IirevaII (McAfee)
hu://us.mcafee.com/rool/ackage.as`kgid101&
N'%/ O*:5 ZoneAIarm Iro (Zone Labs)
hu://vvv.zoneIabs.com/slore/conlenl/home.|s
Sygale Sygale IersonaI IirevaII IRO (Sygale TechnoIogies)
hu://vvv.sygale.com/
Zero-KnovIedge Syslems Ireedom IersonaI IirevaII (Zero-KnovIedge Syslems)
hu://vvv.freedom.nel/roducls/hrevaII/index.hlmI`roduclhrevaII
Inlernel Securily Syslems Iack Ice Defender (Inlernel Securily Syslems)
hu://vvv.bIack-ice-hrevaII.com/
assvord carefuIIy, and moniloring your accounls. (See
Comendium 14-8 for Crealing Slrong Iassvords.)
The chaIIenge, of course, is crealing a assvord
+1*+ 4'6 0*% (/)/):/(= :6+ ,5 1*(7 &'( *%4'%/ /25/ +'
guess. There are many suggeslions lhal viII heI you
lo creale a slrong assvord, vhich is one lhal viII
%'+ /*5,24 :/ 36/55/7 :4 5')/'%/ /25/ '( ,5 %'+ /*5,24
idenlihabIe by lhe sohvare lhal hackers use lo relrieve
assvords. The Iisl beIov conlains some of lhe main
suggeslions for crealing slrong assvords. Make sure
you creale a assvord lhal:
,5 *+ 2/*5+ 5/;/% 01*(*0+/(5 ,% 2/%3+1= *%7 +1/
Ionger lhe beuer,
incIudes uer and Iover case Ieuers, numer<
*25= 54):'25A
1*5 *+ 2/*5+ '%/ 54):'2 01*(*0+/( ,% +1/ 5/0'%7
lhrough sixlh osilion,
has al Ieasl four dierenl characlers in your
assvord (no reeals),
Iooks Iike a sequence of random Ieuers and
%6):/(5A
7'/5 %'+ 65/ *%4 8*(+ '& 4'6( 2'3<,% %*)/ &'(
your assvord,
does nol use any acluaI vord or name in any
2*%36*3/A
7'/5 %'+ 65/ %6):/(5 ,% 82*0/ '& 5,),2*( 2/+<
+/(5A
7'/5 %'+ (/65/ *%4 8'(+,'% '& 4'6( '27 8*55<
vord,
does nol use conseculive Ieuers or numbers Iike
abcdefg or 234567, and
does nol use ad|acenl keys on your keyboard,
such as qverly.
Aher you have crealed a slrong assvord:
>//8 ,+ +' 4'6(5/2&A
do nol vrile il dovn,
do nol share il vilh anyone,
do nol check lhe remember my assvord
fealure, vilhoul considering lhe vaIue of lhe
dala lhe assvord rolecls,
creale dierenl assvords for informalion lhal
%//75 * 1,31 2/;/2 '& 8('+/0+,'%A
change your assvord al Ieasl every six
)'%+15A *%7
,& 4'6 1*7 (/*5'% +' +/22 5')/'%/ 4'6( 8*55<
vord, lhen creale a nev one al your earIiesl
oorlunily.
Rcstrictinn. One of lhe vays lo secure a cIienl/server
/%;,('%)/%+ ,5 +' F1*(7/%G +1/ 5/(;/( cpcraiing sqsicn
(OS), lhen lhe cIienl OS, lo make il even more dicuIl
&'( *% ,%+(67/( +' 65/ * 02,/%+ )*01,%/ +' 1*0> ,%+' 4'6(
nelvork. Harden means lo secure, making il harder for
anyone lo enler il easiIy. The nelvork adminislralor
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vouId do lhis using oIicies, as each OS has dierenl
oIicies, as veII as dierenl usages for lhese oIicies. Il
is aII deendenl on vhich OS is being used, and vhal
lye of securily oIicy lhe adminislralor has in Iace.
When you sle avay from your comuler, be sure
lo Iock il. Deending uon lhe OS you have, lhere
are dierenl vays lo Iock il. Seak vilh your nelvork
adminislralor lo hnd oul hov lo do lhis.
When you buy a nev vehicIevhelher il's lhe
car of your dreams, a nev bike, or a boalyou knov
you're going lo have lo mainlain il. The oiI needs lo be
changed, lhe air hIler reIaced, lhe lires rolaledaII on
a reguIar scheduIeso you can lrusl your vehicIe viII
be avaiIabIe vhen you need il lo gel you safeIy vhere
you vanl lo go. Keeing your comuler udaled lo
1/28 8('+/0+ 4'6( 8(,;*04 ,5 )601 +1/ 5*)/A ,+ ,%;'2;/5
ongoing mainlenance, nol a one shol hx.
.1/ nanagcncni ccnpcncni assigns secihc users'
resonsibiIily lo every organizalion dalabase. Some of
lhe resonsibiIilies vouId be:
+' >//8 ,%&'()*+,'% 06((/%+ *%7 *006(*+/A
lo knov hov lo use lhe syslem rohcienlIy,
+' 8(';,7/ +(*,%,%3 *%7 7/;/2'8 7'06)/%+*<
+,'% *5 %//7/7A
lo make sure mainlenance conlracls vilh sys<
lem vendors are budgeled and roerIy exe<
06+/7 *%7 +1/,( 8('0/76(/5 6%7/(5+''7A *%7
+' 86+ ,% 82*0/ * 82*% &'( 7,5*5+/( (/0';/(4 &'(
lhal syslem.
.1/5/ 7*+*:*5/ )*%*3/(5= '( 568/( 65/(5, 0'627
:/ +1'5/ vho knov lhe mosl aboul lhe use of a given
syslem. There are some syslems in vhich lhere is no
dalabase adminislralor. These syslems have queslion<
abIe accuracy and no rovisions for disasler recovery. IT
sla may nol be abIe lo reslore lhe informalion because
il vas never in Iace lo be backed u. This is a manage<
)/%+ 8(':2/) +1*+ 0*% :/ 0'((/0+/7 :4 ,)82/)/%+,%3 *
sound disasler recovery Ian.
Informalion oIicies need lo idenlify lvo lyes
of informalion:
pcrscna| injcrnaiicn. 7'06)/%+5= 58(/*751//+5=
*%7 7*+*:*5/5 +1*+ 1*;/ %' '8/(*+,'%*2 :/*(,%3
'% +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'%A *%7
!cparincni (crganizaiicn) injcrnaiicn. $%&'()*<
+,'% +1*+ 1*5 * 7,(/0+ :/*(,%3 '% +1/ )*%*3/<
)/%+= '8/(*+,'%= *%7 *7),%,5+(*+,'% '& '(3*%,<
zalion services.
.1/ 8'2,04 51'627 5+*+/ +1*+ *22 '(3*%,9*+,'% ,%&'(<
)*+,'% nusi be backed u daiIy. This vouId incIude aII
users on a nelvork and users on sland-aIone comul<
ers. The oIicy vouId require lhal every organizalion
dalabase have a designaled ovner vho vouId have
cuslodiaI resonsibiIilies. The disasler recovery Ian
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1.
2.
!!" |njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni
vouId idenlify each organizalion dalabase and aro<
riale ovner. This lask idenlihes vhich sla members
are resonsibIe for each iece of informalion. ackus
may be done lo a nelvork drive, lo a zi drive, lo a lae
back u, lo a DVD-RW, or lo remole slorage (uuing il
some vhere eIse on lhe nelvork).
Disaster Recovery
I6( 065+')/(5 +/22 65 +1*+ +1/,( 3(/*+/5+ 01*22/%3/
,5%@+ :*0>,%3 68 +1/,( ,%&'()*+,'%H,+@5 (/0';/(,%3 *%7
resuming oeralions in a limeIy manner. We don'l
beIieve U.S. business Ieaders are being misIed by lheir
IT leams. Inslead il is IikeIy a misercelion lhal, if lhe
dala are backed u, lhere is no issue. (David GouIden,
as ciled in Irauenheim, 2003)
Disasler recovery is a groving heId. In a reorl Iasl
year, markel research hrm IDC said lhe back-u recov<
ery services markel vouId grov from $3 biIIion in 2001
lo $4.2 biIIion in 2006, for annuaI grovlh of 6.9 ercenl
(see Ixhibil 14.10). IDC redicled lhal lhe broader busi<
ness conlinuily markel, vhich aIso incIudes sohvare
and hardvare such as high-avaiIabiIily comulers and
slorage area nelvorks (SANs), vouId exand from
$29.9 biIIion in 2001 lo $54.9 biIIion in 2006. Thal vouId
reresenl annuaI grovlh of 12.9 ercenl. Islimales
suggesl lhal lhe survivaI rale for comanies vilhoul a
disasler recovery Ian in Iace is Iess lhan 10 ercenl.
According lo lhe Inleraclive Dala Cororalion (IDC),
aboul 70 ercenl of aII successfuI auacks on comuler
nelvorks vere conducled by emIoyees and insiders
(see hu://iosafe.com/induslry-slals).
Iuroean business and lechnoIogy Ieaders are
)'(/ *2,3%/7 '% 7,5*5+/( (/*7,%/55= *00'(7,%3 +' +1/
survey. Tvo hundred and hhy-four senior business
and IT Ieaders in seven counlries vere queslioned.
Iorly ercenl of business execulives and 44 ercenl of
IT execulives resonded lhal lhey feIl very vuInerabIe
regarding lheir dala.
Comanies reorled lhal disasler recovery
accounls for 6 ercenl of lheir lolaI IT budgel in 2001,
and 65 ercenl execled lheir disasler recovery send<
ing lo increase aher lhe 9/11 auacks.
C%'+1/( )*%*3/)/%+ 0'%0/(% ,5 :65,%/55 0'%+,%6,+4
in lhe face of a disaslrous evenl. There are many evenls
(i.e., over oulage, comuler virus auack, vandaIism,
hre, lornado) lhal couId Iead lo business inlerrulion.
In mosl cases, IT services are invoIved. Conducling a
disasler recovery audil viII heI managers idenlify lhe
risks (hnanciaI and deIay of service) associaled vilh nol
being reared or lhe inadequacy of exisling measures.
(See Comendium 14.9 Informalion TechnoIogy Securily
IIans Ixercise). (See Ixhibils 14.11 and 14.12).
Understanding IT Infrastructure
If eoIe buiIl houses lhe vay organizalions buiId
slralegic informalion managemenl syslems, lhe hrsl
voodecker lhal came aIong vouId deslroy civiIiza<
lion. (Anonymous, ciled in Wang, 1994)
Exhibit 14.10
Survey Results of Senior IT Executives
Survey by dala
slorage gianl IMC
2002, Conducled
by RoerASW
14 ercenl of senior business
execulives feIl lheir imorlanl
7*+* *(/ ;62%/(*:2/ +' :/,%3
2'5+ ,% +1/ /;/%+ '& * 7,5*5+/(
52 ercenl of senior IT
execulives agreed
274 execulives al ma|or U.S. cororalions and olher Iarge
organizalions vere oIIed.
The business Ieaders oIIed incIuded senior hnanciaI
execulives, such as chief hnanciaI ocers and chief execulive
ocers, according lo IMC.
Informalion lechnoIogy Ieaders surveyed incIuded senior
IT execulives in business unils and chief informalion ocers.
Exhibit 14.11
Article on the Need for Security
The lerrorisl auacks of Selember 11, 2001 resuIled in
rofound changes in U.S. ubIic oIicy. In ubIic oIicy
anaIysis Ianguage, lhe auacks reresenled lhe uIlimale
focusing evenl (See irkIand, 1997 on focusing evenls),
il imeIIed lhe Iresidenl, Congress, and a hosl of olher
governmenl ociaIs lo crah and enacl Iavs, oIicies
*%7 8('0/76(/5 *&&/0+,%3 7')/5+,0 8(/8*(/7%/55=
(/58'%5/= *%7 F0'%5/E6/%0/ )*%*3/)/%+G &'( +/(('(
auacks. The federaI governmenl aIso resonded lo lhe
evenls of 9/11 by crealing lhe Dearlmenl of HomeIand
Securily. The Iresidenl's issuance of nev direclives, coI<
Ieclive federaI eorls lhal deveIoed nev rearedness
*%7 0'%5/E6/%0/ )*%*3/)/%+ 8('3(*)5= *%7 '%3',%3
&/7/(*224<7,(/0+/7 (/'(3*%,9*+,'% *%7 (/7,(/0+,'% '&
exisling disasler-reIaled rograms aII ove lheir imelus
lo lhe 9/11 lerror auacks (NichoIson 2005, Tierney 2005,
uIIock, el aI., 2005, KeuI 2004). Hurricane Kalrina, vhich
slruck lhe U.S. GuIf Coasl in Iale Augusl 2005, lriggering
lhe faiIure of lhe Ievy syslem lhal rolecled Nev OrIeans,
+/5+/7 +1/ 0*8*0,+4= *7/E6*04= *%7 2,),+5 '& 7,5*5+/( 8'2,04
and managemenl changes made since 9/11.
Scurcc. SyIves, R.T. (n.d.). Disasler oIicy and managemenl in
an era of homeIand securily.
The comulers, syslems, viring, IiuIe bIack boxes,
*%7 0'))6%,0*+,'% 5/(;,0/5 +1*+ *(/ 65/7 +' 8/(&'()
IT funclions are referred lo as IT infraslruclure. IT
,%&(*5+(60+6(/ 7/+/(),%/5 *% '(3*%,9*+,'%@5 *:,2,+4 +'
conducl business and rovide services in lhe fulure.
IT is a seciaIized disciIine. Il changes so raidIy
lhal il is dicuIl lo slay abreasl of lhe Ialesl advances.
O*(3/( '(3*%,9*+,'%5 *(/ 656*224 5688'(+/7 :4 * 58/<
ciaI IT dearlmenl or conlracl vilh an IT comany.
AIlhough lhe delaiIs and secihcalions are besl Ieh lo
+1/ 58/0,*2,5+5= ,+ ,5 ,)8'(+*%+ +' 6%7/(5+*%7 *%7 :/ *:2/
lo use IT |argon lo secify and Ian for IT services. Mosl
8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'% 86:2,0*+,'%5 1*;/ *7;/(+,5,%3 &(')
IT roviders. SmaIIer organizalions may reIy on lhe
heI of a comuler-Iilerale sla erson vilhin lhe orga<
nizalion, or hire a consuIlanl lo soIve lheir robIems.
.1/(/ *(/ %6)/('65 0')8*%,/5 +1*+ 8(';,7/ $. 5/(;,0/5=
incIuding lhe IocaI leIehone rovider. Il is imeralive
+1*+ 5+*%7*(75 :/ *7'8+/7 &'( /*01 0')8'%/%+ '& +1/
infraslruclure. Slandards can rovide a framevork lo
simIify fulure buying decisions, lraining, and suorl.
.1/ &'6( 0')8'%/%+5 '& $. ,%&(*5+(60+6(/ *(/ 2,5+/7 ,%
Ixhibil 14.13.
Workstations
A vorkslalion couId be a comuler or a lerminaI. A
ersonaI comuler (IC) refers lo a slandard desklo-
5,9/ )*01,%/ +1*+ 0*% 8(';,7/ *22 '& +1/ :*5,0 0')86+/(
funclions. There are many manufaclurers of comulers,
incIuding AIe, IM, DeII, Comaq, and olhers. These
)*%6&*0+6(/(5 0')8/+/ +' 8(';,7/ +1/ :/5+ 5'26+,'% &'(
an agency's IT needs, vhiIe mainlaining a modesl rohl.
Iach brand of IC has ils ovn dislinclive lechnicaI fea<
lures. CurrenlIy, lhe Iargesl ercenlage of ICs roduced
&'( :65,%/55 *882,0*+,'%5 *(/ +1/ $%+/2<:*5/7 0')86+/(5
(lhal is, lheir hardvare is based on comuler chis
manufaclured by InleI Cororalion). The Microsoh
Cororalion rovides lhe ma|orily of OSs found in mosl
ICs as of lhis rinling.
Iapicps 1*;/ :/0')/ * 8'862*( *2+/(%*+,;/ +'
slalionary vorkslalions. A Ialo can be conhgured lo
vork in a docking slalion, such lhal il can be connecled
+' * %'()*2<5,9/7 )'%,+'(= >/4:'*(7= *%7 )'65/A '( ,+
can be laken on lhe road. Lalos soId loday conlain
a vireIess nelvork access card lhal can be used in hol
sols in ubIic areas (i.e., Slarbucks, Iibraries, and WiIi
Iocalions) or on lhe agency's rivale nelvork.
Exhibit 14.12
Effects of 9/11 on IT Security
As a resuIl of lhe 9/11 auacks CIOs of organizalions said
lhey vouId increase sending and make changes:
Out nI 100 CEOs
oosled cyber securily sending
by 10 ercenl
100
C77/7 0(,5/5 0'))6%,0*+,'%5 99
Udaled emergency resonse
82*%5
97
More lesling of emergency
82*%5 /*01 4/*(
90
More lesling of emergency
Ians lvice a year
40
Scurcc. ComulervorId Securily (2004). Survey shovs secu<
rily imrovemenls in rivale seclor. Relrieved on }une 8,
2009, from hu://vvv.comulervorId.com/rinuhis/2004/
0,4814,90852,00.hlmI
Exhibit 14.13
The Components of an IT Infrastructure
Cnmpnncnt Dcscriptinn Typica! Managcd Ob|ccts
Wnrkstatinns ?/;,0/ 65/7 +' *00/55 *3/%04
,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/5
TerminaIs, desklo ICs, Ialo, lhin cIienls, and
)':,2/ 7/;,0/5
Data Nctwnrks Communicalion highvays over
vhich dala is lransmiued and
(/0/,;/7
LANs (hIeserver, viring, hub, roulers, bridges,
galevays, vorkslalion, nelvork inlerface card,
WANs, camus nelvork, & eer-lo-eer nelvorking)
Entcrprisc Nctwnrk A coIIeclion of aII nelvorks IocaI
and remole in vhich lhere is
* 0/%+(*2 0''(7,%*+,'% '& 7*+*
+(*%5),55,'%
MuIliIe nelvorks, middIevare, dalabases, oeraling
545+/)5
Data Ccntcr O'0*+,'% '& )*,%&(*)/= 568/(
0')86+/(5 '( 32':*2 5/(;/(5
AIicalions, rograms, business ob|ecls, HeI
Desk, rocesses, vorkovs
C inin c|icni !cticc is nov an auraclive aIlernalive
lo a lradilionaI IC or Ialo. IssenliaIIy, il is a smaII
device lhal conlains a nelvork card, conneclions for a
>/4:'*(7 *%7 )'65/= *%7 /%'631 )/)'(4 &'( * 65/( +'
Iog in lhe nelvork. The lhin cIienl connecls lo anolher
arl of lhe nelvork lhal runs lhe aIicalion and ro<
cessing. Nolhing is slored on lhe device. Il is ideaI for
lhe user vho runs lhe same aIicalions every day.
Mc|i|c !cticcs such as Iackberry, Trio, iIods, and
'+1/( 0'):,%*+,'% 0/22 81'%/ *%7 7*+* 7/;,0/5 *(/
nov very ouIar for sending and receiving e-maiI,
accessing a caIendar and lhe Inlernel. These devices
require a seciaI server lo enabIe lhese fealures. Users
can mainlain conlacl oul of lhe oce vilh a simIe
smaII device.
|rgcncnics is lhe sludy of a user's vorking envi<
ronmenl. Comuler use can cause such maIadies as
0*(8*2 +6%%/2 54%7(')/= 1/*7*01/5= *%7 :*0> 8(':<
Iems. Irgonomic exerls Iook for vays lo creale safer
vorkslalions and reduce lhe risk of users harming
lhemseIves. Some of lhe vork area faclors anaIyzed
incIude Iighling, keyboard heighl, gIare, oslure, vork<
sace, desk sace, vork assignmenls, and lime senl on
a IC. This research has Ied lo lhe roduclion of various
roducls, incIuding vrisl resls, anli-gIare screens, key<
board sheIves, and more. Many limes, simIe urchases
can make a big dierence in roduclivily and generaI
heaIlh. Unchecked robIem vorkslalions may Iead lo
Iavsuils or avoidabIe medicaI exenses.
The faclory of lhe fulure viII have onIy lvo emIoyees:
a man and a dog. The man viII be lhere lo feed lhe dog.
The dog viII be lhere lo kee lhe man from louching lhe
comuler. (W. G. ennis, as ciled in oone, 1992)
Some vork areas use icrnina|s &'( 7',%3 +1/ 0')<
uling lasks. A lerminaI is a device lhal is connecled lo
a mainframe or lo anolher IC. The lerminaI has Iimiled
0')86+/( 8('0/55,%3 0*8*:,2,+4 *%7 ,5 (/&/((/7 +' *5 *
dumb lerminaI. A lerminaI is Iov in cosl because il con<
lains fever comonenls lhan a IC does. If lhe main com<
uler is dovn, lhe lerminaI is nol usabIe for vork. In lhe
asl, mainframe comulers far exceeded ICs in seed
and comuling over. Hovever, ICs have become
fasler, cheaer, and more overfuI. TerminaIs are being
reIaced vilh ICs lo give lhe user lhe over of lhe main<
frame and lhe exibiIily of sland-aIone comuling.
Networks
A nelvork is a sohislicaled coIIeclion of comulers,
vires, and communicalions equimenl. SimIe nel<
vorks, usuaIIy ones found on a singIe oor of an oce
buiIding, are referred lo as IocaI area nelvorks (LANs).
MuIliIe oors, buiIdings and Iocalions on lhe same
nelvork are referred lo as a WAN (vide area nelvork).
The basic comonenls of a LAN or WAN are:
hIeserver (sharing hIes, rinling services or
seciaIly services such as e-maiI),
viring (connecling vorkslalions lo lhe nel<
vork),
hub, rouler, bridge, and galevay (equimenl
lhal manages nelvork lrac),
vorkslalion (see above seclion),
nelvork oeraling syslem (NOS), and
dala circuils (DSL, T1, broadband/cabIe).
R&.),)"2)"
Scrtcrs are seciaIized comulers lhal serve u hIes
and olher seciaIized IT funclions. They are comosed
'& 2*(3/ 7,5> 5+'(*3/ 545+/)5 *%7 2*(3/ *)'6%+5 '&
memory, and have raid rocessing seeds. Servers are
,)8'(+*%+ :/0*65/ +1/4 0/%+(*2,9/ 7*+* 5+'(*3/ &6%0<
lions, aIIov onIy secihed users lo have access, and
rovide rinling resources as needed.
$% 2*(3/( '(3*%,9*+,'%5= * %6):/( '& 5/(;/(5 )*4 :/
used lo rovide IT services. Common servers incIude an
c-nai| scrtcr (a dislribulion cenler lhal sends e-maiI mes<
sages inside and oulside lhe organizalion), a jax scrtcr (a
device vilh hone Iine lhal sends, receives, and roules
faxes lo ICs), and an app|icaiicn scrtcr (dedicaled secihc
dalabase funclion lhal rovides users vilh quick access
lo dala). The urose of seciaIized servers is lo rovide
lhe highesl ossibIe erformance in lhe mosl cosl-eec<
live conhguralion. AIso, ccnnunicaiicn scrtcrs *(/ 65/7
lo rovide nelvork access lo users al remole siles and
rovide nelvork users access lo olher nelvorks.
C%'+1/( +/01%,E6/ &'( 65,%3 5/(;/(5 ,5 c|icni/scrtcr
iccnnc|cgq. In lhis scenario, lhe IC runs lhe aIicalion
sohvare and anolher rogram caIIed lhe c|icni. When
+1/ *882,0*+,'% %//75 7*+*= ,+ ,5 (/E6/5+/7 +1('631 +1/
cIienl. The cIienl and lhe server are luned lo rovide
lhe faslesl ossibIe lurnaround for informalion. This
lechnoIogy rivaIs mainframe over and seed.
:&"&(N DF'8'.'N>E
To lransmil dala on a nelvork, seciaI viring musl be
inslaIIed. The lye of viring used has an imacl on
hov fasl lhe dala viII lraveI on lhe nelvork. Nelvorks
musl be Ianned by IT rofessionaIs vho seciaIize in
nelvork erformance. There are basicaIIy four lyes of
viring slandards:
coaxiaI (Iooks Iike video cabIe, nol common in
nev inslaIIalions),
lvisled air (Iooks Iike leIehone vire, very
common and inexensive),
hber (very fasl, can go Iong dislances, exensive
lo inslaII), and
vireIess (exibIe access, dicuIl lo secure).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
|njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni !!!
Wiring is imorlanl because il rovides access lo
lhe nelvork. AII faciIily conslruclion and remodeIing
shouId incIude viring for voice (leIehone) and dala
(nelvork access) in every room. This viII increase lhe
&6%0+,'%*2,+4 '& :6,27,%35= 8(';,7/ /%1*%0/7 (/5*2/
and renlaI vaIue, and revenl unsighlIy exosed vire
inslaIIed on a osl. TyicaIIy, a dala |ack can be inslaIIed
in lhe same Iocalion as a voice |ack.
Hubs, Routers, Sultches, Brldges, und
<#%)A#>,
C nu| is a seciaI-urose bIack box lhal reads lhe
informalion ackels on lhe vire and roules lhem lo
lheir deslinalions. As vorkslalions send and receive
ackels, lhe resuIling eecl is lrac on lhe vire. This
lrac lraveIs al a high seed, bul lhere are limes vhen
8*0>/+5 )65+ :/ 1/27 68 '( (/<5/%+ :/0*65/ * 7/;,0/ '%
lhe nelvork is busy vilh olher lrac. The |ob of lrac
co faIIs lo lhe hub.
C rcuicr sends ackels from one nelvork lo
*%'+1/(= *556),%3 +1/4 1*;/ +1/ 5*)/ 5+*%7*(7 8('+'<
coIs (comuler Ianguage).
C suiicn is a nelvork device lhal seIecls a alh or
circuil for sending a unil of dala lo ils nexl deslinalion.
A svilch is nol aIvays required in a nelvork and is
3/%/(*224 * 5,)82/( *%7 &*5+/( )/01*%,5) +1*% * ('6+/(=
vhich requires knovIedge aboul lhe nelvork and hov
lo delermine lhe roule.
C |ri!gc ,5 65/7 +' ('6+/ 8*0>/+5 &(') '%/ >,%7 '&
nelvork lo anolher (among dierenl lyes of viring).
IssenliaIIy, a ackel is read on one side of lhe bridge and
converled lo lhe correcl rolocoI on lhe olher side.
C gaicuaq ,5 * )'(/ 5'81,5+,0*+/7 :(,73/= %//7/7
vhen lhe ackel requires a seciaIized conversion (i.e.,
lo access a mainframe). These devices are lhe vork<
horses of lhe nelvork.
@)%A'"B 5(%)"6#$) +#"0, D@5+E
Circuil cards, knovn as nciucrk inicrjacc car!s, *(/
required for any device lhal connecls lo lhe nelvork.
These devices converl IC signaIs lo dala ackels and ul
lhem on lhe vire. The NIC conlains lhe unique address
in vhich ackels are IabeIed lo be senl or received from
a secihc comuler. The NIC roulineIy broadcasls on
lhe vire, aIerling olher devices of ils resence. TyicaIIy,
NICs are Iugged inlo servers, vorkslalions, and rinl<
ers so lhey can have direcl access lo lhe nelvork.
@)%A'"B 78)"#%&(N 3>,%)1 D@73E
Servers gain lheir slrenglh from a NOS. This is a com<
Iex rogram lhal coordinales lhe movemenl of dala
on a nelvork. The NOS conlroIs lhe ov of informa<
lion by using a slandard rolocoI for lransmiuing
and receiving ackels of dala. The NOS aIso conlains
adminislralive fealures lhal aIIov a nelvork adminis<
lralor lo conlroI vho can use lhe nelvork, vhere users
can rinl, vhere dala can be slored, and a number of
olher imorlanl delaiIs. Securily is an imorlanl func<
lion of lhe NOS.
C ui!c arca nciucrk (WAN) is lvo nelvorks con<
necled via high-seed dala Iines inslead of |usl viring.
Many ark and recrealion organizalions have remole
faciIilies. To rovide access lo organizalion informalion
(/5'6(0/5= ,+ )*4 :/ %/0/55*(4 +' 2,%> +1/ *7),%,5+(*<
live nelvork and lhe remole Iocalion. This can be done
vilh a dedicaled oinl-lo-oinl circuil or by using a
diaI-u Iine lhrough vhich lhe remole faciIily diaIs
inlo lhe adminislralive nelvork. Nol aII aIicalions
vork veII over a diaI-u conneclion, because lhe dala
lransfer seed is nol as fasl as vilh a LAN. AIicalions
invoIving remole communicalions and WANs musl be
rofessionaIIy designed.
C canpus arca nciucrk (CAN) is lvo or more buiId<
ings Iinked logelher vilh remise viring (usuaIIy hber
run underground) and adminislered from a cenlraI
Iocalion. This describes lhe nelvorking done al mosl
coIIeges and universilies. Iach buiIding has a viring
cIosel vilh racks of hubs and roulers. Wiring from
dala |acks around lhe oce or cIassroom is run back
lo lhe viring cIosel. A buiIding may have a dedicaled
server.
A |cca| arca nciucrk (IAN) ,5 * 3('68 '& 0')86+/(5
*%7 *55'0,*+/7 7/;,0/5 +1*+ 51*(/ * 0'))6%,0*+,'%5
Iine or vireIess Iink and lyicaIIy share lhe resources of
a singIe rocessor or server vilhin a smaII geograhic
area and may serve as fev as lvo or lhree, or lhousands,
of users. UsuaIIy, lhe server has aIicalions and dala
5+'(*3/ +1*+ *(/ 51*(/7 ,% 0'))'% :4 )62+,82/ 0')<
uler users.
.1/(/ *(/ '+1/( '8+,'%5 &'( 51*(,%3 7*+* (/5'6(0/5
and rinling. One olion is eer-lo-eer nelvorking.
.1,5 '8+,'% /2,),%*+/5 +1/ %//7 &'( * 7/7,0*+/7 )*01,%/
lo be a hIeserver. Inslead, each comuler on lhe vire can
share disk sace or rinlers. Il is a good olion in smaII
oces, vhere high erformance is nol required.
Many organizalions use lhe lerminaI/server form
of nelvorking, vhere lhe comuling over is in lhe
server, mini-comuler, or mainframe. This rocess
has been used eecliveIy vilh lexl-based aIicalions.
TerminaIs are inexensive and easy lo add vilhin a
buiIding.
Nelvorking is a slabIe lechnoIogy. Once conhg<
ured and in Iace lhere shouId be very fev oeralionaI
robIems. Deending on lhe comIexily of lhe nelvork,
lhe organizalion may assign some of lhe nelvork
adminislralion resonsibiIilies lo a sla member on sile.
This Iiaison erson viII add nev users and vork vilh
IT sla vhen lhere is a robIem. AIlhough il is ossibIe
lo urchase and inslaII nelvork lechnoIogy vilhoul
rofessionaI assislance, il is nol recommended.
L(%)"8"&,) @)%A'"B,
An enlerrise nelvork is a selu lhal invoIves lhere
are muIliIe nelvorks, connecled by an array of rolo<
0'25= &(') )62+,82/ 2'0*+,'%5 *('6%7 +1/ 0,+4 '( *0('55
lhe nalion. Managemenl of such a nelvork is usuaIIy
done by an IT dearlmenl or IT vendor. The ark and
(/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'% :/0')/5 8*(+ '& +1/ /%+/(8(,5/
nelvork. The adminislralion of an enlerrise nelvork
(/E6,(/5 +1*+ /*01 /%+,+4 '% +1/ /%+/(8(,5/ 0'%&'() +'
various securily and lechnoIogy slandards. ecause
of lhe Iarge number of lyes of vorkslalions and
devices avaiIabIe, lhe nelvork musl aIvays be con<
cerned vilh ugrading aging equimenl and changing
lechnoIogy.
.1/ /%+/(8(,5/ 8(';,7/5 +1/ :/5+ '88'(+6%,+4
for sla lo share informalion across organizalion and
dearlmenl Iines. Inlerrise nelvorks are very malure
in conneclivily, bul are very immalure in sharing dala.
This viII change as organizalion heads discover lhe
benehls of enlerrise comuling.
Inlerrise nelvorks can be used very eecliveIy
&'( 0*)83('6%7 (/5/(;*+,'%5 +1('631'6+ * 5+*+/ 8*(>
545+/) '( &'( * (/0(/*+,'% /;/%+ 0*2/%7*( &'( 0,+,9/%5=
/%0')8*55,%3 %'+ '%24 +1/ 86:2,0 (/0(/*+,'% 0/%+/(5=
bul aIso nonrohl organizalion evenls.
9#%# +)(%)",
$% 2*(3/ 3';/(%)/%+ '(3*%,9*+,'%5 *%7 :65,%/55/5= +1/
dala cenler is sliII a slralegic arl of IT services deIivery.
The dala cenler is home lo aII lhe mainframe comulers.
$+ 1*5 * 58/0,*2 /%;,('%)/%+ +1*+ ,%0267/5 +/)8/(*+6(/
conlroI, a hre suression syslem, securily conlroI, and
a over back-u syslem. The dala cenler is run by a
number of seciaIized lechnicians, vho mainlain and
oerale lhe various IT resources. Sla erform such ser<
;,0/5 *5 7*,24 :*0>68 '& 7*+*= (6%%,%3 (/8'(+5= *(01,;,%3
*%7 (/5+'(,%3 7*+*= 7',%3 ('6+,%/ )*,%+/%*%0/ '& 545<
lems, and so on.
Associaled vilh lhe dala cenler is lhe sohvare
aIicalions grou. This grou is comosed of ro<
grammers vho deveIo, imIemenl, ugrade, and
mainlain lhe rograms lhal run on lhe mainframe.
Ohen lhe rogrammers are oulside conlraclors. Cosls
'& 7*+* 0/%+/( 5/(;,0/5 *(/ 656*224 01*(3/7 :*0> +' +1/
organizalion.
Hc!p dcsk. .1/ )*%*3/( )65+ 5// +1*+ * nc|p !csk ,5
eslabIished. The heI desk is an imorlanl funclion
for any IT user communily. As users have queslions or
need assislance vilh IT services, lhey caII one number
for assislance. The heI desk is organized as a one-slo
robIem resoIulion service. Trained cuslomer service
reresenlalives Iog aII caIIs. Mosl robIems can be
resoIved righl on lhe hone. The heI desk disalches
58/0,*2,5+5 '( +/01%,0,*%5 ,& +1/ 8(':2/) (/E6,(/5 *%
on-sile visil. When lhe robIem is resoIved, lhe IT sla
member or lhe heI desk viII nole il in lhe Iog. The
heI desk viII foIIov u vilh lhe user a fev days Ialer
lo make sure lhal aII is veII. The heI desk manager
*%*249/5 +1/ 0*22 2'3 *%7 )*>/5 (/0'))/%7*+,'%5 +' +1/
IT sla aboul hxing lechnicaI robIems and lo organiza<
lions aboul lraining robIems.
The Information Technology Plan
.1/ 7/;/2'8)/%+ '& *% $. 82*% )65+ :/ &*0,2,+*+/7 :4
+1/ )*%*3/( +1('631 * 82*%%,%3 8('0/55 *%7 * 82*%<
ning leam. Managemenl musl undersland lhe reci<
rocaI imacls of a changing vorkIace cuIlure and
conlinuing lechnoIogicaI advances in IT infraslruclure.
C55/55)/%+ '& %//75= 7/+/(),%*+,'% '& 0'5+5= *%7 ,%<
5/(;,0/ /760*+,'% 8('3(*)5 *(/ /55/%+,*2 +' * 5'6%7 *%7
viabIe IT Ian.
The Planning Process
$+ ,5 8(':*:24 5*&/ +' 5*4 +1*+ +1/(/ ,5 %' 5601 +1,%3 *5
a hve-year (or Ionger) IT Ian for ark and recrealion
organizalions. Changes in IT are so revoIulionary and
raid lhal il vouId be imraclicaI and economicaIIy
vaslefuI lo send lime on a delaiIed Ian. Hovever, a
hve-year business Ian deveIoed vilh a Iand-use Ian
is a rudenl vay lo do business. y incIuding an IT Ian<
%/( '( :65,%/55 8*(+%/( ,% +1/ 8('0/55= '(3*%,9*+,'%5
can focus on lhe lechnoIogy lhal viII be besl suiled for
meeling user needs. As lhe lechnoIogy changes from
year lo year, emhasis viII be kel on lhe business
82*%= *%7 687*+,%3= 683(*7,%3= '( 01*%3,%3 +/01%'2'<
gies viII be an oeralionaI decision. There are some
Ianning sles lhal viII increase managemenl's com<
forl IeveI vilh lechnoIogy and vork lovards eIiminal<
ing ossibIe disconnecls belveen uer managemenl
and IT sla.
C% '(3*%,9*+,'% )*4 7/;/2'8 *% $. 5+(*+/34 +1*+
incororales a comIex array of lechnoIogies. The
7/5,(/7 '6+0')/ '& +1,5 5+(*+/34 ,5 +' )*>/ +1/ '(3*%,<
zalion successfuI in meeling ils mission and ob|eclives.
C2+1'631 0'5+ ,5 *% ,556/= +1/ 8(,)*(4 &'065 )65+ :/
on lhe deIivery of services. IT soIulions lhal do nol
/%1*%0/ +1/ /%7 8('760+ :/0')/ ';/(1/*7 0'5+5 &'(
lhe organizalion.
Iffeclive lechnoIogy Ianning can heI ark
and recrealion managers make eeclive urchasing
7/0,5,'%5= ,)8(';/ +1/,( 65/ '& +/01%'2'34= *%7 65/
resources more ecienlIy. TechnoIogy Ianning brings
02*(,+4 *%7 2'%3<+/() 7,(/0+,'% &'( :'+1 )*%*3/)/%+
raclices and sla deveIomenl. The organizalion musl
be commiued lo bolh lhe lechnoIogy Ian and lhe ro<
cess. The rocess in Ianning for lechnoIogy is generaIIy
|njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni !!#
as signihcanl as lhe hnaI Ian and imIemenlalion (see
Ixhibil 14.14).
.' 7/;/2'8 * 5600/55&62 $. 82*%= /*01 8*(> *%7
recrealion organizalion musl:
,%;'2;/ *22 +1/ (/2/;*%+ 5+*>/1'27/(5 ,% 0(/*+,%3
+1/ 82*%A
focus on oulcomes in order lo dehne vhal lech<
noIogies lo use and for vhich uroses,
be reaIislic aboul cosls and eorl in suorling
*%7 +(*,%,%3 *22 +1/ 5+*>/1'27/(5A
address hov lhe deIivery of services viII
change vilh lhe nev lechnoIogies and vhal
aecl lhal viII have, and
address lhe eecl of change in communicalion
belveen adminislralors and sla, sla and cus<
lomers, and adminislralors, sla, and residenls
in lhe gIobaI communily.
If lhere is a Iong lime belveen lhe crealion of
secihcalions and imIemenlalion (grealer lhan six
monlhs), make lhe secihcalions exibIe enough lo buy
lhe Ialesl lechnoIogy vhen urchasing lime comes. See
Ixhibil 14.4 for lhe success faclors idenlihed lhrough
research al a lechnoIogy-based high schooI, vhich are
*882,0*:2/ +' 82*%%,%3 *%7 ,)82/)/%+*+,'% '& * +/01%'2<
'34 82*% &'( (/0(/*+,'%= 8*(>= *%7 2/,56(/ 5/(;,0/ *3/%04
(Iugimolo & Morrison, 1997). (See Comendium 14-10
for a samIe Informalion TechnoIogy IIan Ixercise.)
B
B
B
B
B
Paradigm Shifts in
Information Technology
There have been a number of changes in lhe vorkIace
aecling hov business is conducled. There are lhree
shihs lhal are imorlanl lo undersland vhen Ianning
for IT.
Shlf 1. lrom PersonuI to
Work-Group Computlng
TradilionaIIy, as ICs became avaiIabIe, lhey vere given
lo secrelaries, hnance sla, and various managers in lhe
organizalion. As nev ark and recrealion rofession<
aIs enlered lhe organizalion, lhere vas grealer inlernaI
ressure lo rovide ICs lo aII suervisors and manag<
ers. This vas a resuIl of more eoIe urchasing ICs
for home, schooIs leaching beuer comuler skiIIs, and
+1/ %//7 &'( +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'% +' 0'))6%,0*+/ *%7 :/
more roduclive.
Ior years, sla members en|oyed having lheir
ovn comulers. Organizalions rovided ICs as looIs,
|usl Iike leIehones. IndividuaI roduclivily increased
due, in arl, lo having a IC readiIy avaiIabIe. Hovever,
organizalions as a vhoIe did nol aIvays become more
roduclive. A simIe exercise, such as crealing a sla<
lus reorl, became a dicuIl and ledious rocess.
Managers vere lrained and rohcienl in vord rocess<
ing. Hovever, if each manager rovided reorls in a
dierenl formal, il vas lime-consuming lo consoIidale.
(See Comendium 14-11 for a Scenario for Work-Grou
Reorling.)
If divisions vere using lhe same slandard grou<
vare, a reorl such as lhis couId be a coIIaboralive eorl,
*)'%3 *22 +1/ )*%*3/(5= ,%5+/*7 '& &'6( ,%7,;,76*2
eorls. In addilion, such coIIaboralion vouId reduce
lhe amounl of suorl sla needed lo gel lhe reorl
comIeled, because informalion vouId be shared
across divisions.
The shih lo vork-grou comuling requires lvo
ma|or changes: Iirsl, il requires a change in cuIlure of lhe
vorkforce, from my comuler lo our informalion.
L'( 4/*(5= 7,;,5,'%5 *%7 5/0+,'%5 '& *% '(3*%,9*+,'%
1*;/ ://% 7/2/3*+/7 +1/ (/58'%5,:,2,+4 *%7 *6+1'(,+4
&'( 8('760,%3 5/(;,0/5 *%7 *00'6%+,%3 &'( +1/,( 0'5+ *%7
quaIily. The idea of coIIaboraling inler-dearlmenlaIIy
vas nol comforlabIe, because il meanl giving u conlroI
or sharing conlroI of a ro|ecl or service. Managers vere
concerned vilh hnger-oinling and assigning bIame.
.' ';/(0')/ +1*+ ':5+*02/= 7/8*(+)/%+5 (/'(3*%,9/7=
uuing aII lhe sla under one manager. Ior years,
dearlmenls have been Iagued vilh lhe issues of
0/%+(*2,9/7 ;/(565 7/0/%+(*2,9/7 )*%*3/)/%+ :/0*65/
cuIlure equales conlroI vilh success.
$% +'7*4@5 :65,%/55 /%;,('%)/%+= 5600/55 /E6*25
salisfied cuslomers. Il is loo coslIy lo reorganize
Exhibit 14.14
The Steps in Developing a Technology Plan
5tcp 1: ?/+/(),%/ 8('3(*))*+,0 ,556/5 *%7
:65,%/55 3'*25
5tcp 2: ?/;/2'8 * 8(/2,),%*(4 ;,5,'% &'(
+/01%'2'34 65/
5tcp 3: Conducl an invenlory of currenl
+/01%'2'34 *%7 *;*,2*:2/ (/5'6(0/5
5tcp 4: IxIore lhe ossibiIilies of using lhe
+/01%'2'34
5tcp 5: $7/%+,&4 +/01%'2'34 5'26+,'%5
5tcp 6: Re-examine lhe reIiminary vision: Sel
+/01%'2'34 ;,5,'% *%7 8(,'(,+,/5
5tcp 7: IvaIuale secihc lechnoIogies
5tcp 8: ?/;/2'8 * +/01%'2'34 :673/+
5tcp 9: Delermine sla deveIomenl needs
5tcp 10: ?/;/2'8 * +/01%'2'34 ,)82/)/%+*+,'%
+,)/2,%/
5tcp 11: Conducl an ongoing evaIualion of lhe
+/01%'2'34 82*%
Scurcc. Revised from NalionaI Cenler on AduIl Lileracy's
TechnoIogy IIanning for AduIl Lileracy, 1996.
!!D |njcrnaiicn Tccnnc|cgq Managcncni
,%&'()*+,'% ('2/5 /;/(4 +,)/ +1/(/ ,5 * 01*%3/ ,% )*%<
agemenl. Iach funclionaI unil musl have a dehned
informalion resource lhal is accessibIe by vhalever
7/8*(+)/%+= '(3*%,9*+,'%= ;/%7'( '( 86:2,0 /%+,+4
requires access, lo be successfuI.
SecondIy, lhe shih lo vork-grou comuling
requires a change in IT infraslruclure. When com<
uler equimenl vas hrsl inlroduced lo ark and
recrealion organizalions, onIy a fev sla had access
lo lhe lechnoIogy. Today, many sla members are
(/E6,(/7 +' 5688'(+ +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% &6%0+,'% '& +1/
organizalion. Irocesses and vork ovs musl be re-
/%3,%//(/7 +' 0(/*+/ *% ,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/ +1*+ ,5
accessibIe and easy lo mainlain. Ivery doIIar senl
'% $. (/5'6(0/5 )65+ )';/ +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'% 02'5/( +'
vork-grou comuling. Ixhibil 14.15 iIIuslrales lhe
changes required.
.1('631 +1/ ;*5+24 /%1*%0/7 0'%%/0+,;,+4 0*8*<
:,2,+4= :65,%/55/5 1*;/ (/0'3%,9/7 +1/ 8'+/%+,*2 &'(
vork-grou roduclivily via lhis nev lechnoIogy.
Inslead of having ieces of a ro|ecl residing in four
dierenl areas in four dierenl formals, lhe ro|ecl
can be managed from one Iocalion, vilh aII users hav<
ing access. AII managers can nov use a slandard sel
of grouvare looIs lo do lhe vork. Some grouvare
aIicalions aIIov users lo check oul dalabases, as
in a Iibrary. In lhis vay, olher leam members knov
vho has lhe dalabase, and lhal excIusive changes
are being made. Organizalions are aIso forming high
8/(&'()*%0/ :65,%/55 +/*)5= 0')8'5/7 '& ,%&'()*<
lion-orienled slaers vho cross division Iines lo
manage dearlmenl-vide informalion ro|ecls (see
Comendium 14-12). In a lyicaI ark and recrealion
organizalion:
$. &6%0+,'%5 *(/ 7/2/3*+/7 +' 7/8*(+)/%+5 '(
individuaIs vho have IT skiIIs,
7/8*(+)/%+5 *(/ 1/27 *00'6%+*:2/ &'( ,%&'()*<
lion slevardshi,
individuaIs vilhin lhe dearlmenl erform IT
lasks as dehned in a |ob descrilion and acquire
+(*,%,%3 *5 %//7/7A
545+/)5 *(/ 7/;/2'8/7 :*5/7 '% +1/ 5+(/%3+15
and veaknesses of sla members erforming
+1/ +*5>5A
vork ovs are designed lo accommodale lhe
545+/)5 ,% 82*0/A
sla members make resenlalions lo manage<
menl lo acquire nev comulers and syslems,
and decisions are based on cosl/benehl consid<
/(*+,'%5A *%7
face-lo-face meelings are heId.
In an ideaI vork-grou comuling organizalion:
lhe Ieadershi idenlihes lhe secihc mission
'& +1/ '(3*%,9*+,'% *%7 +1/ 56:5/E6/%+ 8/(<
formance IeveIs needed from sla lo rovide
;*(,'65 5/(;,0/5A
business leams are formed (across divisions) lhal
viII besl accomIish lhe erformance required,
members of lhese vork grous musl acquire
a baseIine of skiIIs using slandard grouvare
(vord rocessing rograms, sreadsheels,
e-maiI syslems, and smaII dalabases),
vork ov syslems are designed and engi<
%//(/7 5' +1*+ +1/ 065+')/( (/0/,;,%3 +1/ 5/(<
vice benehls from lhe change,
aII sla members are execled lo be conlribul<
ing members of lhe vork grou,
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.15
Summary of Shift from Personal to Work-Group Computing
I(3*%,9*+,'%*2 1,/(*(014
C00'6%+*:2/ :65,%/55 +/*)5

IersonaI comuling
Imhasis on lhe individuaI
Work-grou comuling
M('68 8/(&'()*%0/
?/5,3%,%3 +/01%'2'34 (Re) designing lhe vork syslems
.*,2'(,5) Work ov reengineering
./01%,0*2 65/(5 Direcl suorl lo aII users (sla)
$%5+*22,%3 +/01%'2'34 O/*7/(51,8 &'( 01*%3/
+(*,%,%3 *%7 5688'(+ *(/ *;*,2*:2/ +' /;/(4'%/
vilhin lhe grou, and
eIeclronic meelings reIace inecienl slalus
meelings.
M('685= %'+ ,%7,;,76*25 '( 7,;,5,'%5= *(/ *00'6%+<
abIe lo managemenl for erformance. This rocess viII
,%0(/*5/ ,%+(*7/8*(+)/%+*2 0''8/(*+,'%= 5' +1*+ +1/
organizalion vorks as a unil inslead of as comeling
divisions. The divisions remain inlacl and are man<
aged accordingIy. The accounlanls remain logelher lo
kee u vilh oIicies, rocedures, and udales lo lhe
accounling syslems. The recrealion rogramming unils
slay logelher lo benehl from Ieadershi and exerlise
of exerienced rogrammers. Dearlmenl heads are
cognizanl of lhe vork grous and rovide an environ<
menl of encouragemenl and suorl. ecause of IT,
vork grous do nol have lo be in lhe same Iocalion.
.1/(/ *(/ )*%4 +''25= 5601 *5 /<)*,2= +/2/0'%&/(/%0,%3=
and grouvare lhal aIIov a leam lo coIIaborale vhiIe
vorking on a ro|ecl (see Comendium 14-13).
Shlf 2. lrom Sstem lsIunds to
5(%)N"#%)0 3>,%)1,
As funclions righl-size and dovnsize, sla are Iosl lo
'+1/( '(3*%,9*+,'%5 '( ;/%7'(5= :/0')/ 0'%+(*0+'(5= '(
Ieave lhe heId aIlogelher. The exisling sla lhen musl
0'%+,%6/ *+ +1/ 5*)/ 5/(;,0/ 2/;/25= 65,%3 *;*,2*:2/
resources. To accomIish lhis goaI, lhe division bound<
aries belveen adminislralive unils (hnance, human
resources, urchasing, markeling, elc.) and oera<
lionaI unils (recrealion services, mainlenance, goIf,
enlerrise, elc.), become bIurred. Inslead of requesling
informalion from olher divisions, a sla member needs
*00/55 +' *22 '8/(*+,'%*2 '( *7),%,5+(*+,;/ ,%&'()*+,'%
(vilhin securily Iimilalions). To simIify lhe rocess,
*% '(3*%,9*+,'% )65+ 7/;/2'8 *%7 ,)82/)/%+ ,%&'()*<
+,'% 5+*%7*(75 &'( 7'06)/%+ )*%*3/)/%+= 7*+*:*5/
managemenl, and lraining. IdeaI oulcomes of lhis shih
incIude lhe foIIoving:
)*%*3/)/%+ 8(';,7/5 ,%&(*5+(60+6(/ *%7 545<
lems for sla lo do lhe |ob,
sla is roerIy lrained lo use syslems,
8/(5'%*2 ,%&'()*+,'% 3/%/(*+/7 :4 *22 65/(5 ,5
>/8+ +' * ),%,)6)A *%7
sla and managemenl ersonneI changes have
IiuIe aecl on organizalion services.
During lhe infancy of lhe oce aulomalion craze,
lhere vere nol sucienl IT looIs in Iace lo rovide
ease of use and access lo organizalion informalion.
M';/(%)/%+ /%+,+,/5= :65,%/55/5= *%7 6%,;/(5,+,/5 *(/
nov beginning lo change lheir viev of IT. They see lheir
'(3*%,9*+,'%5 )';,%3 &(') :/,%3 5/(;,0/ 8('760/(5 +'
being service-conlracl managers. As lhis lrend conlinues,
B
B
B
B
B
B
lhere viII be Iess need for lhe dala-enlry funclion (il can be
conlracled) and more emhasis on lhe quaIily of service
rovided. Organizalions viII lake a cIoser Iook al meel<
ing consliluenl needs and suslaining lhe hnanciaI heaIlh
of each core aclivily. (See Comendium 14-14, Scenario
for DuIicalion, and Comendium 14-15, Scenario for
ReIicalion.) This lye of inlegralion requires research
and coordinalion. Il is lhe business vave of lhe fulure,
and so lhe lrend musl be seriousIy considered.
Shlf 3. lrom lnternuI to Lxtended
L(%)"8"&,) +'18-%&(N
The lhird aradigm shih is a IiuIe more dicuIl lo
undersland. Il suggesls lhal lhere are a number of
'(3*%,9*+,'%5 +1*+ 8(';,7/ 8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'% 5/(<
vices and lhal everyone can benehl if lhe cuslomer has
direcl access lo lhe informalion aboul each service (no
mauer vho lhe rovider is). This requires informa<
lion coordinalion vilh boys and girIs cIubs, YMCAs,
schooI syslems, bovIing aIIeys, universilies, ark and
(/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'%5= /%;,('%)/%+*2 /760*+,'%
3('685= 1'58,+*25= 2,:(*(,/5= 58'(+,%3 3''75 5+'(/5=
evenl-Ianning consuIlanls, and many, many olhers.
Using lradilionaI managemenl lechniques, lhis lye of
coordinalion vouId be imossibIe, bolh lechnicaIIy and
oIilicaIIy. IT resources for imIemenling lhis lye of
coordinalion are nov avaiIabIe and aordabIe. Il is u
+' /*01 '(3*%,9*+,'% +' 7/+/(),%/ ,& ,+ ,5 8(*0+,0*2 *%7
ossibIe. (See Comendium 14-16 for a scenario for
Inhancing lhe QuaIily of askelbaII.)
Assessing IT Needs
The lechnoIogy advancemenls of lhe 1990s have ro<
vided overfuI comuling machines al lhe desklo,
aIong vilh access lo mini and mainframe comulers
around lhe vorId. Today lhere are a vide variely of
)/+1'75 *%7 +/01%,E6/5 +' )*%*3/ *% *3/%04@5 ,%&'(<
malion resources. The business vorId is changing
quickIy. TechnoIogy decisions have an overvheIming
eecl on agency's resources. This incIudes lhe direcl
0'5+5 &'( 82*%%,%3= 7/;/2'8,%3= ,)82/)/%+,%3= *%7
+(*,%,%3= *%7 +1/ ,%7,(/0+ 0'5+ '& 01*%3/ *%7 ,+5 ,)8*0+
on lhe agency. SuccessfuI IT Ieadershi invoIves lvo
guiding rinciIes.
L,(5+= '(3*%,9*+,'% )65+ :/ *:2/ +' ,7/%+,&4 * 02/*(
mission slalemenl lhal secihes lhe services il rovides
and hov il rovides lhem, for examIe:
8('760/ 5/(;,0/5 ,%<1'65/ '( )*%*3/ 5/(;,0/5
'& 0'%+(*0+'(5A
'(3*%,9/ +'6(%*)/%+5= )*%*3/ &*0,2,+,/5= '(
:'+1A
'8/(*+/ *5 '%/ '(3*%,9*+,'% '( *6+'%')'65
7,;,5,'%5 '( 5/0+,'%5A
B
B
B
comele, arlner, or coexisl vilh olher Ieisure
5/(;,0/ 3('685A *%7
aIIov lhe ubIic lo have eIeclronic access lo
requesl services.
Iach ilem suggesls a dierenl sel of requiremenls
for lhe IT resource. Knoving lhe business is lo knov
vho needs informalion and vhen. The organizalion
51'627 :/ )';/7 &(') *% ,%&'()*+,'%<8('760,%3 +' *%
inlegraled informalion resource organizalion.
IT shouId be made a arl of lhe business Ian. The
:65,%/55 %//7 0')8'%/%+ 8(';,7/5 36,7/2,%/5 *5 +' +1/
imorlance, comIexily, and desired oulcomes of an
,%&'()*+,'% (/5'6(0/ (/E6,(/7 &'( )*>,%3 +1/ '(3*%,9*<
lion successfuI. y embracing lechnoIogy, managemenl
0')),+5 +' :/3,%%,%3 '( 0'%+,%6,%3 +1/ /;'26+,'%<
*(4 8('0/55 '& ,%+/3(*+,%3 7/8*(+)/%+ ,%&'()*+,'%
resources. Informalion roduclion refers lo lhe rouline
coIIeclion of dala and lhe rinling of reorls (e.g., coI<
2/0+,%3 &*0,2,+4 (/%+*2 7*+* *%7 8(,%+,%3 * 501/762/=
coIIecling auendance hgures, and rinling a bar charl
shoving auendance by faciIily by monlh). AIlhough
some rocesses may be aulomaled (aIIoving lhe end
roducl lo be achieved fasler or vilh fever sles), lhey
may nol be inlegraled or vorking logelher lo enabIe
change in lhe vay business is done. (See Comendium
14-17, Scenario for Aulomalion, and Comendium 14-
18, Scenario for Inlegralion.)
The bouom Iine is: nakc |T pari cj qcur |usincss
p|ancn|racc iccnnc|cgq. Move your agency from an
,%&'()*+,'%<8('760,%3 +' *% ,%+/3(*+/7 ,%&'()*+,'%
resource organizalion.
IT Ianning is a conlinuaI cycIe of assessing needs.
As sla and managers calure imorlanl dala, someone
in lhe organizalion musl Iook lo lhe fulure lo see vhere
lhe business rocesses is going. The rivale seclor con<
linues lo bring nev lechnoIogy lo lhe markelIace. As
lechnoIogy becomes more cosl eeclive (lhrough simi<
2*( 0')8/+,%3 8('760+5 '( *0E6,5,+,'% +1('631 3(*%+5=
gihs, or olher means) lransilion lo nev lechnoIogy
becomes an annuaI managemenl lask.
.1/(/ *(/ )*%4 *88('*01/5 +' $. %//75 *55/55<
menl. Hovever, il vouId be a grave mislake lo do an
IT assessmenl vilhoul revieving lhe organizalion busi<
ness Ian. The business Ian sels lhe riorilies, vhiIe
lhe needs assessmenl idenlihes lhe ro|ecls.
I%/ '& +1/ 3(/*+/5+ /)'+,'%*2 &'(0/5 &'( *0E6,(,%3
$. ,5 PC cntq. In lhe Iale 1990s, il vas nol uncommon
for eoIe lo have comulers al home lhal vere more
overfuI lhan lhe ones al vork. As lhal over ga
videned, sla vere more vocaI aboul ugrading in
lhe name of roduclivily. As one sla member gol a
nev comuler, eoIe in olher areas made Iays for
beuer equimenl lhrough lheir suervisors. The end
resuIl vas lhal sla may be more roduclive, bul lhe IT
B
B
Ianning rocess vas nol served. Comuling resources
have gouen skeved. Those vho vere nol over users
suddenIy may have had lhe besl equimenl. Anolher
risky decision for a medium lo Iarge organizalion vas lo
reIace aII lhe comulers al one lime vilhoul ugrading
:65,%/55 8(*0+,0/5= 82*%%,%3 &'( 32':*2 +(*,%,%3= '( 65,%3
sound IT rinciIes lo guide acquisilion raclices.
.1/ /*5,/5+ +*5> ,% +1/ $. 0'%+,%66) ,5 +' :64 *
comuler. There are muIliIe vendors, greal ricing,
and slandard conhguralions. The mosl dicuIl lask
is lo gel sla (lraining), lechnoIogy (syslems), and
lhe business Ian (inlended use) moving in lhe same
direclion.
TechnoIogy changes every 6 monlhs. A comuler
is obsoIele vhen il is urchased. So by lhe lime an
organizalion secihes a comuler, goes lhrough lhe
86(01*5,%3 8('0/55= *%7 1*5 * 0')86+/( 7/2,;/(/7= ,+
may be haIfvay lhrough lhe lechnoIogy cycIe. The nev
machine viII have more caabiIily, bul lhal caabiI<
ily may nol be reaIized vilhoul slralegic lraining. If
you lake lhis scenario and muIliIy il by X number of
comulers, lhere is an increasing Iosl benehl of buying
comulers. Iach urchase musl be Ianned. The eec<
+,;/ 7,58'5*2 '& '27 *%7 6%65/7 /E6,8)/%+ (/E6,(/5
Ianning, as does lhe slralegic lraining of sla.
The reverse silualion is aIso lrue. Organizalions
*(/ ,% +1/ informalion business. As such, lhe budgel
musl reecl a grealer emhasis on IT sending. As
Wang (1994) noles:
y 2020, 80 ercenl of business rohls and markel vaIue
viII come from lhal arl of lhe enlerrise lhal is buiIl
around roviding or anaIyzing informalion.
$+ ,5 8'55,:2/ &'( *% '(3*%,9*+,'% +' :/ 7,5)*%+2/7
and reIaced (by olher service roviders) because il
0*%%'+ (/58'%7 +' +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% %//75 '& +1/ 86:2,0=
688/( )*%*3/)/%+= 3';/(%,%3 :'*(75 *%7 0'6%0,25=
and lhe media. Hov much il cosls for a chiId lo Iay ee-
vee foolbaII is nov a comIicaled queslion. This cosl
%' 2'%3/( 0*% :/ (/760/7 +' +1/ 7,(/0+ 0'5+5 *55'0,*+/7
vilh lhe rogram. Il musl nov incIude indirecl cosls
from many funclionaI seclions vilhin lhe organizalion
(i.e., mainlenance, concessions, sla lime, voIunleer
lime, elc.).
If aII of lhe IT syslems vilhin an organizalion are
nol vorking logelher, lhere is an increasing Iosl benehl.
$%&'()*+,'% +/01%'2'34 545+/)5 *556(/ +1*+ *88('8(,<
ale managemenl informalion, such as hnanciaI, erson<
%/2= *%7 8('3(*) (/0'(75 *(/ :/,%3 )*,%+*,%/7 *%7
aIIov for a means lo audil lhe syslems using lhe lech<
noIogy. An audil of lhe manuaI syslems may discover
lhal lhere are robIems vilh rocesses, bul lhey vere
nol recognized because lhere vas no vay lo reviev
lhe informalion reguIarIy and ecienlIy. Converling
* )*%6*2 8('0/55 +' *% *6+')*+/7 8('0/55 ,%+('760/5
organizalion and cIarily. Sla |obs musl change lo
accommodale lhe aulomaled rocess. Dala musl be
enlered in a syslemalic vay. Informalion musl be gener<
aled lhal can be revieved for errors, shared vilh olhers,
and used lo suorl oeralions.
IIanning Ieads lo slandards and cIarihcalion of
lhe organizalion mission. Il idenlihes lhe IT riori<
lies, and baIances lhem vilh lhe human and hnanciaI
resources required lo make IT ro|ecls successfuI.
ecause lechnoIogy conslanlIy changes, organizalions
)65+ 0'%+,%6*224 (//;*26*+/ +1/,( 82*%5 *%7 (/5/+ +1/,(
riorilies.
C 8(,)*(4 &6%0+,'% '& * (/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'%
is lo manage rogram aclivily oerings. This incIudes
7/+/(),%,%3 02,/%+ %//75= 7/;/2'8,%3 8('3(*)5= )*(<
>/+,%3 8('3(*) ,7/*5= *%7 +(*0>,%3 65/( ,%;'2;/)/%+
(arlicialion and revenue, scheduIing of faciIilies
invoIved, and many olher IogislicaI concerns). A lyicaI
aulomaled resonse vouId be lo acquire a syslem, Ioad
exisling rogram oerings, and rovide severaI vays
for users lo sign u (caII in, fax in, vaIk in, maiI in,
AVR, voice maiI, and olhers). Wilh aII lhe informalion
in one Iace, sla couId Iog in, regisler eoIe, lake lheir
money, and rovide a conhrmalion and receil. There
are many benehls lhal accomany a veII-imIemenled
informalion syslem.
Today lhere are more olions for oering lhe ro<
gram regislralion funclion. TradilionaIIy, a recrealion
rogram regislralion dalabase vas acquired, users
couId caII in, fax in, vaIk in, or maiI in regislralion vilh
aymenl. Aher imIemenlalion, nol aII dearlmenls
reaIized an immediale relurn on inveslmenl (ROI)
:/0*65/ '& +1/ *77,+,'%*2 *7),%,5+(*+,;/ +,)/ %//7/7 +'
manage lhe dalabase. One emerging soIulion is lo aIIov
users lo regisler on Iine, much Iike Tickelmasler. This
reduces sla lime for rocessing, imroves accuracy in
cuslomer informalion and is a convenience for alrons.
.1/(/ *(/ /;/% '8+,'%5 +' 1'5+ +1/ 5/(;,0/ ,%<1'65/= '(
aIIov il lo be hosled by a recrealion rogram service
rovider on lhe Inlernel. Sohvare cosls, lrends in com<
86+/( 65/ :4 8*+('%5= :*%>,%3 &//5 *(/ *22 0'%5,7/(*+,'%5
vhen conlemIaling lhis slralegy.
The IT Business and Planning Team
Teams are increasingIy being used lo Ian IT funclions.
The success of lhis aroach deends on vhelher lo
)*%*3/)/%+ 5688'(+5 +1/ 65/ '& +/*)5 +' 5'2;/ :65,<
ness robIems. One asecl of leam is lhe nolion of
sacrihcing ersonaI ob|eclives lo achieve leam goaIs.
.1/ 82*%%,%3 +/*) )65+ 1*;/ *% *3/%7* +1*+ ,)8(';/5
lhe agency bouom Iine or service roduclion. In a ark
*%7 (/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'%= +1/ )*%*3/( *%7 01,/&
hnanciaI ocer (CIO) musl be ex-ocio members of
lhe leam. They rovide lhe reaIily of lhe oIilicaI and
hnanciaI environmenl of an organizalion and lhey are
lhe biggesl slakehoIders, since lhey viII assume lhe
biggesl risk.
C%'+1/( )/):/( '& +1/ +/*) 51'627 :/ *% $.
erson vho is famiIiar vilh lhe ark and recrealion
induslry. eyond lhal, lhe leam shouId incIude mem<
:/(5 '& 5/%,'( )*%*3/)/%+ &(') /*01 '& +1/ '8/(*+,'%*2
areas, a erson versed in ro|ecl managemenl, a skiIIed
and resecled adminislralive assislanl, and heId suer<
visors vho undersland lhe basic vork-ov rocesses
(see Ixhibil 14.16).
I%0/ +1/ +/*) ,5 *55/):2/7= 58/0,*2,5+5 *%7 +/01%,<
cians can occasionaIIy be used lo bring a nev erseclive,
add exerlise, or comIele a secihc lask for lhe leam.
The direclor and CIO are nol required lo be resenl al
every meeling. The goaI is lo creale a framevork for mak<
ing IT decisions. This leam shouId deveIo slandards and
oIicies for lhe organizalion, such as:
slandard hardvare conhguralion (lo reduce
comIexily of mainlenance),
slandard sohvare conhguralion (lo reduce
comIexily of lraining),
slandard oeraling syslem/Ialform (lo reduce
comIexily of lraining),
slandard nelvorking syslem (lo increase acces<
sibiIily of IT resources),
|uslihcalion of urchase form (for Ianned
acquisilion),
equimenl oIicy (lo reinforce sla on lhe ur<
ose of comuler use),
access oIicy (lo reinforce securily issues),
disasler recovery Ian (lo rovide secihca<
lions for disasler recovery Ian), and
needs assessmenl (lo rovide secihcalions
for needs).
They shouId aIso:
reviev and recommend IT budgel,
recommend an annuaI vork Ian (AWI) (IT
ro|ecls for nexl hscaI year),
monilor slalus of AWI and rovide a consoIi<
daled reorl on currenl IT ro|ecls, and
reviev lhe IT rocesses of olher organizalions
(lo slay currenl).
The Ianning leam is a vay lo ensure lhal aII areas
of an organizalion have inul inlo lhe lechnoIogy Ian.
This viII give lhe recommendalions a higher IikeIihood
of buy-in from sla. Irudenl managemenl requires
lhal lhe IT sla comrehends lhe Ieisure service busi<
%/55 *%7 +1/ 7,(/0+'( 6%7/(5+*%75 +1/ :*5,05 '& +1/ $.
resource. Since lhere is a grealer emhasis on IT in
*3/%0,/5= 7,(/0+'(5 )65+ 2/*(% )'(/ *:'6+ $. ,% '(7/(
lo make informed decisions.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Costs of a Growing IT Infrastructure
As IT ro|ecls are imIemenled, lechnoIogy and sla
changes cause lhe ro|ecl lo change. As organiza<
+,'%5 /;'2;/ *%7 :/0')/ )'(/ 0')86+/( 2,+/(*+/= +1/,(
IT becomes more sohislicaled. These incremenlaI
ugrades aIso bring addilionaI cosls.
L'( +1/ siraicgic sqsicn +' '8/(*+/ *+ * 1,31 2/;/2
'& (/2,*:,2,+4 *%7 +' 8(';,7/ ,%&'()*+,'% 5/(;,0/5 +'
cuslomers and sla, il requires:
&6%75 &'( %//75 *%*245,5 *%7 7/5,3%A
86(01*5/ *%7 ,)82/)/%+*+,'%A
lraining (iniliaI and on-going),
daiIy oeralions (sla, suIies, maleriaIs,
backu, elc.), and
soflvare and hardvare mainlenance con<
lracls.
Ccnncciitiiq= +1/ *:,2,+4 +' *00/55 ,%&'()*+,'%
resources vilhin given resonse limes regardIess of
Iocalion, requires:
hardvare ugrades (addilionaI hardvare),
seciaI viring,
seciaI caabiIilies (high seed dala Iinks, addi<
lionaI hone Iines), and
addilionaI budgel lo cover cosls.
.1/ a!ninisiraiitc prcccss )65+ 1*;/ * 0/(+*,%
IeveI of slandardizalion in order lo be ecienl. This
requires:
slandard forms (from dala enlry lo requesls
for refund),
syslem documenlalion (delaiIing lhe syslem
dalabases), and
sla knovIedge of rocedures and lraining.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Managcncni musl incIude a sla vilh knovIedge
'& +1/ 8*(> *%7 (/0(/*+,'% :65,%/55 *%7 ,%&'()*+,'%
services and be abIe lo:
negoliale conlracls vilh syslem vendors or
cily/organizalion IT dearlmenl,
Ian for fulure syslem modihcalions due lo
changes (organizalion oIicy, business deveI<
'8)/%+5= 065+')/( +(/%75= 0')86+/( ,%765+(4
advancemenls, elc.),
manage users (securily access),
8(';,7/ 58/0,*2 (/8'(+5 *%7 (/58'%7 +' ,%&'(<
)*+,'% (/E6/5+5A *%7
/%&'(0/ 0'%&'(),+4 '( %'+,&4 8('8/( *6+1'(,+,/5
of oIicy noncomIiance.
Professional and Staff Development
AII |obs vilhin a ark and recrealion organizalion are
aecled by lhe managemenl of informalion. According
lo NobeI Laureale Herberl Simon, having informalion
slored in one's memory is no Ionger lhe dehnilion of
+1/ ;/(: ic kncu (Simon, 1969). Inslead, having access lo
informalion and knoving hov lo use lhal informalion
has nov become lhe nev dehnilion of ic kncu. Iverylhing
from lhe vay ve vork or Iay, lo lhe vay ve manage lhe
ebb and ov of our daiIy Iives is being changed drasli<
caIIy, and al var seed, by informalion lechnoIogies.
More Americans lhan ever before of emIoymenl age
are exosed lo and comforlabIe vilh a hosl of lechnoI<
ogy looIs, as noled in lhe Iev Inlernel and American Life
Iro|ecl, AriI 2006 Survey (Horrigan, 2007).
Yel, conlinuing lo lrain CIOs and lheir boards in
(/0(/*+,'%= 8*(>= *%7 2/,56(/ '(3*%,9*+,'%5 '% +1/ ;*26/
'& ,%&'()*+,'% +/01%'2'34 (/)*,%5 *% /;/(<8(/5/%+
requiremenl. Iven in lhe business vorId, lhe lraining
B
B
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.16
Members of the IT Planning Team
?,(/0+'( '& 8*(> *%7
(/0(/*+,'% '(3*%,9*+,'%
'(
chief hnanciaI ocer
(as ex ocio members)
IT erson famiIiar vilh ark and recrealion organizalion
Members from senior managemenl
A ro|ecl manager
C% *7),%,5+(*+,;/ *55,5+*%+
SeveraI heId suervisors
SeciaIisls/lechnicians as needed
of execulives conlinues lo reresenl an imedimenl
lo ecienl informalion syslems. Ninely-hve informa<
lion managers vere surveyed by ComulervorId
Informalion Managemenl grou of Iramingham MA as
lo hov dicuIl il vouId be lo ersuade lo manage<
menl lo arove nelvork comulers for some dearl<
menls` The resonses vere as foIIovs:
nol very dicuIl19 ercenl,
moderaleIy dicuIl34 ercenl, and
exlremeIy dicuIl47 ercenl.
$% )*%4 0*5/5A *% /;/% 3(/*+/( 01*%3/ ,5 +*>,%3
82*0/H* 062+6(/ 01*%3/ &(') +1/ )*%*3/( *5 * %'%<
user of lechnoIogy vho reIies on olhers lo assembIe
,%&'()*+,'%= +' +1/ )*%*3/( :/0'),%3 * 65/(= 0'22/0+'(=
*%7 ,%+/(8(/+/( '& +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% +1('631 3(*815 *%7
sreadsheels lhal ersonaIIy crealed. Today's man<
B
B
B
*3/( ,5 *% ,%+/3(*2 8*(+ '& +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% 062+6(/= *5
a Iayer, as a menlor, and even as a cheerIeader. The
062+6(/ 01*%3/ (/E6,(/5 +1/ (/0(/*+,'%= 8*(> *%7 2/,56(/
)*%*3/( +' )';/ +1/ )*%*3/)/%+ ,%&'()*+,'% 545+/)5
from a aer-enciI rocess lo a lechnoIogy Ialform.
5(6'"1#%&'( 3B&..,
Managing informalion resources viII require nev and
enhanced skiIIs for rofessionaIs. Currenl managemenl
lechniques (aclivily-based cosling, conlracl manage<
)/%+= :('>/(,%3 5/(;,0/5= 8*4<&'(<8/(&'()*%0/= 065<
lomer service measures, elc.) are designed lo calure,
anaIyze, and reorl informalion aboul secihc organi<
zalion funclions. Ior each of lhe basic informalion func<
+,'%5= +1/(/ ,5 * 0'((/58'%7,%3 ,%&'()*+,'% 5>,22 +1*+
sla musl have. AII ark and recrealion rofessionaIs
shouId be adel al lhe foIIoving basic skiIIs:
Exhibit 14.17
Assets: Information Appliances

Tcchnn!ngy
Pcrccnt nI a!! Amcricans whn
havc spccic tcchnn!ngy
CeII hone 73 ercenl
?/5>+'8 0')86+/( 68 ercenl
?,3,+*2 0*)/(* ## 8/(0/%+
Video camera 43 ercenl
O*8+'8 0')86+/( !" 8/(0/%+
iIod or olher MI3 Iayer 20 ercenl
Webcam 13 ercenl
Iackberry, IaIm IiIol, or olher ersonaI digilaI assislanl 11 ercenl
Scurcc. Iev Inlernel & American Life Iro|ecl AriI 2006 Survey. N 4,001. Margin of error is 2 ercenl. See age 2, relrieved from
hu://vvvv.evinlernel.org/dfs/III_ICT_TyoIogy.df
Exhibit 14.18
Paradigm Shift Related to Information Control
R"'1 F'
Manager as a non-user Manager as user
CoIIecling dala Managing informalion
Secrelaries/cIerks as lyisls Communicalors & dalabase managers
Comulers as lyevrilers Keys lo gIobaI informalion
MIS as seclion/dearlmenl MIS as an agency slralegy
Comuler lraining as a Iuxury Comuler comelence as necessily
$%&'()*+,'% 8('+/0+,%3 $%&'()*+,'% 51*(,%3
Scurcc. Adaled from Young, 1994.
keyboarding (lying skiIIs),
basic comuler oeralion (having a comforl
IeveI vilh lechnoIogy),
aIicalion lraining (Iearning lo use sohvare,
e.g., vord rocessing),
dala managemenl slandards (knoving hov lo
name hIes and vhere lo slore lhem),
finding informalion (Iocaling informalion
sources and accessing dala), and
using informalion (crealing reorls, making
decisions, managing resources, elc.).
$% 5')/ 0*5/5= +1/ 65/ '& $%+(*%/+<:*5/7 *%7
Inlernel-based lraining oers a means lo reduce lrain<
ing cosls by:
eIiminaling lhe cosl of lraveI associaled vilh
sending emIoyees lo lraining vorkshos,
(/760,%3 +1/ 0'5+ '& 5/%7,%3 +(*,%,%3 )*+/(,*25
via rinl or videolaes on a veekIy or monlhIy
:*5,5A
reducing lhe cosls associaled vilh shiing
severaI hundred lraining videocasseues lo
emIoyees every veek, and
conducling lraining al lhe sile vhere lhe
emIoyee vorks, (using audio conferencing,
IC-based dala sharing, leIehony, and video
and audio conferencing) means lhe emIoyee
does nol have lo Ieave vork or disrul his or
her scheduIe.
.1/ +(*,%,%3 0*% :/ )*7/ )'(/ 0'%5,5+/%+= 5+*%7*(7=
and more roduclive, il can be oered in a Iess-ressured
silualion. The savings for lhe ark and recrealion orga<
nizalions can be as much as $1,500 er emIoyee, if lhe
emIoyees are recelive lo lhe medium.
Ior lhe mosl arl, loday's Generalion Y/
MiIIenniaIsaduIls born belveen 1978 and 1990and
lhe Generalion ZIearners born aher 1990are vieved
as digilaI nalives due lo a Iifelime of exosure lo com<
ulers, ceII hones, lhe Inlernel, odcasls, vikis and
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
bIogs, inslanl messaging (IM), shorl message service
(SMS), video games, and a hosl of olher lechnoIogies.
These digilaI nalives ohen see lhe use of lechnoIogy-
based lraining and dislance educalion coursesvilh
+1/,( ;*(,'65 )62+,<)/7,* 0')8'%/%+5 *%7 )62+,82/
+/01%'<+''25H*5 * )'(/ /%+,0,%3 *%7 2/55 5+(/55&62
Iearning environmenl due lo lheir rior exosure lo
lhe lechnoIogies (Sherry & Morse, 1995). MeanvhiIe,
lhe SiIenl Generalion (digilaI aIiens born belveen
19251945), lhe aby oomers (digilaI immigranls
born belveen 19461964), and lhe Generalion Xers
(digilaI adalives born belveen 19651979), may see
lhe same course and Iearning exerience vilh high fear
and slress due lo lhe Iack of exosure lo lechnoIogy in
lheir deveIomenlaI years.
C 16)*% :/,%3 51'627 :/ *:2/ +' 01*%3/ * 7,*8/(= 82*%
*% ,%;*5,'%= :6+01/( * 1'3= 0'%% * 51,8= 7/5,3% * :6,27<
ing, vrile a sonnel, baIance accounls, buiId a vaII, sel
* :'%/= 0')&'(+ +1/ 74,%3= +*>/ '(7/(5= 3,;/ '(7/(5=
cooerale, acl aIone, soIve equalions, anaIyze a nev
8(':2/)= 8,+01 )*%6(/= 8('3(*) * 0')86+/(= 0''> *
lasly meaI, hghl ecienlIy, die gaIIanlIy. SeciaIizalion
is for insecls. (Roberl HeinIein, as ciled in Wang, 1994)
I+1/( +(*,%,%3<(/2*+/7 5*;,%35 0*% :/ (/*2,9/7
in bolh lime and money vhen oIicy or IegisIalive
687*+/5= &*0,2,+4 ,%&'()*+,'%= *%7 ;*(,'65 *%%'6%0/<
)/%+5 *(/ 687*+/7 /*01 E6*(+/( *%7 /,+1/( 82*0/7 '% *
CD-ROM, DVD, or a dearlmenlaI home age (vilh or
vilhoul assvord roleclion).
.1/ 06((/%+ )62+,)/7,* +(*,%,%3 :673/+5 ,% 0'(<
orale America is aIso execled lo go from $10,000 lo
$6 miIIion vilh aboul haIf of lhe comanies sending
al or beIov $100,000. If lhe reasons given by cororale
America as lo vhy muIli-media lraining is so auraclive,
lhen recrealion and ark agencies may be enliced lo |oin
lhe lrend. See Ixhibil 14.20.
ScuIIard and Sugerman (2009) surveyed 5,034
recenl lraining arlicianls lo see vhich lraining
Exhibit 14.19
Training Materials Study
Traningmag.cnm 2003 Industry Rcpnrt
This year marks onIy lhe fourlh lime in 22 years lhal lhe lolaI amounl of doIIars senl for lraining by U.S. organiza<
lions has droed, and il is lhe hrsl lime since 1982. Of lhe $51.3 biIIion lhal comanies do Ian lo send lhis year,
lhe mosl noliceabIe dierences are:
O-lhe-sheIf maleriaIs dovn 21 ercenl
Olher exendilures dovn 31 ercenl
Seminars/conferences dovn 9 ercenl
Training sla saIaries dovn 5 ercenl
Cuslom maleriaIs u 8 ercenl
melhods had lhe grealesl imacl on lheir en|oymenl
and ossibIe lransfer of lraining for emIoyees. Their
research reveaIed lhe foIIoving lhree lraining melhods:
lhe eeclive use of smaII grou discussion, roIe Iay,
and IoverIoinl. Research by a hosl of olher aulhors
conhrms lheir hndingsvhen lraining is en|oyabIe,
+1/ 8*(+,0,8*%+5 *(/ 2/55 2,>/24 +' F9'%/ '6+G *%7 )'(/
IikeIy lo aIy lhe Iearning in lheir vorkIace.
.1/ 8*(+,0,8*%+5 ,% +1,5 5+674 5*,7 +1*+ !iscussicn
grcups vere nol used in lheir Iasl lraining (43 ercenl of
lhose surveyed resonded lhis vay), rc|c p|aqing vas nol
used in lheir Iasl lraining lo make abslracl knovIedge
concrele (23 ercenl of lhose resonding), roIe Iaying
vas indicaled as adding vaIue of al Ieasl 25 ercenl by
+1'5/ 56(;/4/7A *%7 +1/ ,%0265,'% '& PcucrPcini prcscn-
iaiicns increased Iearner en|oymenl by 25 ercenl and
made il easier for eoIe lo foIIov aIong, slay focused,
*%7 /)82'4 * )/55*3/ '( ,)*3/ +1*+ (/2*+/7 +' +1/
loic.
C22 +1(// '& +1/5/ )/+1'75 *(/ *7*8+*:2/ +' * +/01<
%'2'34<(,01 /%;,('%)/%+= +1('631 * 1'5+ '& +/01%'2'34<
enhanced Iearning Ialforms. RegardIess of lhe lraining
)/+1'75 65/7= (/0(/*+,'% *%7 8*(> 8('&/55,'%*25 )65+
remain mindfuI lhal nol aII sla members vorking in
Ieisure-serving agencies are comforlabIe vilh lhe chang<
ing lechnoIogies. Technohobia is an issue lhal musl be
0'%+,%6'6524 *77(/55/7 ,% (/0(/*+,'% *%7 8*(> *3/%0,/5
(Index. Ccnpuicrucr|!, t. 3, 1997, . 100). Ior lhe digilaI
*2,/%5= +1/ +/01%'2'34< :*5/7 +(*,%,%3 0*% :/ * 01*2<
Ienging environmenl. Ior many Iearners of lhe SiIenl
M/%/(*+,'%= +/01%'81':,* (/)*,%5 * (/*2 ,556/= 7/58,+/
successes vilh SeniorNel and WebTV (AdIer, 2006).
ul based on Iev research (Horrigan, 2007b), dier<
enl elhnic grous are increasing lheir comforl IeveI vilh
lhe handheId lechnoIogies. Over haIf of IngIish-seak<
ing Hisanics use lheir ceII hone lo send or receive dala,
and over 84 ercenl of lhem have ceII hones comared
lo vhile Americans (74 ercenl) and bIack Americans (71
ercenl). Is il nol feasibIe lo reach eilher of lhese raciaI
3('685 +1('631 /)82'4)/%+ +(*,%,%3 )'762/5 7/5,3%/7
for odcasls, V CAST, and lexl-based luloriaIs for deIiv<
ery on hones and olher IDA devices`
GeneraIIy, individuaIs vilh higher educalionaI
5>,225 *(/ 2/55 *88(/1/%5,;/ *:'6+ /%+/(,%3 +1/ +/01%'<
IogicaI vorId. UnforlunaleIy, many emIoyees in lhe
(/0(/*+,'%= 8*(>= *%7 2/,56(/ 5/(;,0/ *3/%0,/5 ,% 5/(;,0/
*(/* 8'5,+,'%5 5601 *5 2*%750*8,%3= )*,%+/%*%0/= *%7
reIaled areas, Iack bolh lhe conhdence and lhe com<
elence lo embrace lhis brave nev vorId. Ior lhese
,%7,;,76*25= 58/0,*2,9/7 +(*,%,%3 ,5 %//7/7 +' %'+ '%24
*77(/55 +1/ +/01%'2'34 5>,225= :6+ ,% 5')/ 0*5/5= +'
address lhe Iileracy needs of lhe sla members.
F"#&(&(N
Training and re-lraining sla is an essenliaI comonenl
for eeclive use of IT. MuIlimedia-based lraining is
considered mosl eeclive. Here are some lraining lis
for managers (TayIer, 2009, MagIiua, 1997).
Ta!k tn ynur IT dcpartmcnt.
IT can delermine lhe mosl ecienl vay lo
deIiver lhe lraining vilh exisling equimenl and
sohvare lhan sending eoIe o lo lraining.
$. 0*% :6+ )*>/ 56(/ +1*+ +1/ 545+/)5 *%7
equimenl you currenlIy have can do lhe |ob.
IT can heI you lo revenl viruses and maIvare
from geuing inlo your nelvork.
Chnnsc thc right mcdium.
IT can heI delermine vhal vorks mosl e<
cienlIy.
IT can decide vhal medium vorks besl lo meel
lhe lraining ob|eclives or hov il can mosl e<
cienlIy be modihed.
If lraining requires use of lechnoIogy or soh<
vare onIy avaiIabIe lhrough vendors, lhen
buiId lraining inlo lhe urchasing rocess vilh
vendors serving as lulors or lrain-lhe-lrainers.
Vendors may have a more in-delh knovIedge
'& +1/ +/01%'2'34 *%7 (/760/ +1/ +,)/ &'( +1/
manager and sla lo imIemenl lhe lechnoI<
ogy.
Fcc! thc cxibi!ity.
.*,2'( +1/ )62+,)/7,* +' )//+ +1/ %//75 '& +1/
individuaI Iearner.
?/+/(),%/ ,& 8(/<+/5+5 '( *55/55)/%+5 '( 8'5+<
lesls or assessmenls vouId serve your agency
in lhe fulure.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Exhibit 14.20
Top Reasons Companies Are Using
Multi-media Based Training
Qucsiicn ic inc rca!cr. Hatc inc rcascns a|icrc! ctcr iinc?
Cosl eecliveness 40 ercenl
}usl-in lime accessibiIily 26 ercenl
Icienl/eeclive 16 ercenl
Reaches a broad audience 15 ercenl
Consislency of lraining 14 ercenl
Less inlerrulion/inlerference 13 ercenl
Less lraveI 19 ercenl
Inleraclive/enlerlaining 10 ercenl
Increased relenlion 9 ercenl
Condensed rogram Ienglh 8 ercenl
Scurcc. ComulervorId, Selember 15, 1997.
Makc ynur mu!timcdia intcractivc.
Use aulhoring looIs lhal aueml lo make lhe
)62+,)/7,* *5 ,%+/(*0+,;/ *5 8'55,:2/ *%7
encourage Iearning by doing.
Use muIlimedia lhal is as reaIislic and invoIv<
,%3 *5 8'55,:2/H,& )*+/(,*2 ,5 )'(/ 56,+/7 +'
7/2,;/( :4 8*8/(= +1/% )62+,)/7,* )*4 %'+ :/
aroriale.
Grab ynur audicncc's aucntinn.
Iirsl, you musl delermine vho lhe audience
isyour sla` lhe ubIic you serve` adminis<
lralors lhal suorl your organizalion`
e avare lhal nol aII vievers of your muIli<
)/7,* 1*;/ +1/ 5*)/ 2/;/2 '& 5'81,5+,0*+,'% ,%
65,%3 +/01%'2'34 *%7 )62+,)/7,*H8(';,7/
;*(4,%3 2/;/25 '& ,%+/(*0+,'% &'( +1/ ;*(,/7 2/;<
eIs of your audiences.
e avare lhal lhe richer lhe Iearning exeri<
ence, lhe more IikeIy you viII engage your
vieving audience.
Usc carrnt and stick apprnach.
Lel your vievers knov vhal vaIue lhe muIli<
media lraining viII be lo lhem.
Lel vievers knov vhal lhe negalives may be if
lhey do nol gel lhe lraining being rovided.
Aim Inr b!cndcd !carning.
Malch lhe medium vilh lhe sub|ecl.
.(4 +' 1*;/ * 16)*% +6+'( +' *77(/55 E6/5+,'%5
'( 0'%0/(%5 ,& +1/ )62+,)/7,* +(*,%,%3 ,5 %'+
successfuI.
Make sure lhal lhe vievers gel lheir queslions
ansvered-lhrough a virluaI cIassroom, via
frequenlIy asked queslions (IAQs), lhrough
erson-lo-erson aIlernalive sessions.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Rcmcmbcr pcnp!c havc dicrcnt !carning sty!cs.
Slruclure lhe muIlimedia lo accommodale lhe
various audiences: (hu://vvv.Iearning-slyIes-
onIine.com/invenlory/queslions.as or hu://
vvv.ndl-ed.org/TeachingResources/CIassroom
Tis/Learning_SlyIes.hlm or hll://vvv.Id
ride.nel/IearningslyIes.MI.hlm).
Use cIassrooms (virluaI or olhervise) for coach<
,%3= ,%+/(*0+,%3= *%7 *5 * 2*:'(*+'(4 &'( 7,50655<
ing soh skiIIs.
Managc thc !carning.
Train on comany lime, lhis oers a beuer
,%0/%+,;/ &'( /)82'4//5 +' :/ 5/2/0+/7 &'(
lraining and rovides lhe manager beuer con<
+('2 ';/( +1/ 0'%+/%+ '& +1/ +(*,%,%3 *%7 +1/
auendance.
Use a Iearning managemenl syslem lo mainlain
informalion on hov successfuI lhe muIlimedia
is.
Access hov lhe lraining is being used lo meel
IocaI needs.
Mndc!, pi!nt, tcst.
?'%@+ %/32/0+ 8,2'+ +/5+,%3 4'6( )62+,)/7,*
before you imIemenl il on a fuII scaIe, rehn<
,%3 +1/ 545+/) /*(24 ,5 2/55 0'5+24 +1*% &622
50*2/ ,)82/)/%+*+,'% +1*+ )*4 %'+ )//+ 4'6(
organizalion's needs.
Make sure you iIol lesl vilh a variely of audi<
/%0/5 *%7 &//7 +1/ ,%&'()*+,'% :*0> ,%+' +1/
re-design hase of your muIlimedia lraining.
.1/ (/0(/*+,'% *%7 8*(> )*%*3/(5 '& +1/ &6+6(/
viII be avid users, Iayers, and direclors in lhe ever-
changing informalion lechnoIogy Iandscae.
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Resources
AdIer, R. (2006). O|!cr Ancricans, |rca!|an! an! inc juiurc
cj inc nci. Relrieved Augusl 5, 2006, from hu://vvv.
seniornel.org/research/SeniorNelNNIaer06-606.
87&
oone, L. I. (1992). Qucia||c |usincss. Otcr 2,800 junnq,
irrctcrcni, an! insigniju| quciaiicns a|cui ccrpcraic
|ijc. Nev York: Random House.
irkIand, T. A. (1997). Acr !isasicr. Agcn!a scuing,
pu||ic Pc|icq, an! jccusing ctcnis. Washinglon, DC:
Georgelovn Universily Iress.
osvorlh, . (1996, November). Wnai inc surtcqs ic||
us a|cui usc an! injcrnaiicn iccnnc|cgq in nigncr
c!ucaiicn Iaer resenled al lhe Thirleenlh
InlernalionaI Conference on TechnoIogy and
Iducalion, Iroceedings I. Grand Irairie, TX:
ICTI, Inc.
ryan, V. (1998). TechnoIogy & educalion: Leadershi
issues. Scncc| A!ninisiraiicn. Kncu|c!gc, Ccnsirucis
an! Tnccrq. Dubuque, IA: KendaII/Hunl IubIishing
Comany. URL: hu://vvv.aduIleducalion.fau.
edu/eIeclronic/lexl/edIead1.hlm
uIIock, }. A., el aI. (2005). |nirc!uciicn ic ncnc|an! sccu-
riiq. oslon: IIsevier uuervorlh-Heinemann.
CalIeu, L. (1995). TechnoIogy gives us lhe abiIily lo
'hyer Iearn'. Ccntcnc, X= 10(6).
Comuler Lav Associalion. (1996). Tnc inicrnci an! |usi-
ncss. A |auqcrs gui!c ic inc cncrging |cga| issucs. .1/
Comuler Lav Associalion.
ComulervorId Securily (2004). Survey shovs securily
imrovemenls in rivale seclor. Relrieved on
}une 8, 2009, from hu://vvv.comulervorId.
com/rinuhis/2004/0,4814,90852,00.hlmI
DieboId, }. (1985). Managing injcrnaiicn. Tnc cna||cngc an!
inc cppcriuniiq. Nev York: American Managemenl
Associalion (AMACOM).
IdiloriaI (1997, Selember 15). The lo reasons com<
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Authors, Consultants, and Contributors
Dr. VaIerie C. ryan is rofessor in IducalionaI Leadershi in AduIl Iducalion al IIorida AlIanlic Universily. She has
received a variely of avards and olher recognilions, incIuding The Oulslanding IacuIly, 2009, IducalionaI Leadershi's
Graduale Menlor Avard, 2009, and IducalionaI Leadershi's Dislinguished Teacher of lhe Year, 2009. She has been
Iresidenl of NalionaI Iilness CoaIilion, Iresidenl of Norlh CaroIina Recrealion and Iark Sociely, and Slale Iresidenl
of DeIla Kaa Gamma. She served as a facuIly member al Universily of Norlh CaroIina in lhe Recrealion and Iark
Managemenl Dearlmenl for 10 years and al lhe Universily of Wesl IIorida. VaIerie is aclive in lhe inlegralion of lechnoI<
ogy in raclice and in her research/granl-vriling for numerous ouIalions incIuding ark and recrealion agencies.
?'%%* M'275+/,% has been in lhe comuler and GIS induslry for over 25 years. As lhe currenl GIS Suervisor for IaIm
each Counly IIanning, Zoning, and uiIding, she is invoIved in many communily ro|ecls lhal invoIve GIS and
olher lechnoIogy aIicalions. As lhe Iead in lhe GIS counlyvide communily revilaIizalion eorl, she coordinaled
vilh counly dearlmenls lo creale GIS Iayers, associale necessary dala, and erform anaIysis. The resuIls of lhe GIS
anaIysis rovided crileria lo reslore 17 bIighled communilies by imroving infraslruclure and deveIoing arks. In
addilion, she inslaIIed and conhgured lhe GIS syslem for olher dearlmenls. She erformed a crime anaIysis comari<
son deicling one communily's crimes before and aher lhe communily oIicing unil vas deIoyed. As a cosl saving
measure for laxayers she aIso secured a conlracl vilh IRIDI lo deveIo lhe counly's GIS zoning Iayer. Her vork has
been shovcased in severaI ubIicalions and on YouTube al hu://vvv.youlube.com/valch`v_S0DU6RO4.
Layne Young is a Iong-lime conlribulor lo lhe ecienl oeralion of lhe arks and recrealion business and lhal of lhe
NRIA congresses. He is currenlIy lhe usiness ReIalionshi Manager vilh lhe IndianaoIis/Marion Counly Informalion
Services Agency. He vorks lo rovide informalion lechnoIogy services lo arks and recrealion, courls, robalion, and
communily correclions. Ior lhe asl four years, he has been an inslruclor for Indiana Universily, Ioominglon's SchooI
of HeaIlh, IhysicaI Iducalion, Recrealion leaching a required course on Comulers in Iarks, Recrealion, Sorls and
Tourism.
!")2&'-, /-%;'"
Karen Maiorano, sohvare soIulions lrainer, raclilioner for lhe second edilion.
Contrlbutors
Ior lheir reviev and suggeslions, arecialion is exlended lo:
}udy Weiss, seciaI ro|ecl manager, Communily Services Dearlmenl, ScousdaIe AZ
Dr. DanieI Slynes, Michigan Slale Universily
Dr. }udy rookhiser, Murray Slale Universily
Dr. MariIyn }ensen, CaIifornia Slale Universily, Long each
Dan SharIess, Indiana Universily

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