739

Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2013, Vol. 20, No. 6

Interfacial friction and mass transfer
at gas flow into vacuum through a nozzle
with a near-wall liquid film
*

V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov
Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
E-mail: yarygin@itp.nsc.ru
(Received May 16, 2013)
The cycle of experiments on interaction between the co-current gas flow and the near-wall liquid film were carried
out at high gas flow velocities, including the supersonic ones. The local parameters of the near-wall film were measured by
the capacitance probes. It is shown that the co-current gas flow affects the near-wall film significantly, causing intensive
wave formation, droplet detachment from the film surface, and their entrainment by the gas flow. It is determined that
a relative amount of liquid entrained by the co-current flow is generalized by the Weber number of this gas flow.
Key words: near-wall film, co-current flow, droplets, mass transfer, interfacial friction.
Introduction
The liquid flow in the form of thin films (with the thickness of below 1 mm) is widely used
in various heat-and-mass exchangers (condensation of immobile and moving vapor, gas absorption
or desorption, drying, distillation, fractioning, chemical-engineering processes, etc.). Another
important application of the film flows is protection of walls from the high-temperature gas flow
(for instance, the use of the near-wall fuel film in the liquid-propellant engines for screening
the combustion chamber and supersonic nozzle. The near-wall gas cooling is also used for these
purposes [1].
Interaction of the near-wall film with the co-current gas flow is mainly determined by
the parameters of this flow, such as velocity, density, and static pressure. Even at low flow ve-
locities, the liquid film looses its stability, and capillary waves are formed on its surface, whe-
reas, without the co-current flow, the film flow is waveless. An increase in velocity of the co-
current gas flow facilitates interfacial interaction and leads to formation of 2D and 3D waves on
the film surface. Starting from some values of gas flow velocity and density (Weber number),
droplets are detached from the film surface and entrained by the co-current flow [2].
Another important feature is interaction of the near-wall film with the co-current
gradient flow, for instance, in nozzles. A significant drop of the static pressure in the flow
(approximately, by the factor of 2 for Mach numbers equal to 1, and by the factor of 30
for Mach numbers equal to 3) can cause the situation, when the static pressure in the flow
above the film becomes lower than the pressure of saturated liquid vapors. This leads to film

*
The work was financially supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant No.13-08-00410).
V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov, 2013
V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov
740
boiling-up and evaporation, and formation of a transverse vapor flow from the film surface to
the boundary layer. By the analogy with injection through a permeable wall into the boundary
layer, this vapor flow can essentially affect the value of interface friction causing a decrease
in the shearing stress on the gas-liquid interface in comparison with the regimes of gas-film
interaction with and without boiling. In literature there are almost no results, which give accu-
rate and reliable data on the values of shearing stress on the gas-liquid interface under the
conditions of high relative velocities of the co-current flow. This situation can be partially ex-
plained by the fact that there are no approaches to direct measurement of friction at
the interface, especially at intensive wave formation, droplet separation from the film surface,
its boiling and evaporation. The estimates of this value are based on the measurements of other
parameters, for instance, pressure reduction along the channel. However, this approach gives only
the value of interfacial friction averaged along the channel length. For the high relative velocities
of the co-current flow, there are no reliable methods for calculation of interfacial friction.
Now there are many publications on the liquid film flows [3]. The most extended studies
deal with gravitation films. The stress film flows are described in many works. However, these
experiments are carried out at relatively low velocities of the co-current flow of about 10 m/s.
In the present work, we study interactions of the co-current gas flow with the near-wall liquid
film at high gas flow velocities, including the supersonic ones.
The problem of external contamination of spacecraft, including the International Space
Station (ISS), by the jets of control and orientation thrusters (OT), where a fuel film is used to
cool the nozzle walls, initiated these studies [4]. Now the OTs on self-igniting fuel components
(unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH, fuel) and nitrogen tetraoxide (amyl, oxidizer)) are
mounted at the ISS. The elements of external surface of the ISS within the flow field of exhaust
plume are subjected to the force, thermal and contaminating effect. Since the fuel components
used in OT are toxic, possible penetration of combustion products deposited on the ISS exter-
nal surface inside the station with astronaut suits during their space walks are of the great dan-
ger.
Firstly the problem of contaminating effects of thruster jets drew attention at MIR space
station. In the framework of the space experiment Dvicon, held in the orbit in 1998,
the presence of contaminants in different parts of the outer surface around OT on MIR station
was determined. However, much attention was started paying to the contamination pollution
problem only at the ISS. The question was so serious that the astronauts were prescribed spe-
cific precautions when working in outer space [5].
In the present paper, we examine the problems of OT modeling in the vacuum chambers.
The main attention is paid to the study of gas flow interaction with the near-wall film inside
a nozzle.
Statement of research and modeling issues
From the viewpoint of problem statement we deal with the flow of near-wall liquid film
with the co-current gas flow from a supersonic nozzle into vacuum. Certainly, we can speak
only about approximate simulation, even if a full-scale OT is tested in a vacuum chamber.
The problem becomes even more complicated when the model liquids are used instead
of the propellants. It is really difficult to reproduce in a model experiment the true thickness
of the film at the nozzle exit, its composition and temperature as well as parameters of high-
temperature gas flow of combustion products. Nevertheless, even approximate modeling
allows us to obtain the required information about the flow structure (primarily, of the liquid-
droplet phase) at maximally possible reproduction of the determining parameters.
It was found experimentally in [6] that the near-wall liquid film flowing into vacuum
from a nozzle turns by 180 at the exit nozzle edge and moves along the outer surface
Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2013, Vol. 20, No. 6
741
of this nozzle in opposite direction, forming the backflow (contaminating) of the droplet
phase. Thus, it was concluded that the character of liquid film interaction with the wall and
co-current gas flow determines dynamics of film behavior inside the nozzle and its further
evolution, while flowing into vacuum.
Therefore, the film parameters in the outlet cross section of nozzle (its thickness
l

and average velocity V
l
, or thickness
l
and shearing stress at the gas-liquid interface)
can be taken as the main criteria for modeling the near-wall liquid film. Under the assumption
of linear distribution of velocity in the near-wall film
l
l l
l
2 ,
V dV
dy

= = the measured values

of thickness and velocity relate to the shear stress value in the following manner [7]:
l l
l
l
2
,
G
d

= (1)
l
l
l l
.
2
G
V
d


= (2)
where G
l
,
l
, and
l
are the flow rate, density, and viscosity of liquid, respectively.
Another important condition of the natural process modeling is the choice of
the main parameters of the supersonic nozzle: its geometry, Mach number, type of gas, its
temperature and flow rate or stagnation pressure. Usually, the researchers try to reproduce
full-scale Mach number, M
a
and the ratio of specific heat capacities . It is not difficult to
reproduce the Mach number, but reproduction of the natural value of for the high-
temperature combustion products is problematic. In this case, it is reasonable to use
the integral characteristics of jets flowing into vacuum. In our studies, we assume the concept
of modeling by the typical angle of jet divergence determined in terms of the relative jet
impulse J [8, 9]:
0.5
1
arctan ,
J
J

=


(3)
0.5
2 2
1 2
1 1 ,
M ( 1) M
a a
J

= + +

(4)
where
max
,
a
J J GV = J
a
, G, and V
max
is the gas impulse in the nozzle cross section, gas flow
rate, and maximal velocity, respectively. At this approach, in the experiment it is necessary to
reproduce the value of the relative impulse of a real OT. For orientation thrusters installed at
the ISS, this value is J = 0.87 (M
a
= 4.3, = 1.24, total fuel flow rate is about 50 g/s). Then,
according to assumed modeling condition
m n
J J = and using air ( = 1.4) as the model gas,
the Mach number of the model nozzle is M
a
= 2.94, and this corresponds to the ratio
of diameters of the outlet and critical cross sections of the nozzle D
a
/D

= 2. Other parameters
of the model nozzle, namely the diameter of critical cross section, gas and liquid flow rates, and
other were chosen by the conditions of modeling the near-wall liquid film and metering parameters
of the experimental setup.
V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov
742
Experimental setup and diagnostic methods
Now there are many methods of measuring the local characteristics of the near-wall
films, especially their thicknesses. For instance, these methods are reviewed in [3]. In our
study, the local parameters of the near-wall liquid film (film thickness and its velocity) were meas-
ured by the capacitance probes. The schemes of the test sections are shown in Fig. 1. The near-wall
film was formed by the liquid supply through a ring gap of 0.1 mm in the nozzle prechamber. De-
spite the supersonic nozzle was the main working section, some experiments were carried out with
a cylindrical tube (a type of sonic nozzle), which allowed the experiments at velocities
of the co-current gas flow from 0 to 300 m/s, whereas the experiments with the supersonic
nozzle could be carried out only at velocities of the co-current flow of about 540 m/s.
The coaxial capacitance probes with the diameter of external electrode of 1.6 mm and dia-
meter of inner electrode of 0.5 mm were used in experiments. The probes were mounted flush with
the inner surface of nozzle. To measure the film thickness four probes 1 were located in 90 over
the nozzle perimeter at the distance of 2 mm from its exit edge. The readings were averaged by four
probes, and this allowed improvement of measurement accuracy and reliability for the liquid film.
To measure the velocity of the film front and wave velocity on its surface, two probes 1 and 2
were used. Probe 2 was located at the distance of 5 mm from probe 1. Measurement frequency
of the probes was 1 kHz. The detailed description of measurement principles and methods can be
found in [10].
In experiments, ethanol was used mainly as the working liquid; its physical properties
are close to UDMH used in OT of the ISS for creation of a cooling liquid film. In some expe-
riments, butanol was used as the working liquid; the pressure of saturated vapors of buta-
nol at the room temperature is approximately one order lower than that of ethanol, and
other properties, except viscosity, are almost the same.
Experimental studies were carried out at the vacuum gas-dynamic setup VIKING at
Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics SB RAS [11]. The large volume of vacuum chamber
(of about 150 m
3
) gives wide opportunities for operation under the pulse conditions. As a rule,
pulse duration did not exceed five seconds.
In experiments, the Reynolds number of the gas flow was determined in terms of the gas
flow rate G as
gas
gas
4
Re ,
G
D

=
where
gas
is gas viscosity, D
*
is diameter of the critical cross section of nozzle varied within
410
4
3.510
5
. The Reynolds number of liquid film in the critical cross section of nozzle, de-
termined in terms of the liquid flow rate G
l
as

Fig. 1. Schemes of probe location.
Probe location: in longitudinal nozzle cross section in supersonic (on the left) and sonic (at the center) nozzles,
in transversal nozzle cross section in supersonic and sonic nozzles (on the right); 1, 2 measurement probes.
Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2013, Vol. 20, No. 6
743
l
l
l
Re ,
G
D

=
was varied from 7 to 14 for ethanol and from 2.5 to 5.3 for butanol.
Experimental results and analysis
First of all, let us distinguish interaction features between the near-wall liquid film and
the co-current gas flow under the conditions of considered problem.
Significant pressure drop in the co-current gas flow. As was mentioned above, for
the selected nozzle (M
a
= 3) and type of gas (air), the pressure in the co-current gas flow above
the film decreases approximately by the factor of 30. This means that for gas pressure in
the prechamber of p
0
10
3
mmHg, maximal for the conditions of the present study, the gas
pressure at the nozzle edge p
a
is about 33 mmHg, and this is lower than the pressure of satu-
rated vapors of ethanol (p
sat
44 mmHg) at the room temperature. Formally this means that the
ethanol film in the outlet nozzle cross section becomes overheated, and it should start evaporat-
ing or boiling. For butanol (p
sat
5 mmHg), this effect can be shown in the flow at
the pressures of an order lower than that for ethanol.
Strong interaction of the co-current gas flow with the near-wall liquid film,
which causes wave formation and intensive droplet separation. The co-current flow un-
der the experimental conditions should affect significantly the film, causing wave formation
and droplet detachment from its surface. The high Weber numbers achieved in experiments are
the formal basement for the above assumption. According to estimates, their maximal values
are close to 200. These are relatively high Weber numbers, and according to review [2], under
the current experimental conditions, there should be intensive droplet detachment.
Reduction of the liquid film thickness due to the geometrical factor. Since
the supersonic part of nozzle is the diverging channel, formally, the film thickness should de-
crease proportionally to 1/D, i.e., for the selected nozzles with D
a
/D

= 2 at liquid film motion
from the critical cross section to the outlet one, its thickness
l
and Reynolds number Re
l

should be decreased twice.
Disruption of the near-wall film at low flow rates. It was noticed in experiments that
with a decrease in the liquid flow rate, we observe at some moment separate rivulets at
the nozzle edge, but not the continuous film. This effect limited the minimal liquid flow rate in
experiments. We did not study the process of disruption in the present work because, particu-
larly, it is difficult to observe the liquid flow over the inner surface of the nozzle. The effect
of film disruption and dry spot formation in evaporating liquid films were studied in detail
in [12, 13].
Now let us present the main results for the supersonic nozzle. The time diagrams
of ethanol film thickness obtained at a change in pressure p
0
almost by an order (from 820
to 100 mmHg) in the prechamber (and, respectively, the pressure in the flow above the film)
are shown in Fig. 2. The Re number was the same under all four regimes, and it equaled
Re
l
= 14. One can see that with a decrease in pressure in the flow above the film (from
24 mmHg for p
0
= 820 mmHg to 3 mmHg for p
0
= 100 mmHg), the influence of evaporation-
boiling processes on the film behavior becomes more and more significant, causing more
intensive fluctuations of the film surface and the growth of its average thickness. For buta-
nol, this effect was less significant, and it was observed only at minimal pressure
p
0
= 100 mmHg.
The use of two successive probes allowed us to understand correlation of readings and
to measure the velocity of the film front and large waves. A part of time diagram of the film
thickness in the range from 700 to 1200 ms, determined by the readings of probes 1 and 2,
V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov
744
is shown in Fig. 3. The moment of film arrival to the first and second probes can be clearly
seen. We can note the reading correlation by signal amplitude and shape and the presence of some
periodic wave structure with a characteristic time scale of 50 ms (with frequency of 20 Hz).

Fig. 2. Time diagrams of ethanol film thickness for different p
0
.
p
0
= 820 mmHg (a), 580 mmHg (b), 340 mmHg (c), and 100 mmHg (d).

Fig. 3. Thickness of ethanol film measured by two successive probes.
Re
l
= 14; 1 first probe (upstream), 2 second probe (downstream).
Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2013, Vol. 20, No. 6
745
It can also be seen that the waves have a steep front, then there is a flat part, with smaller
waves on its surface. The velocity of liquid film front and wave velocity on the film surface
were determined by a time delay between probe readings. According to results analysis, the velo-
city of the liquid film front is twice as less as the wave velocity on the film surface, and their charac-
teristic values are 0.5 and 1 m/s, respectively.
The studies allowed us to determine the average film thicknesses in the supersonic
nozzle. Corresponding experimental data for butanol and ethanol are shown in Figs. 4 and 5,
respectively. The solid lines in these figures demonstrate the average film thicknesses
calculated by formula (1) for the experimental conditions. For these calculations, it is necessary
to know the value of shearing stress. As was mentioned before, there are no published data for
determination of at the outer film boundary in the presence of the high-speed, including
supersonic, co-current gas flow. However, due to a small thickness of the near-wall liquid film
the value of shear stress on the outer film surface can be assumed in the first approximation
as
w
on the nozzle wall without the film. Despite the simplicity of the assumed model,
it allows an estimate of the film thickness and velocity at the motion inside the nozzle with
the co-current gas flow. Corresponding dependences for in the supersonic gradient flow
were taken from [14], and they were as follows:
** 1/ 6
2
2
0.0131Re ,
f
C
V

= = (5)
where Re
**
is determined from equation
**7/ 6 3.75
2.75
0
0.0076
Re .
x
V dx
V
=

(6)
The first thing that we should pay attention at analysis of results presented in Figs. 4 and 5,
is that for butanol, the calculations are above the experimental data and vice versa for ethanol,
and it can be explained as follows. At first, let us consider the results for butanol (Fig. 4).


Fig. 4. Experimental and calculation data at dif-
ferent Re
gas
along the thickness of butanol
film.
Re
l

= 5.3; p
a
pressure in the flow above the film
at the measurement point; 1 experiment, 2
calculation.


Fig. 5. Experimental and calculation data at dif-
ferent Re
gas

along the thickness of ethanol
film.
Re
l
= 14; p
a
pressure in the flow above the film
at the measurement point; 1 experiment, 2
calculation.
V.N. Yarygin, V.G. Prikhodko, I.V. Yarygin, and A.D. Nazarov
746
Perhaps, we can assume that under the considered conditions, the main interaction processes
between the co-current flow and butanol film are wave formation and droplet detachment, and
the effect of film boiling is insignificant and obvious only at low p
0
(low Re
gas
in Fig. 4). Both
wave formation and droplet detachment should increase at the interface in comparison with
set in calculations on a smooth solid wall. Since
l
~ 1 , consideration of higher by
the calculation model will lead to a decrease in calculated values of
l
and their convergence
with experimental data.
Now let us consider the experimental data for ethanol (Fig. 5). Here the main difference
from butanol is ethanol film boiling, especially at low p
0
, as can be seen in Fig. 2. Other two
effects (wave formation and droplets detachment) are also available, but boiling (film swelling)
is, probably, predominant. The main question is how it affects . It follows from comparison
of calculation and experimental data shown in Fig. 5 that at film boiling, should decrease,
i.e., change in the opposite direction in comparison with a change in at wave formation and
droplet separation. These arguments seem realistic, if we accept the existence of the analogy
between the processes of evaporation and substance injection through a permeable wall.
As an illustration in Fig. 6, taken originally from [15], there is distribution of the heat transfer
coefficient (Nusselt number) along the length of the supersonic nozzle. It is obvious that
the heat transfer coefficient is maximal in the critical cross section of the nozzle. The shearing
stress should behave similarly. It is also known that injection decreases the heat transfer coeffi-
cient; therefore, evaporation from the interface should attenuate the force interaction between
the co-current gas flow and the near-wall liquid film, and vice versa at vapor condensation
from the flow on the film surface.
Some experiments studied liquid detachment from the film surface in the form of droplets
and their following entrainment by the co-current flow. The amount of liquid detached from
the film surface was determined in the following way. The initial liquid flow rate was meas-
ured. The amount of liquid stayed in the film was determined by the measured values of
the average liquid film thickness and its velocity in the outlet cross section of the channel.
The difference between the initial and final liquid flow rates was assumed as the amount of liquid
entrained by the co-current flow. These studies were carried out mainly for a cylindrical channel
because only in this case it was possible to change the velocity of the co-current gas flow (vary-
ing pressure in the vacuum chamber) in a wide range from 0 to 300 m/s; while the velocity of gas
in the outlet cross section of the supersonic
nozzle was constant and equaled 540 m/s. Ac-
cording to experiments, the amount of liquid,
detached and entrained by the co-current flow,
can be up to 70 % of its initial flow rate. It was
determined that as in [2] the amount of liquid
entrained by the co-current gas flow can be
generalized by the Weber number:
2
gas gas l
We ,
2
V

=
where
gas

is gas density, V
gas
is gas velocity,

Fig. 6. Distribution of Nusselt number along
the nozzle [15].
In the upper part of the figure line calculations,
symbols experimental data.
Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2013, Vol. 20, No. 6
747

l
is measured value of the average liquid film
thickness, is the surface tension coefficient.
Corresponding results are shown in Fig. 7.
Conclusion
Although experimental results are obtained
in application to modeling the operation condi-
tions of OT at the ISS, they represent an independent value for understanding the interaction
features between the near-wall liquid film and the high-velocity co-current gas flow.
The studies allowed us to determine parameters of the film in the outlet cross section and its
evolution at its ejection into vacuum. Further, the methods and devices, which allow a signifi-
cant decrease (by some orders) in contaminating effect of OT plumes on the external surface
of the ISS, were proposed [16].
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Fig. 7. Amount of entrained liquid (ethanol) vs.
Weber number.
Re
l
= 10;
0
= 735 mmHg (1), 600 mmHg (2),
300 mmHg (3).