Final Report - Biogas

Department of Mechanical, Materials
& Manufacturing Engineering

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY: BIOGAS

Design and development of a biogas compression and storage system
capable of implementation in the developing world

Michael Andrea (4071774)
Jason Aspell (4069642)
Peter Epathite (4067979)
James Faupel (4065636)

2010/11

Dr. Mike Clifford

- Group 5 -

Group Development Report submitted for the Degree of MEng in
Mechanical Engineering

MM4GDP APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY: BIOGAS GROUP 5

2

2. ABSTRACT

Low cost and produced from abundantly available natural waste, biogas presents an
appropriate alternative to the traditional solid and gas cooking fuels used by developing
rural communities in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs). Without an
appropriate method of compression, the gas remains of a large and unportable volume,
making transport and storage of functional quantities difficult and impractical. This
constraint has limited the replacement of dangerous and expensive alternatives with
biogas, and remains a problem.

The aim of the project was to create a system to compress and store biogas in a manner
appropriate to rural communities in the developing world. Research indicated that a
manually actuated, single-acting compressor, capable of reducing the volume by a factor
of 3 4, would be an appropriate solution.

The key design objective was the production of a working prototype, and was achieved
by the group over a period of 9 months. Constraints imposed by the customers
requirements and resource availability informed the design process. The replicable, safe
compression and storage of a substitute gas to 4.5 bar was enabled in an appropriate
and sustainable manner, providing the required volume reduction.

The low prototype cost of 75 reflects the incorporation of numerous recycled
components and appropriate materials selection. Continued system development in the
areas of actuation geometry, material selection and component design are recommended
to further improve functionality.

Word Count: 6,578

3

3. CONTENTS

1. TITLE PAGE

2. ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3. CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5. BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

6. DESIGN SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7. DESIGN DETAIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7.1. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal

7.2. Compression Unit
7.2.1. Valve System
7.2.2. Compression System

7.3. Actuation
7.3.1. Lever System
7.3.2. Structural Frame

7.4. Storage
7.4.1. Storage Unit
7.4.2. Manifold
7.4.3. Bottle Connection

7.5. Connections & Fixings

8. MANUFACTURING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

8.1. Solution
8.2. Problems Encountered & Improvements

9. PROJECT COMPLIANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.1. Testing
9.1.1. System
9.1.2. Robustness & Durability
9.1.3. Storage
9.1.4. Ergonomics

10. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

11. RECOMMENDATIONS & FURTHER WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

12. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

13. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

14. APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Overleaf

4

Supplementary Documentation:

14. APPENDICES
Book - A1

14.1. Design History File
14.2. Project History
14.3. Calculations, Modelling & Analysis
14.4. Testing & Demonstration of Compliance

Book - A2
14.5. CAD

Book - A3
14.6. Business Plan


5

4. INTRODUCTION

This report details work undertaken by students at the University of Nottingham, in
partnership with Engineers Without Borders (EWB), to develop a biogas compression and
storage system appropriate for rural India.

Having developed a strong interest in international development - and the role of
engineering in combating poverty in developing countries the group approached the
developmental charity EWB. Together identifying a pressing problem faced by developing
communities; the absence of an appropriate method of manageable biogas
transportation and storage. While the design solution incorporates advanced engineering
science, it is both appropriate and practicable in a rural Indian community.

Biogas is already widely used in developing rural communities. It is created by
decomposing waste in an anaerobic environment and piped directly into homes for
cooking and heating applications. The process converts organic waste into useful energy
which is clean, cheap and sustainable an ideal energy source for a growing community.
The technology has found widespread uptake and there are estimated to be 3.8 million
biogas plants in India alone (2005
1
).

The problem exists when there is a disparity between production and consumption of
biogas in the rural community. At present, excess biogas is stored at atmospheric
pressure in large, inflatable bags; a vessel design susceptible both to leakage and
accidental damage. The bags are also difficult to safely tap gas from, or transport. The
difficulties in transportation associated with the large volumes mean plant owners are
unable to take advantage of the difference in local supply and demand missing an
opportunity to create profit.

Biogas presents some real advantages in terms of low cost, sustainable energy. However
the issues highlighted above mean that when a transportable or storable energy source
is required, solid (wood, dung cakes) and liquid (LPG, kerosene) fuels are used instead.
These are expensive, inappropriate and often dangerous. A method is required through
which biogas is taken at the point of production, and reduced in volume to allow
manageable transportation and storage. This decreases reliance on more expensive and
polluting alternatives. Following correspondence with an Indian partner organisation, it
was proposed that a biogas compression system would overcome many of the current
limitations - further accelerating its uptake and adoption as a sustainable, low cost
alternative fuel.

This report starts by examining the current situation (Section 5) and establishing the
capabilities of the communities in rural India. The design is then overviewed (Section 6),
followed by a detailed description of all aspects of the system (Section 7). Every decision
made over the 9-month development cycle is documented and justified, along with key
sponsor and customer correspondence exchanged over the period of the project. Finally,
the manufacturing outcomes are detailed (Section 8), compliance assured (Section 9)
and conclusions and recommendations drawn (Sections 10 and 11). The accompanying
Book A1 contains the Appendices, Book A2 the CAD, and Book A3 the Business Plan.

6

5. BACKGROUND

5.1. SITUATION

Biofuels have great potential in the developing world none more so than in rural India.
Despite efforts to boost generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, only
56.5% of households in rural Indian villages have access
2
. This leaves the majority of
the rural population heavily dependent upon inefficient raw biomass and imported fossil
fuels such as kerosene and LPG. Decentralised systems, such as the use of woodfuel or
organic waste, have received focus in recent years. Due to the considerable cattle
population within the country (see Appendix 14.3.1.3.), biomass and biogas systems
utilise an abundant supply of animal waste to create fuel through direct burning, and
tapping of the fermented gases, respectively. Due to inherent health implications of
burning dry biomass indoors, biogas systems are becoming ever more popular.

5.1.1. Biogas

Biogas is a fuel produced through the anaerobic biological breakdown of organic matter
(in digesters), such as vegetable matter or cattle dung, at slightly elevated temperatures.
Predominantly composed of carbon dioxide and methane (see Table 5.1.), biogas
provides a clean cooking and lighting fuel. Its production process produces a slurry that
can be used for fertiliser and also kills bacteria, improving community health (for further
detail, see Appendix 14.3.1.1.).

Substance
Biogas
[%]
Natural Gas
[%]
Methane (CH
4
) 50 - 60 97
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) 34 - 38
2.6
(Carbon Compounds)
Nitrogen (N
2
) 0 - 5 0.4
Oxygen (O
2
) 0 - 1 -
Water Vapour (H
2
O) 6 -
Hydrogen Sulphide (H
2
S) Trace -
Table 5.1: Detailed composition of biogas
3

In the developing world, cost, technology and resource availability are crucial factors in
energy production. Renewable energy sources such as biogas are enabling whole
communities to improve their way of life through available, appropriate and cheap
energy within rural villages.


7

5.1.2. Vigyan Ashram

Through affiliation with EWB, the project team was put into contact with a partner
organisation in India. Vigyan Ashram (VA), a centre of the Indian Institute of Education
(IIE) located in Pabal (see Figure 5.1.), is a charitable organisation designed to make
an impact in the surrounding communities and the developing world as a whole. The
project originated from a request by VA (see Appendix 14.2.2.1.) to solve a selection of
problems with current sustainable technologies in rural India
4
.

Location

With a population of roughly 10,000 and spanning an area of 0.25 km
2
, Pabal is
representative of a typical Indian village
4
. An average household consists of around 5 or
6 individuals, totalling roughly 1,750 homes within the village limits.

Figure 5.1: Geographical position of Pabal
5

Representative of thousands of similar villages in rural India, it is suggested that should
a project be successful in Pabal then its transference to more widespread communities
throughout the developing world is possible.


8

5.1.3. Capabilities

Cooking

Each household will possess varying degrees of technology, but it is assumed even the
very poorest of families will have access to kerosene or LPG stoves with appropriate gas
stove fittings
6
(Figure 5.2.). Alternatively, more hazardous biomass burning systems are
frequently used indoors, causing over 500,000 deaths each year
7
in India alone.

Figure 5.2: The use of kerosene/LPG gas stoves
8

Manufacturing & Materials

Manufacturing capabilities within the village limits are considerably below those in the
western world, however many workshops with basic engineering machinery exist
4
. It is
assumed that these workshops possess standard equipment such as lathes, saws, drills
and milling machines. Material availability is also limited. It can be assumed steel and
wood are prevalent, however treated and alloyed metals are difficult and more expensive
to acquire.

Should more sophisticated technology and material resource be required, Pune the 8
th

largest city in India, possessing a well-established manufacturing industry is only an
hours drive away
9
.


9

5.2. PROBLEMS

Biogas projects face a number of social and technical problems when implemented in the
developing world. These are issues that require consideration during the conception of
any such future system.

5.2.1. Social Challenges

Community/Household Plant

It is common for biogas programmes to be based upon small, household plants providing
for personal use only. In comparison to community plants, these exhibit large losses in
economies of scale. Ideally, one or many community plants will exist and the community
can contribute and tap biogas as and when possible/required. In theory, it is hoped that
systems can be run under the supervision of an organising committee and involve close
regulation of usage/contribution. However, research has shown that such organisation
can be difficult, causing relations between key contributors to break down
10
. Literature
states that payment on contributions is one of the key drivers for the sustainability of
such a scheme, however this brings additional administration and financial burdens
11
.

Technology Appropriateness & Acceptance

There is often a resistance to new technology within rural communities in the developing
world, where unless the technology is proven, reliable and easy to use then its uptake is
almost fatally hindered. The agenda of both the user and the designer must be aligned
and can be a major cause of failure in sustainable development projects
2
. Lack of insight
into how the community conducts itself is avoidable should care be taken into developing
a solution appropriate to the implementation environment.

Education

One direct cause of the poor technology acceptance is insufficient education of the user
by the designer/project team. Difficulties are further complicated if implementing a
system into a country with unfamiliar language and attitudes.

Resource Availability

Limitations to biogas supply can occur due to insufficient organic matter for fermentation,
thus providing a maximum available quantity of biogas. This can be overcome through
the use of human faeces (see 5.3. - Feasibility Study) as an organic material source. The
obvious social implications must first be surmounted, but it is argued that sanitation
benefits can exist through direct linkage of toilets to digesters
12
.


10

5.2.2. Technical Challenges

Storage

Should the available resources exist, it is suggested that limitations also exist based
upon maximum requirements of biogas in the user community. Most digesters will have
limited capacity to store the product of their fermentation and, should demand not
exceed supply, biogas production will be slowed
11
. This is inefficient and occurs due to
the lack of safe methods of transportation and storage.

Manageability/Transportation

Should supply and demand both be sufficient, the issue of transportation still remains.
Generally if biogas is stored, it will be at the digestion site in large impermeable bags
(Figure 5.3.). These are impractical to transport and require direct connection to
cooking/lighting apparatus. In regions where piping systems are unachievable, biogas
systems prove to be unsustainable and such systems may fail.

Figure 5.3: The current biogas storage system in use
13


11

5.3. FEASIBILITY STUDY

The considerations and challenges discussed previously call for further analysis to
determine the feasibility of the project and to establish project requirements.

5.3.1. Cooking Requirements

The establishment of the quantity of uncompressed biogas a person or family will require
for their basic cooking needs in any one day is an important starting point. Research into
the feasibility of a biogas system is widespread and sources claim a variety of quantities
sufficient for cooking (for a specified number of people). Through analysis of these
figures, targets can be set on the compression necessary and the storage volume
required. Volumes of 0.088 0.4m
3
/person/day are suggested, however the validity of
some sources has been questioned (see Appendix 14.3.1.2.). The higher end of these
figures (0.2 0.4 m
3
/person/day) are theoretical values based upon factors that are
possibly slightly out of date (1970s). The lower end are slightly more recent
experimental results and are believed to be accurate for the study. The remainder of the
feasibility study assumes a value of 0.088m
3
/person/day of uncompressed biogas is
required (should this fully replace the cooking fuel currently used).

5.3.2. Fermentation Material Availability

The majority of the material will consist of cattle dung and organic waste produced by
Pabals population. Based upon the gas yields shown in Table 5.2. and the quantity of
cattle typical for a village the size of Pabal (see Appendix 14.3.1.3.), the total producible
amount was calculated.

Material
Gas Yield
[m
3
/kg]
Cattle Dung 0.2
Human Faeces 0.45
Banana Stems 0.75
Eucalyptus Leaves 0.89

Table 5.2: Gas yields for a selection of organic materials
14

The cattle to human ratio for Indian villages is in the range of 0.486:1 to 1:1
14,15
. Given
these figures, a hypothetical fermentation material quantity in the range of 62,000 and
126,500kg/day of cattle or its equivalent are available, equating to a biogas yield = 1.24
2.53 m
3
/person/day given a population of 10,000 (see Appendix).


12

5.3.3. Storage Requirements

It is necessary to consider the potential compression requirements and predicted volume
reduction achievable. Having found a figure for the daily requirement of uncompressed
biogas for one individual, analysis of compression pressures was conducted. The
pressure requirement for various reduction factors was found (see Appendix 14.3.1.4.)
for a selection of polytropic indices (see Table 5.3.).

Reduction
Factor

Required Pressure (bar)
Polytropic Index, n
1 1.15 1.3
2 2 2.2 2.5
3 3 3.5 4.2
4 4 4.9 6.1
5 5 6.4 8.1
6 6 7.9 10.3

Table 5.3: Pressures required to reach certain reduction factors under different heat
transfer conditions.

Assuming the design exhibits some (but not complete) heat transfer, an intermediate
polytropic index (n = 1.15) was assumed as practical. Given the allowable levels of
system complexity to remain appropriate for use in the developing world, it was
reasoned that achieving pressures over 5 bar was unlikely (see Appendix 14.3.3.1.).

Volume reduction factors of 2 or less do not sufficiently reduce the volume of biogas
required for improved transport and manageability. Reduction factors of 3-4 reduce the
required storage volume to around 10 litres for one individuals meal requirement, and
50 litres for a whole familys (see Section 7.4.1.). Such reduction factors require
pressure in the region of 3-5 bar an achievable target using appropriate technology.


13

5.4. PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

From the research conducted, a set of design requirements have been formulated. These
are summarised in Table 5.4. (see Appendix 14.1.1.).

Statement of Requirements
NEED DESCRIPTION
1
Appropriate
Technology
The design must utilise technology appropriate for the
location and infrastructure of the user.
2 Cost Effectiveness
The system must be producible at a realistic cost to the
customer.
3 Safety
The system must offer a safe service which adheres to
appropriate regulations.
4 Maintainability
The system must be designed in such a way that facilitates
practical maintainability with resources available.
5 Ease of Use
Users with varying abilities must be able to operate the
system fully. Must be a convenient method of transporting
biogas.
6
Ease of System
Transport
The system's component parts must be easily
transportable to remote locations.
7 Ease of Gas Transport
The system must offer an efficient method of transporting
biogas from A to B.
8 Education
The system must be supplied with all the necessary
educational resources to provide the user with all relevant
operational and maintenance procedures.
9
Robustness &
Durability
The system must withstand regular use, providing a long-
term solution.
10 Materials Availability
The system must be made from materials available within
reasonable cost constraints - taking into consideration
maintainability.
11
Manufacturing
Availability
The system must be made using appropriate methods
within reasonable cost constraints - taking into
consideration maintainability.
12 Speed
To a lesser extent, the system must deliver biogas from A
to B in a timely manner.
13 Flexibility
The flexibility of the system in place, whereby if alterations
were necessary they could be accommodated.

Table 5.4: Statement of Requirements


14

6. DESIGN SOLUTION

Throughout the project a modular approach was taken to ensure flexibility and simplicity
of design. A schematic of each of the sub systems can be seen in Figure 6.1. showing
the interactions between each of the individual modules.

Figure 6.1: Modular Schematic of Design

1. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal (Scrubbing)
Post treatment occurs as biogas is fed from a digester through a scrubbing system which
removes hydrogen sulphide. Flow is then channelled into the valve system (DHF:
Appendix 14.1.2.3.).

2. Valve System
The valve system channels flow into the compression system through the inlet valve,
which is returned through the outlet valve into the manifold (DHF: Appendix
14.1.2.4.).

15

3. Compression System
Through force transmission from the actuation system, a piston inhales and exhales
fluid through a valve system (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.4.).

4. Actuation
A lever transmits force exerted by the user, in turn actuating a reciprocating piston in
the compression system (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.5.).

5. Manifold
Regulates flow from the compression system to the storage vessels and from the storage
vessels back out to a cooking stove when required (DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.6.).

6. Storage
Plastic bottles store the biogas at 5 bar until the manifold regulates the flow for cooking
(DHF: Appendix 14.1.2.6.).

7. Structural Frame
Houses and supports the actuation, compression and valve systems (DHF: Appendix
14.1.2.5.).


16

7. DESIGN DETAIL

7.1. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE REMOVAL
Raw biogas contains undesirable impurities such as carbon-dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
(H
2
S) and water-vapour. As the gas will be used for cooking, only H
2
S needs to be
treated
16
.

Hydrogen sulphide is a poisonous and flammable chemical compound. It can cause
material corrosion as well as having serious health implications, including irritation of the
respiratory system, breathing problems, and sudden death (see Table 7.1.).

Physiological or Regulatory Benchmark Parts Per Million (ppm)
Odour Detection Threshold (Rotten Egg Smell) 0.13
TLV-TWA = Recommended Exposure Limit 10.0
TLV-STEL = Recommended 15-minute Exposure Limit 15.0
Offensive Odour 27.0
Slight Conjunctivitis and Respiratory Tract Irritation 50.0-100.0
Coughing, Eye Irritation, Loss of Sense of Smell 100.0
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health 100.0+
Loss of Consciousness 500.0-700.0
Rapid Respiratory Arrest (Death in 1 - 3 Breaths) 1000.0-2000.0

TLV = Threshold Limit Values
TWA = Time Weighted Average
STEL = Short Term Exposure Level

Table 7.1: Benchmarks for conditions in relation to hydrogen sulphide exposure
17
.

As shown in Table 7.1, the recommended exposure is 10ppm over an 8 hour period.
This was a requirement throughout the project and various methods of removal were
considered (see Appendix 14.1.2.3.). Simple and cost effective, the most suitable
solution for small scale use was a dry sorption method
18
. The preferred catalyst is iron
oxide, capturing H
2
S through the formation of iron sulphide. This is then oxidised to form
elemental sulphur, while also regenerating the iron oxide for reuse. This can be achieved
effectively a few times before its disposal.

The chemical equations are as follows:


17

A prototype was designed utilising a glass jar filled with oxidised steel wool as a source
of iron oxide (see Figure 7.1.). Adapting the system to a larger scale would require the
use of an iron sponge method, whereby allowing more effective H
2
S removal (see
Appendix).

Figure 7.1: Scrubber schematic


18

7.2. COMPRESSOR UNIT

Overview:

The volume of biogas is reduced by the compressor unit, which is mounted in the
structural frame and actuated via a lever connection. The unit consists of a valve system
and a compression system (as shown in Figure 7.2.1.). The two systems have been
developed as separate modules which are bolted together and mounted onto a support
plank (see Section 7.3.2.).

Fig 7.2.1: Compressor unit assembly


19

7.2.1. Valve System

The valve system was designed as a single hub (see Figure 7.2.2.); housing an inlet,
outlet and safety valve. The hub consisted of a top plate, valve fixing and bottom plate
with reed valves sitting between each layer. This made the design easy to manufacture
and assemble (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). The material used for the plates is mild steel,
chosen because it could be acquired in the dimensions set by the original design.

Figure 7.2.2: Valve system

Flow Valves

The inlet and outlet are controlled by neoprene reed valves, which open into chambers
created by a centre plate (see Figure 7.2.3.). Reed valves were selected for their
simplicity and robustness, while neoprene was chosen for its flexibility in comparison to
trials with other materials (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). Due to this flexibility, the reed
valves are very responsive, opening and closing as the stroke starts; thus maximising
flow rate into the containers (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1. and 14.3.2.1.). Flow is
channelled through the valve system to adjacent systems through PVC hosing -
connected via threaded barbs.

20

Figure 7.2.3: Cross-sections of inlet valve (left) and oulet valve (right)

Safety Valve

The safety valve provides a means of alerting the user once a critical pressure has been
reached, preventing over-pressurisation. Through the use of a ball valve and specially
machined barb (see Figure 7.2.4.), the activation pressure can be adjusted by tightening
a spring (see Appendix 14.3.2.3.). Upon the valve opening, gas flows through the outlet,
limiting the pressure in the container. Flow from the safety valve is then directed into a
water bucket, which bubbles, alerting the user the pre-set limit has been achieved.

Figure 7.2.4: Cross-sections of safety valve (left) and threaded barb (right)


21

The specially machined barb was threaded at the top to allow the compression of the
spring to be adjusted (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.). An extruded lip ensures that the
spring sits concentrically in its chamber. Calculations showed the spring needed to be
compressed by 4.45mm to pre-set the safety valve to 5 bar (see Appendix 14.3.2.3.).

Aluminium was selected for ease of manufacture. This was important due to the
components size. The steel ball and spring were bought-in (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.1.).

7.2.2. Compression System

The compression of biogas occurs within this system, the gas inflow and outflow being
regulated by the valve system (see Section 7.2.1.). A sufficiently large stroke and small
diameter were designed to reduce the compression force, while maximising the swept
volume. This reduces the number of pumps required to fill a 2 litre pressure vessel (see
Appendix 14.3.3.1. and 14.1.2.4.2.).

The compression system is capable of compressing a 2 litre bottle to 4.5 bar in 193
pumps producing a volume flow rate of 0.589m
3
/s. Compressing the gas to 5 bar will
increase the temperature by 159K (under maximum adiabatic conditions, see Appendix
14.3.2.1.). Even under hot base conditions the temperature will not reach the auto-
ignition point of biogas or the melting points of any of the materials in the system.

Figure 7.2.5: Compression system overview


22

Piston

The piston fixes to the connecting rod through a centrally bored hole with a recess at
one end to allow the threaded end of the connecting rod to fit flush (see Figure 7.2.6.).
The piston sealing was achieved through the use of a quad ring; offering tight sealing
during reciprocating motion, as well as the friction reducing qualities needed to minimise
the work required. To allow insertion of the quad ring, the top of the cylinder is
chamfered (see Appendix 14.1.2.4.2.).

Figure 7.2.6: Piston of Compression System; cross-section view (left) and standard
orientation (right)

Connecting Rod

The connecting rod links the compression system with the lever system through the use
a slider pin (see Lever System - Section 7.3.1.). This fits through the hole at the top of
the connecting rod. The buckling load of the connecting rod is 49,616N. At maximum
pressure, the load is 1000N, therefore the connecting rod will not fail through buckling
(see Appendix 14.3.2.2.).

Valve System Interface

The compression system integrates with the valve system through a welded end plate
(see Appendix 14.1.2.4.2.). A gasket was employed between the end plate and valve
system to ensure sufficient sealing.

The connecting rod is guided through contact against the inner surface of a bushing (see
Figure 7.2.7.). The bushing is made from brass, as it is a soft, sacrificial material,
reducing the wear on the connecting rod due to friction during operation (see Appendix).
The bushing is welded to a cylinder cap which fixes to the cylinder through two tapped
holes either side of the cap. The combination of the two parts ensure the rigidity of the
surface guiding the connection rod.


23

Figure 7.2.7: Cylinder Cap and Bushing; cross section view (left) and standard
orientation view (right)

All parts (except the bushing) are made from mild steel, selected for its cost
effectiveness, strength and availability of appropriately dimensioned stock (see
Appendix)


24

7.3. ACTUATION

Overview:

The compressors actuation system consists of two sub-systems; the lever system and
the structural frame (see Figure 7.3.1.). The lever system forms the interface between
the user(s) and the compressor, while the structural frame provides support for the lever
and compression systems.

Figure 7.3.1: Overall actuation system as designed


25

7.3.1. Lever System
Lever

The lever was designed as a hollow, single-beam (see Figure 7.3.2.) made with external
handles welded into each end, both of which are made of mild steel. This was the result
of preliminary design analysis proving an internal handle and connecting rod system as
susceptible to unacceptable levels of bending (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1. and 14.3.3.3.).
Maximum deflections of under 0.1mm were judged as adequate throughout the lever
system, an amount that was unachievable in an internal handle system unless handles
and cross beams with diameters were used (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1.). The cross
sectional dimensions of the beam were to allow space for a pivot hole, slider pin grooves
(housing the connecting rod pins) and a handle. Stress analysis showed weak points of
only 113 MPa, well below the minimum yield strength of 440 MPa (See Appendix
14.3.3.2.).

Figure 7.3.2: Lever system as mounted on structural frame

Connecting Rod Linkage

The decision was made to use a pin-guided system for the connecting rod attachment.
This was the result of conceptual analysis (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.1.) of the possible
configurations in relation to the compression cylinder and the necessary motion path of
the lever. The proposed system uses slider pins mounted into slots in the beam to allow
horizontal and vertical movement of the connecting rod attachment, relative to the lever
position (see Figure 7.3.3.).

Figure 7.3.3: Fixed-pin-guided connection


26

The sliding pins (see Figure 7.3.4.) were also cleared through bending analysis. Two
bought-in circlips were fixed on the outer ends to secure the pin in position.

Figure 7.3.4: Connecting rod attached via slider pin in lever slot housing

Pivot Rod

The pivot rod on which the lever is mounted to the support structure also holds two
bushings to position the lever beam centrally (see Figure 7.3.5.). These bushings, made
from nylatron, also reduce the wear between the lever beam and the support structure.
The thickness of the pivot rod was based upon deflection calculations (see Appendix
14.3.3.3.). A diameter of 16mm reduced deflection to below the 0.1mm threshold limit.

Figure 7.3.5: Pivot rod as assembled

The pivot rod is located via two brass bushings welded into the support structure (see
Section 7.3.2.) and held in place using circlips on the outer ends.


27

7.3.2. Structural Frame
Pivot Supports

The primary function of the structural frame was to support the actuating lever. It
comprised of a welded steel beam structure based upon its ease of transport, stability
and efficient use of materials. Development from a simple base and upright structure
resulted in an A-frame design as shown in Figure 7.3.6. Iterative structural analysis,
based upon compressor/lever geometries and both physical and theoretical modelling
techniques (see Appendix 14.1.2.5.2. and 14.3.3.3.), resulted in the development of a
capable structure providing the support necessary for the lever pivot rod discussed
previously (Section 7.3.1.).

Figure 7.3.6: Structural frame as assembled

Further stress analysis confirmed the frames ability to withstand the forces exerted
upon it through both the lever pivot and the compressor support. Maximum stress levels
of only 288 kPa were seen in only a selection of weak points such as sharp corners and
cut-outs (Appendix 14.3.3.3.). Brass housings were used to spread the load of the pivot
rod (see Figure 7.3.7.).

Figure 7.3.7: Restrictor bars and pivot housings as assembled
PIVOT HOUSINGS
RESTRICTOR BAR

28

Compressor Support

Lever geometry evaluation (Appendix 14.3.3.1.), enabled the precise positioning of the
compression system to be established. Calculations showed that the compression
cylinder needed to be raised off of the ground to allow for full mechanical advantage.
This required the incorporation of a support platform for the compression system into
the structural frame design. In conjunction with the pivot support iterations, cross
beams were installed and a support plank conceived (shown in Figure 7.3.8.).

Figure 7.3.8: Structural frame with support plank

In addition to this platform, support higher up the cylinder was required to stabilise the
compression system. This was achieved through cross supports (with holes to guide the
cylinder) welded into place on the A-frame (see drawings for dimensional detail).

Lever Motion Restriction

Left unrestricted, the motion of the lever becomes dangerous and creates a risk of
system malfunction or cylinder-lever collision. Strain or damage to the connecting rod
can occur, due to the guiding pins reaching the limits of their slots, potentially resulting
in system failure. This was prevented through the implementation of lever restriction
bars (see Figure 7.3.7). These prevent lever misuse through blocking its motion path.
Additional padding hose is used to reduce damage and wear to the lever beam.

SUPPORT
PLANK
CYLINDER
SUPPORT

29

Storage & Assembly

To ease transportation and storage of the system, the structural frame has been
designed in two parts (Figure 7.3.9.). The base frame and the support structure are
independent components and are fastened temporarily through welded bolt plates
(Figure 7.3.10. for further detail, see Appendix 14.1.2.5.2.). This allows the structure
to be disassembled to fit into a smaller space envelope (approximately 1m x 0.8m x
0.2m) for storage and transportation requirements.

Figure 7.3.9: Assembly of structural frame

Figure 7.3.10: Cut-out sections showing bolt attachment

2. BASE
STRUCTURE
1: A-FRAME
STRUCTURE
CUT-OUT
SECTIONS

30

7.4. STORAGE

Overview:

The development of the storage system resulted in the use of reused plastic bottles as
storage vessels for the compressed biogas, a schematic of which is shown in Figure
7.4.1. The system consists of three main components; the PET storage bottles, a four-
way manifold unit and the threaded attachments for individual bottle fastening. The
function of the manifold (Figure 7.4.2.) is to regulate the flow of biogas from the
compressor into bottles arrays for storage and, when required, out again to the gas
stove for cooking. The bottle attachments (Figure 7.4.3.) facilitate the link between the
manifold and the pressure vessels, allowing direct attachment to the standard threads
found on common beverage containers.

Figure 7.4.1: Schematic of storage system

FROM COMPRESSOR
TO OTHER
BOTTLES
MANIFOLD
BOTTLE
ATTACHMENT
Figure 7.4.2: Manifold

Figure 7.4.3: Bottle Connection


31

7.4.1. Storage Vessel

Gas cylinders are commonly found in India, a result of the dependence on LPG as
cooking fuel. Through investigation (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.), it was decided that a
simpler, cheaper, lighter and more flexible system could be achieved through the use of
PET drinks bottles as biogas pressure vessels.

Pressure Capability

Feasibility research (see Appendix 14.3.1.4.) established that volume reduction factors
of 3-4 were desirable. The 3-5 bar required to achieve such a target represents the
everyday pressure capacity required from the selected vessels. Testing of PET bottles
(see Appendix 14.4.2.) revealed this was possible with a safety factor of 2-3, proving the
concept valid.

Biogas Requirement for One Meal
Uncompressed Compressed

[litres] [litres]
One Person 29.3 7.33
Family (5-6) 150 37.5

Table 7.4.1: Requirement volumes for cooking one meal

Bottle Sizing

For the two major usage scenarios, i.e. individual and family use, 7.33 and 37.5 litres of
biogas are required respectively (Table 7.4.1. - see Appendix 14.3.1.4. and 14.3.4.2.).
PET bottles are widely available in a range of sizes (0.5l to 20l), with far larger sizes
existent in other materials, such as HDPE (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.).

Bottle Size
[Litres]
Number of Bottles Required
Single Person
(7.33 Litres)
Family
(37.5 Litres)
0.5 15 75
0.75 10 50
1 8 38
1.25 6 30
1.5 5 25
2 4 19
5 2 8
10 1 4
20 1 2

Table 7.4.2: Quantity of bottles required depending on bottle size
Common
Thread Size
Unique
Thread Sizes

32

Thread sizes on the larger bottles are non-uniform, whereas bottles with lower capacities
almost always possess a global standard thread size (see Table 7.4.2.) - eliminating
potential connection issues (detailed in Section 7.4.3.). Table 7.4.2. also shows the
quantity of storage vessels required to satisfy requirements for the two scenarios. 2 litre
bottles were chosen as a design point as they reduce this quantity without complicating
attachment to the system through possession of non-uniform thread sizes.

Permeation

PET is a polymer, commonly used in the drinks and containment industry, capable of
keeping carbonated drinks at pressure over long shelf lives (3-9 months
19
). This is due
to the use of stretch blow moulding during their manufacture (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.1.)
to produce shapes with few areas of weakness. Despite the proven functionality of PET
bottles for the storage of carbonated drinks, calculations were performed proving
permeation of common gases through the material are at acceptable levels for the usage
scenarios (see Table 7.4.3.). Biogas consists of both carbon dioxide and methane and it
can be assumed that if these two gases show sufficiently low gas transmission rates,
biogas will be similar.

Gas
Gas Transmission
[litres/day]
Hydrogen (H
2
) 0.0231
Nitrogen (N
2
) 0.0002
Oxygen (O
2
) 0.0021
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
) 0.0056

Table 7.4.3: Transmission of various gases through PET

Gas permeation rates for methane specifically through PET are hard to find, however
literature
20
shows a trend in the diameter of the molecules and their permeability (Figure
7.4.4.). On average, carbon dioxide possesses a higher permeability than methane
(based on the two polymers indicated). Therefore, Table 7.4.3. provides an assumed
maximum gas transmission rate of 0.0056 litres/day. Given the requirement of the
biogas storage to provide for only one meal, containment should not be required for
periods as long as a full day. Therefore, gas transmission out of the PET bottle will be
less than the calculated figures.

33

Figure 7.4.4: Gas permeability co-efficient based upon the size of various gases
20
.

Transport of Storage Vessels

The required quantity of stored biogas varies greatly between individuals and
households. As previously shown in Table 7.4.2., four and nineteen 2 litre bottles are
required for each respectively. It will be considerably easier for the user(s) to carry the
compressed gas collectively as one entity, therefore it is suggested that crates and other
such containers be used to facilitate transportation. Figure 7.4.5. shows two examples;
one assisting the transport of an individuals requirement, the other a whole households.
Taking the compressed gas into consideration, the bottle arrays will weigh 0.22kg and
1.04kg; suitable for manual transportation.

Figure 7.4.5: Transportation means for different quantity requirements
21,22


34

Safety & Efficiency

Should the bottles suffer damage, there is little danger to the user. Biogas will only
ignite if a lighting source is extremely close and there is low ventilation. Risk of ignition
is extremely low if outdoors, such as during the compression cycle, or inside with good
air circulation
23
.
Pressure vessels begin at atmospheric pressure full of air. However, after 3 cycles the
vessel is filled with over 90% biogas concentration (see Appendix 14.3.4.3.).


35

7.4.2. Manifold

The manifold was designed to channel and regulate the flow of biogas to and from the
storage containers. Machined from a single aluminium block, it is easy to manufacture
and assemble, as well as displaying good overall sealing and corrosion resistance.

Globe Valve

The gas flow through the manifold is controlled by a globe valve, chosen for its
functionality and simplicity (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.2.). A rubber tip was used as its
material characteristics are suited for sealing and continued functionality after wearing.
The valve shaft is fixed by a top-plate and attached to a cross-hatched knob for ease of
operation. One of the main design considerations was sealing to minimise pressure
losses within the system (see Figure 7.4.6. and Appendix). This was especially important
around the globe valve, where an o-ring, gasket and shaft seal were used, all of which
are made from neoprene rubber.

Inlet and Outlets

There is one interchangeable inlet/outlet required, where the hose attachment can be
unscrewed without damage occurring during the frequent swapping from the compressor
to the cooking stove. There are four outlets leading to storage vessels, these channels
can be sealed with plugs if not required (see Appendix). Bought-in hose attachments are
used at each inlet/outlet connection (see Appendix).

Figure 7.4.6: Manifold system overview; manifold with hose attachments (top left)
cross-section of manifold (bottom left), detailed model of the globe valve system (right)


36

7.4.3. Bottle Attachment

The design stemmed from an initial concept developed for testing the feasibility of using
PET plastic bottles as pressure vessels (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.3.).The bottle attachment
consists of 3 components; a top section, bottom section and bought-in hose attachment
(see Figure 7.4.7.). Rubber sealing was provided above and below the bottle cap, held in
position by the top and bottom section.

Top Section

The steel top section has a threaded hole on the top face to house the hose attachment.
On the underside there is a threaded shaft for the bottom section to attach to (see
Appendix).

Bottom Section

This is manufactured from a hexagonal brass rod selected for its corrosion resistance and
functionality for tightening purposes. There is a threaded hole though the component
which attaches the top section (see Appendix).

Figure 7.4.7: Bottle attachment overview; Bottle attachment designed for testing (left),
final bottle attachment design (right)


37

7.5. CONNECTIONS & FIXINGS

The system required numerous connections for PVC hosing. These could have been
manufactured on site, however through consideration of cost and availability
requirements (see Appendix 14.1.2.7.), buying in the parts was the preferred option. As
the product is designed for use in Pabal it was also essential to source parts which could
be acquired in India. In total four different components were bought-in; all supplied by
RS components
24
. Figure 7.5. breaks down the location of each component in the
system. Many suppliers in India sell similar components that can be found on trade
websites at similar costs, such as alibaba.com, validating their use in the system.

Figure 7.5: Detail of the connections used in each sub-system

The total cost per component is shown in Table 7.5. Although the costs for the system
seem high, this is a one off expenditure and over time would provide savings on gas
used. All components are brass due to its corrosion resistance and cost effectiveness in
comparison to other materials (see Appendix for additional detail).

Table 7.5: Total cost of a system with 4 bottles attached
Qty
required
Description
Total
price
Total
unit
price
10 Brass hose tail,3/8 BSPP male 3/8in ID 10.90 10.90
3 Brass hose tail w/nut,3/8in BSPx3/8in ID 9.20 6.90
2 Brass hose tail,1/4 BSPP male 3/8in ID 2.90 2.90
4 Brass plug,3/8in BSPT 8.70 3.48
31.70 24.18 TOTAL

38

8. MANUFACTURING

8.1. Solution

The complete system can be seen in Figure 8.1, each component was manufactured in
the University of Nottingham L2 workshop. The system took approximately 7 days to
manufacture and assemble, utilising 4 hours technician for welding.

Figure 8.1: Complete assembled system


39

8.2. Problems Encountered & Alterations

Structural Frame

Figure 8.2: Structural frame

Summary

Cut-out section size increased to allow bolt welding.

Lever restriction bars added to prevent system damage.


40

Compression system

Figure 8.3: Compression unit

Summary

Cylinder internal weld lines had to be ground down.

Reed valves initially failed to function, inlet/outlet hole size increased and
chamfers added to valve fixing.

Thread depth decreased for bought-in attachments due to plate size.


41

Manifold

Figure 8.4: Manifold system

Summary

Globe valve shaft was increased to M16, a more standardised size.

Thread depth increased for attachments.

Threaded connection manufactured from hexagonal brass rod.

Bottle attachment

Figure 8.5: Manufactured Bottle attachment

Summary

Manufactured for testing and used for the prototype. Would be changed for future
manufacture (see Appendix 14.1.2.6.3.).

42

9. PROJECT COMPLIANCE

9.1. TESTING
Various experiments were conducted to test the system compliance against the
statement of requirements (see Section 5.4).

9.1.1. System

Pressure Capability of Compressor
[Requirements 2, 3, 5 & 7]

The maximum pressure capability of the system was tested to be 4.5 bar. Functionality
of the safety mechanism proven (see Appendix 14.4.1).

Speed of Delivery
[Requirements 5 & 12]

A pressure of 4.5 bar was successfully achieved between a range of 133 - 170 pumps,
taking an average time of 3 minutes 13 seconds (see Appendix 14.4.1.).

System Transportation
[Requirement 6]

The system can be easily disassembled, detaching the sub-systems and structural frame
for easy transportation (see Figure 9.1.).

Figure 9.1: Disassembled structural frame


43

Materials & Manufacturing Availability

At each stage of the design process investigation was conducted into the resource
availability in India. The system was designed around the findings.

Robustness & Durability
[Requirement 9]

Protective coating on the system to increase durability (not shown in Figures). Tests for
fatigue and creep have not been conducted, but will be conducted in the future (see
Section 11).

9.1.2. Storage

Pressure Capability of the Bottles
[Requirements 1, 3, 7 & 10]

PET bottles for carbonated drinks were found to start deforming at pressures in the
range of 8 - 11.5 bar and catastrophic failure occurred between 13 - 19.5 bar. In
contrast, PET bottles for still drinks were found to start deforming at pressures of 8-9 bar
and catastrophic failure occurred between 12 -17 bar. Both sets of results represent
bottles of varying volumes between 500ml and 2000ml. For 2000ml bottles specifically,
the yield pressure was found to be 9 bar and catastrophic failure at 12 bar (see Appendix
14.4.2.).

Figure 9.2: Water pump used for testing the pressure capability of PET plastic bottles


44

Manifold Functionality
[Requirements 2, 12 & 13]

The globe valve effectively shut off the air flow in the system with minimal leakage (see
Appendix 14.4.2.).

Pressure Capacity Test
[Requirements 4, 7]

A pressure of 4.5 bar was achieved and held in the storage vessel. After 5 minutes the
pressure had dropped to 4 bar before dropping again to 3.5 bar after a 30 minute
period. The pressure was maintained for 5 hours, during which time it decreased to 3
bar. After 8 hours it was observed that the pressure in the bottle was 2 bar, staying
constant through the remaining 12 hour test period (see Appendix 14.4.2.).

9.1.3. Ergonomics

Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA)

RULA conducted on the system resulted in an action level assessment of 2 out of a
possible 5, indicating that further investigation is required if prolonged use is envisioned.
The system is designed for use twice a day, and therefore is not a major issue (see
Appendix 14.4.2.).

Figure 9.3: Ergonomic features of the lever actuation


45

10. CONCLUSION

The project culminated in the successful full-scale prototype build of the designed
system. Only one of the two compression cylinders were manufactured to validate the
concept and design geometries. The aim of producing a working biogas compression and
storage system for use in rural India has been fulfilled.

The solution exceeded many of the system requirements, and the use of PET bottles as
storage vessels was an innovation the team is particularly proud of. The system
successfully compressed the test fluid (air) to a pressure of 4.5 bar, allowed through
deactivation of the safety valve, a value within the 3 - 5 bar target range. The
compression is safe and controlled, with the safety mechanism working effectively to
vent pressure when 4 bar is reached. Lengthening the threaded section will allow
adjustment of the initiating pressure to the intended 5 bar requirement. The PET
pressure vessels were confirmed as being a suitable method of storing the gas and are
appropriate for the environment of end use. The lever actuation and structural frame
operate as designed; showing minimal wear.

The primary design objective was to create a system that was appropriate and
implementable in the developing world. The materials and components used are readily
available in India and are sufficiently appropriate to justify their inclusion in the project.
This is further highlighted through the low prototype cost of only 75 an expenditure
that will decrease through the exploitation of economies of scale.

The prototype did have some flaws, most prominently in the attachment of the
connecting rod to the lever. The fixed-guided-pin connection was found to fall short of
expectations due to substantial friction in the slider pin slots. This was found to increase
the wear and risk of bending on the connecting rod. The issue was solved through the
addition of restriction bars to limit the range of lever motion. However, the extension
height of the connecting rod was reduced resulting in a shortened stroke.

During testing the support plank exhibited slight bending during operation. The plywood
survived testing, however a strengthened replacement has been considered (Future
Work). Finally, the absence of the second compression cylinder means the interaction of
the two units during actuation has not been tested.

The system provides an appropriate solution to the problems of transport and
compression discussed in the preliminary stages of the report . Additionally, interest has
been shown by a number of engineering organisations during the design process,
including Shell and EWB. The research grant awarded by the latter (November 2010) has
provided full funding of the systems development to date.

Recommendations and future work have been outlined (see Section 11) and will be
pursued prior to handover to EWB, and subsequently our partner organisation Vigyan
Ashram.


46

11. FUTURE WORK & RECOMMENDATIONS

Primary recommendations focus on:
a) Overcoming the weaknesses of design highlighted during testing.
b) Further validation of the design.

a)
Second Cylinder Build

The prototype was manufactured with a single compression assembly as proof of
concept. Although sufficient for testing and design refinement purposes, the second
cylinder manufacture should be completed to ensure that there are no unpredicted
interactions when both are mounted on the structural frame.

Safety Refinements

The safety valve adjustment mechanism is controlled through tension of the spring.
Calibration is via the tightening of a threaded barb which alters the springs length, in
doing so varying the tension and activation pressure of the safety valve. The original
threaded barb was of insufficient length to compress the spring to the required level and
gas was released below the target of 5 bar. An increase in the thread length from 7.5mm
to 12.5mm allows the pressure at which the safety valve is activated to be raised.

Cylinder fixings

The fixed-guided-pin connection from the connecting rod to the lever is an area of
weakness. While theoretically sound, when tested the high friction between the pin and
the slot, combined with the long effective length of the rod, results in a significant risk of
bending on the down stroke. This is due to the absence of an x-component constraint
(see Figure 11.1.).

Figure 11.1: Bending potential of fixed-guided-pin connection
RESTRICTION
OF LEVER
BENDING
POTENTIAL

47

The initial solution selected to overcome this was the addition of movement-restricting
bars to the A-frame. The bars stop the rod reaching full extension, preventing the
geometries at which bending occurs, but reducing the stroke length significantly (38%).
Further optimisation of this design would involve the addition of a vertical slot parallel to
the slider pin, constraining movement in the x-direction.

The proposed optimised solution is to pivot the cylinder at its base, to implement a
fixed-pin connection between the lever and connecting rod (Figure 11.2.), enabling the
integration of plain bearings to reduce friction. This modification would necessitate
structural frame redesign and cause a minor increase in cost, but will reduce the
effective length coefficient by 0.699 to 0.5 increasing the buckling load significantly.

Figure 11.2: Recommended alteration to cylinder fixation system

Support Structure

Further evaluation of the materials used in the support structures manufacture is
recommended. The prototype highlighted the insufficient rigidity of the plywood
originally used as the support plank - exhibiting bending when the system was operated
(see Figure 11.3.). Replacement with another timber or metal should be considered.

The supporting frame has a significant load-bearing redundancy, and is over-engineered.
The group lacked the woodworking capability to explore manufacture using other
materials. Alternatives to steel such as wood or brickwork should be explored to reduce
cost and increase the flexibility of the system.


48

Figure 11.3: Bending of the support plank during operation

b)
Testing

Health and safety limitations prevented fully exhaustive testing of the system. Having
only tested with air, it is imperative that a range of tests with biogas be conducted
before further development takes place, verifying air as a representative substitute
during testing.

The relationship between compression cycles and creep in the PET bottle, at ambient and
elevated temperatures, should be investigated through both physical and computer
modelling. These tests will allow prediction of PET bottle lifetime (as a factor of
compression cycling), and allow prediction of the effect of stress concentration factors
(SCF) on the predicted life. This would enable the group to advise users which bottles to
select as pressure vessels based on a visual examination, knowing where on the bottle
SCFs are unacceptable.

The potential also exists for rigorous optimisation of the system using a Design of
Experiments (DoE) approach.

The final primary recommendation is for the build and test of the system in India, a goal
the group hope the partnership with EWB will facilitate.


49

Secondary recommendations focus on the improvement of the embodied design
beyond the original specification:

Pressure vessels

The limiting factor on the volume reduction achievable lies in the PET pressure vessels,
yielding at 8 bar. Utilising PET bottles is favourable in terms of availability, price and
weight - but at the cost of a reduction in the maximum storable pressure. Whilst the
most efficient approach to increasing the volume of gas compressed is through an
increase in the number of PET bottles attached to the system (because of the
disproportionate energy increase required to compress to higher pressures) there is a
case for raising the pressure capacity of the PET bottles.

Enabling pressures of 6 - 8 bar to be reached safely in the storage vessels will result in a
volume reduction factor of between 5 - 6. Should this be achievable, an individual would
only require 2 - 3 bottles of compressed gas per meal, and a family only 12 - 15 to fully
replace LPG - significantly increasing the functionality of the system.

Preliminary destructive testing showed good agreement with theory and confirmed the
vessels consistent failure when the nominal hoop stress is exceeded. Through
circumferential reinforcement it is predicted that a significant increase in the pressure at
which plastic deformation onsets can be achieved. Further work is recommended to
assess the effect of reinforcement using tape wrapping, or natural resin coating.

Manifold

The current manifold design incorporates 4 outlets, with a single inlet. By doubling the
number of intake points, the functionality of the manifold is increased at minimal cost.
Furthermore, the addition of a second intake and non return valve system would allow
both compression cylinders to be attached to a single manifold increasing efficiency of
the whole system. Both recommendations increase functionality at low cost and are
worthy of further development.

Attachments

The development of a snap-on/snap-off attachment component with an integrated non-
return valve would enable easy and safe connections to be made between different parts
of the system. Wear on the hoses would be reduced and system flexibility increased.
Achieving this through appropriate, suitable design is a recommended future
development.


50

12. ACKNOWLDEGEMENTS

Throughout the project, the group was supervised by Dr. Mike Clifford and received
excellent design guidance from John Prentice. Input and support from both has been
invaluable and we would like to take this opportunity to sincerely thank them for their
assistance.

Special thanks goes to the organisation EWB for providing part funding of the project,
and for giving us the forum to display and discuss our work. Additionally, we would like
to acknowledge the assistance from the following members of the faculty;

DR. STEVE MATHER
DR. DON GIDDINGS
DR. SARAH JEWITT
SIMON HARRISON
DR. KAY BOND
PROF. GEOFF KIRK
PROF. SEAMUS GARVEY
ROGER SMITH
IAN BRENNAN
ANDY MATTHEWS
PAUL JOHNS

The assistance of the following organisations is also gratefully acknowledged;

WILLOW JOINERY AND SHOPFITTING LTD.
VIGYAN ASHRAM INDIA
SHELL UK


51

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Virginia Cooperative Extension

20. Stark, T. & Choi, H. (2004), Methane gas migration through geomembranes,
Geosynthetics International 12(1)

21. Artisanti (2010), Metal Wine Racks, Available at
[http://www.artisanti.com/metal-wine-racks-169-c.asp] Accessed Online:
26/04/2011

22. Plastic2go (2005), Plastic Crates, Available at
[http://www.plastic2go.com.au/images/c2g6424u_grey.jpg] Accessed Online:
26/04/2011

23. Pace Project (2007), Biogas Action Sheet, Available at
[www.paceproject.net/UserFiles/File/Energy/biogas.pdf] Accessed Online:
09/10/2010

24. RS Components (2011), Hose, Ducting & Fittings, Available at [http://uk.rs-
online.com/web/] Accessed Online: 28/02/2011

For further references, see also:

SUPPLEMENTARY APPENDICES (Books A1- A3)

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