History of Chemical Matches

If you need to start a fire do you rub sticks together or break out your handy flint? Probably
not. Most people would use a lighter or a match to start a fire. Matches allow for a portable,
easy-to-use source of fire. Many chemical reactions generate heat and fire, but matches are a
fairly recent invention. Matches are also an invention you probably wouldn't choose to
duplicate if civilization ended today or you were stranded on a desert island. The chemicals
involved in modern matches are generally safe, but that wasn't always the case:
1669 [Hennig Brand or Brandt, also known as Dr. Teutonicus]
Brand was an Hamburg alchemist who discovered phosphorus during his attempts to
turn base metals into gold. He allowed a vat of urine to stand until it putrified. He
boiled the resulting liquid down to a paste, which he heated to a high temperature, so
that the vapors could be drawn into water and condensed into... gold. Brand didn't get
gold, but he did obtain a waxy white substance that glowed in the dark. This was
phosphorus, one of the first elements to be isolated other than those which exist free
in nature. Evaporating urine produced ammonium sodium hydrogenphosphate
(microcosmic salt), which yielded sodium phosphite upon heating. When heated with
carbon (charcoal) this decomposed into white phosphorus and sodium pyrophosphate:
(NH
4
)NaHPO
4
NaPO
3
+ NH
3
+ H
2
O
8NaPO
3
+ 10C 2Na
4
P
2
O
7
+ 10CO + P
4

Although Brand tried to keep his process a secret, he sold his discovery to a German
chemist, Krafft, who exhibited phosphorus throughout Europe. Word leaked out that
the substance was made from urine, which was all Kunckel and Boyle needed to work
out their own means of purifying phosphorus.
1678 [Johann Kunckel]
Successfully made phosphorus from urine.
1680 [Robert Boyle]
Boyle coated a piece of paper with phosphorus, with a separate splinter of sulfur-
coated wood. When the wood was drawn through the paper, it would burst into flame.
Phosphorus was difficult to obtain at that time, so the invention was only a curiosity.
Boyle's method of isolating phosphorus was more efficient than Brand's:
4NaPO
3
+ 2SiO
2
+ 10C 2Na
2
SiO
3
+ 10CO + P
4

1826/1827 [John Walker, Samuel Jones]
Walker serendipitously discovered a friction match made from antimony sulfide,
potassium chlorate, gum, and starch, resulting from a dried blob on the end of a stick
used to stir a chemical mixture. He didn't patent his discovery, though he did show it
to people. Samuel Jones saw the demonstration and started to produce 'Lucifers',
which were matches marketed to the Southern and Western U.S. states. Lucifers
reportedly could ignite explosively, sometimes throwing sparks at a considerable
distance. They were known to have a strong 'firework' odor.
1830 [Charles Sauria]
Sauria reformulated the match using white phosphorus, which eliminated the strong
odor. However, the phosphorus was deadly. Many people developed a disorder known
as 'phossy jaw'. Children who sucked on matches developed skeletal deformities.
Phosphorus factory workers got bones diseases. One pack of matches contained
enough phosphorus to kill a person.
1892 [Joshua Pusey]
Pusey invented the matchbook, however, he placed the striking surface on the inside
of the book so that all 50 matches would ignite at once. The Diamond Match
Company later purchased Pusey's patent and moved the striking surface to the exterior
of the packaging.
1910 [Diamond Match Company]
With a worldwide push to ban the use of white phosphorus matches, the Diamond
Match Company got a patent for a non-poisonous match which used sesquisulfide of
phophorous. U.S. President Taft requested that Diamond Match give up their patent.
1911 [Diamond Match Company]
Diamond yielded their patent on January 28, 1911. Congress passed a law placing a
prohibitively high tax on white phosphorus matches.
Present Day
Butane lighters have largely replaced matches in many part of the world, however
matches are still made and used. The Diamond Match Company, for example, makes
more than 12 billion matches a year. Approximately 500 billion matches are used
annually in the United States.
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Label: General Chemistry
Buy a Chemistry Textbook
You've gotten the list of textbooks for your course. Before you sell your soul to the
bookstore, find out which texts you really need and which ones to skip. Ask yourself these
important questions:
Will you keep the book?
Thumb through the book and ask yourself whether or not you think the book will serve as a
handy reference after the course is concluded. If yes, buy it, preferably new. If not, keep
reading...
Does the course actually use the text?
Words to the wise: A book might be listed as 'required', but that doesn't necessarily mean you
have to buy it! Some required texts really don't get used (ask upperclassmen) or can be
borrowed. If you don't plan on keeping the book after the class, consider buying a 'used' copy.
When in doubt, wait until the first day of class to make a decision.
Is this a lab book?
Laboratory workbooks need to be purchased and they need to be new. Don't try to sneak in a
used laboratory book. Your instructor will not be amused.
Is the text available used?
Really popular texts are usually available in 'used' form. However, the text is probably
popular because it is useful! If you need a book and will use it after the course ends, buy it
new. If you are strapped for cash or the usefulness of the book is questionable, buy it used.
Will the book help you?
Sometimes a book is recommended, but not required. This is true for many study guides. Ask
yourself whether or not you will benefit from using the book. Can the book be borrowed? Is it
useful enough to buy, new or used? When in doubt, talk with your instructor.
Can I afford it?
Although this is a good question to raise regarding buying books, it is NOT a question to ask
when deciding whether or not to obtain a book. The difference? Buying a book involves
money. Obtaining a book might involve money, but it also could include borrowing from a
student or professor. I don't recommend sharing important books. If you need a book, then
get it!
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Label: General Chemistry
Importance of Chemistry
Chemistry has a reputation for being a complicated and boring science, but for the most part,
that reputation is undeserved. Fireworks and explosions are based on chemistry, so it's
definitely not a boring science. If you take classes in chemistry, you'll apply math and logic,
which can make studying chemistry a challenge if you are weak in those areas. However,
anyone can understand the basics of how things work... and that's the study of chemistry. In a
nutshell, the importance of chemistry is that it explains the world around you.
Chemistry Explains...
Cooking
Chemistry explains how food changes as you cook it, how it rots, how to preserve
food, how your body uses the food you eat, and how ingredients interact to make
food.
Cleaning
Part of the importance of chemistry is it explains how cleaning works. You use
chemistry to help decide what cleaner is best for dishes, laundry, yourself, and your
home. You use chemistry when you use bleaches and disinfectants and even ordinary
soap and water. How do they work? That's chemistry!
Medicine
You need to understand basic chemistry so you can understand how vitamins,
supplements, and drugs can help or harm you. Part of the importance of chemistry lies
in developing and testing new medical treatments and medicines.
Environmental Issues
Chemistry is at the heart of environmental issues. What makes one chemical a nutrient
and another chemical a pollutant? How can you clean up the environment? What
processes can produce the things you need without harming the environment?
We're all chemists. We use chemicals every day and perform chemical reactions without
thinking much about them. Chemistry is important because everything you do is chemistry!
Even your body is made of chemicals. Chemical reactions occur when you breathe, eat, or
just sit there reading. All matter is made of chemicals, so the importance of chemistry is that
it's the study of everything.
Importance of Taking Chemistry
Everyone can and should understand basic chemistry, but it may be important to take a course
in chemistry or even make a career out of it. It's important to understand chemistry if you are
studying any of the sciences because all of the sciences involve matter and the interactions
between types of matter. Students wanting to become doctors, nurses, physicists, nutritionists,
geologists, pharmacists, and (of course) chemists all study chemistry. You might want to
make a career of chemistry because chemistry-related jobs are plentiful and high-paying. The
importance of chemistry won't be diminished over time, so it will remain a promising career
path.
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Label: General Chemistry
Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules
ome rules are NOT made to be broken. That is true of the rules used in a chemistry lab. They
are really, truly for your safety and not your humiliation.
Do Not Pipette By Mouth - Ever
You say, "But it's only water." Even if it is, how clean do you think that
glassware really is? Using disposable pipettes? I know lots of people who rinse them
and put them back! Learn to use the pipette bulb or automated pipetter. Don't pipette
by mouth at home either. Gasoline and kerosene should be obvious, but people get
hospitalized or die every year, right? I know someone who used his mouth to start the
suction on a waterbed to drain it. Do you know what they put in some waterbed
additives? Carbon-14. Mmmm...radiation. He couldn't retch fast enough! The lesson
is that even seemingly harmless substances may be dangerous!
Read the Chemical Safety Information
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be available for every chemical you use
in lab. Read these and follow the recommendations for safe use and disposal of the
material.
Dress Appropriately (for chemistry lab, not fashion or the weather)
No sandals, no clothes you love more than life, no contact lenses, and long pants are
preferable to shorts or short skirts. Tie long hair back. Wear safety goggles and a lab
coat. Even if you aren't clumsy, someone else in the lab probably is. If you take even
a few chemistry courses you will probably see people set themselves on fire, spill acid
on themselves, others, or notes, splash themselves in the eye, etc. Don't be the bad
example to others, remembered for all time for something stupid!
Identify the Safety Equipment
And know how to use it! Given that some people (possibly you) will need them, know
the locations of the fire blanket, extinguishers, eyewash, and shower. Ask for
demonstrations! If the eyewash hasn't been used in a while the discoloration of the
water is usually sufficient to inspire use of safety glasses.
Don't Taste or Sniff Chemicals
For many chemicals, if you can smell them then you are exposing yourself to a dose
that can harm you! If the safety information says that a chemical should only be used
inside a fume hood, then don't use it anywhere else. This isn't cooking class - don't
taste your experiments!
Don't Casually Dispose of Chemicals Down the Drain
Some chemicals can be washed down the drain, while others require a different
method of disposal. If a chemical can go in the sink, be sure to wash it away rather
than risk an unexpected reaction between chemical 'leftovers' later.
Don't Eat or Drink in Lab
It's tempting, but oh so dangerous... just don't do it!
Don't Play Mad Scientist
Don't haphazardly mix chemicals! Pay attention to the order in which chemicals are to
be added to each other and do not deviate from the instructions. Even chemicals that
mix to produce seemingly safe products should be handled carefully. For example,
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide will give you salt water, but the reaction
could break your glassware or splash the reactants onto you if you aren't careful!
Take Data During Lab
Not after lab, on the assumption that it will be neater. Put data directly in your lab
book rather than transcribing from another source (e.g., notebook or lab partner).
There are lots of reasons for this, but the practical one is that it is much harder for the
data to get lost in your lab book. For some experiments, it may be helpful to take
data beforelab. No, I'm not telling you to dry-lab or cheat, but being able to project
likely data will help you catch bad lab procedure before you are three hours or so into
a project. Know what to expect. You should always read the experiment in advance.
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Label: General Chemistry
Ways to Fail a Chemistry Class
Avoid these mistakes to help ensure success in your chemistry class.
1. Don't Show Up
Possibly one of the easiest ways to ensure failure is to not attend class. It's possible to teach
yourself chemistry without ever setting foot in a classroom, but learning a subject isn't the
same as passing a class. If you don't put in the time, you probably won't know what is
expected of you for exams. You won't know what problem sets are due. You can't do labs if
you aren't there. Even if there isn't an attendance policy, it helps to put in face-time.
2. Don't Practice Problems
Some of chemistry is understanding how things work. Some of it is outright memorization.
Most of chemistry is learning how to set up and balance equations and work various types of
problems. The best way to master these skills is to practice. The worst thing you can do is just
copy another student's work or the answers from the back of the book. Do your work. Show
your work. Practice different types of problems (often).
3. Don't Read the Text
... or the handouts or the lab manual. Reading conveys concepts. If you don't read, you don't
need to worry about learning that pesky information. That said, it probably is more important
to give special weight to whatever the instructor emphasizes in lecture. Don't ignore reading
assignments, however. For chemistry, it's better to read the text before the lecture. If the
lecture makes no sense, you need more preparation before class, which involves time with
your textbook.
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Label: General Chemistry
Reasons Why Students Fail Chemistry
Are you taking a chemistry class? Are you worried you might not pass? Chemistry is a
subject many students prefer to avoid, even if they have an interest in science, because of its
reputation for lowering grade point averages. However, it isn't as bad as it seems, especially
if you avoid these common mistakes.
1. Procrastinating
Never do today what you can put off until tomorrow, right? Wrong! The first few days in a
chemistry class may be very easy and could lull you into a false sense of security. Don't put
off doing homework or studying until halfway through the class. Mastering chemistry
requires you to build concept upon concept. If you miss the basics, you'll get yourself into
trouble. Pace yourself. Set aside a small segment of time each day for chemistry. It will help
you to gain long-term mastery. Don't cram.
2. Insufficient Math Preparation
Don't go into chemistry until you understand the basics of algebra. Geometry helps, too. You
will need to be able to perform unit conversions. Expect to work chemistry problems on a
daily basis. Don't rely too much on a calculator. Chemistry and physics use math as an
essential tool.
3. Not Getting or Reading the Text
Yes, there are classes in which the text is optional or completely useless. This isn't one of
those classes. Get the text. Read it! Ditto for any required lab manuals. Even if the lectures
are fantastic, you'll need the book for the homework assignments. A study guide may be of
limited use, but the basic text is a must-have.
4. Psyching Yourself Out
I think I can, I think I can... you have to have a positive attitude toward chemistry. If you
truly believe you will fail you may be setting yourself up for a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you
have prepared yourself for the class, you have to believe that you can be successful. Also, it's
easier to study a topic you like than one you hate. Don't hate chemistry. Make your peace
with it and master it.
5. Not Doing Your Own Work
Study guides and books with worked answers in the back are great, right? Yes, but only if
you use them for help and not as an easy way to get your homework done. Don't let a book or
classmates do your work for you. They won't be available during the tests, which will count
for a big portion of your grade.
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Label: General Chemistry
Help you Succeed in Chemistry
There is no 'magic formula' for learning chemistry. Basically it involves not getting behind,
doing your own work, and not psyching yourself out:
Don't procrastinate!
Cramming does not equal learning. Yes, yes, I am a hypocrite... the queen of putting-
off-until-tomorrow. Take it from someone with experience: if you wait until the night
before a test to start studying you will suffer, your grades will suffer, etc.
Don't Procrastinate
It's worth repeating! In chemistry you build from one concept onto the next. You need
a solid knowledge base to progress.
Try Flash Cards
Hey, they are used in elementary and primary school because FLASHCARDS
WORK. Some of the information gets learned while making the cards and the rest can
be learned during practice. You get to switch around the order in which you view
topics, which is something most notebooks don't provide. Get some index cards and
give it a try!
Try a Highlighter
Use it judiciously. The goal is not to turn your book or notes fluorescent. Most texts
already have important concepts in bold typeface. Unless your teacher is very
unusual, he or she will almost always mention likely test questions, answers, and
concepts. Highlight them! Some teachers take questions from a test bank, but those
who write their own are usually keeping a mental tally of concepts while teaching.
Make Mnemonic Devices
What you are doing here is taking the first letters of words in a sequence you are
trying to memorize and making a phrase from them to serve as a memory aid.
Example: the sequence of the first few elements in the periodic table H, He, Li, Be, B,
C, N, O, F, Ne could be (well, the one that came to my mind was actually dirty, which
is easier to remember) Hi Henry, Lookin' Big, Bad, Certainly Nasty, Old Friend -
Not! Ok, it isn't great literature. One popular mnemonic device is for metric prefixes:
Kilo- Hecto- Deca- Meter (liter, gram) deci- centi- milli- Kangaroos Hopping Down
Mountains Drinking Chocolate Milk. Also, such phrases are even easier to memorize
if you put them to music.
Know Your Text
Do you have a glossary? Answers to problems in the back? Self-quizzes? Appendices
full of useful information? Find that out sooner rather than later. Use the glossary.
You can't communicate about a subject without learning the terminology.
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Label: General Chemistry
Write a Lab Report
Lab reports are an essential part of all laboratory courses and usually a significant part of
your grade. If your instructor gives you an outline for how to write a lab report, use that.
Here's a format for a lab report you can use if you aren't sure what to write or need an
explanation of what to include in the different parts of the report. A lab report is how you
explain what you did in experiment, what you learned, and what the results meant. Here is a
standard format:
1. Title Page
Not all lab reports have title pages, but if your instructor wants one, it would be a
single page that states:
o The title of the experiment.
o Your name and the names of any lab partners.
o Your instructor's name.
o The date the lab was performed or the date the report was submitted.
2. Title
The title says what you did. It should be brief (aim for ten words or less) and describe
the main point of the experiment or investigation. An example of a title would be:
"Effects of Ultraviolet Light on Borax Crystal Growth Rate". If you can, begin your
title using a keyword rather than an article like 'The' or 'A'.
3. Introduction / Purpose
Usually the Introduction is one paragraph that explains the objectives or purpose of
the lab. In one sentence, state the hypothesis. Sometimes an introduction may contain
background information, briefly summarize how the experiment was performed, state
the findings of the experiment, and list the conclusions of the investigation. Even if
you don't write a whole introduction, you need to state the purpose of the experiment,
or why you did it. This would be where you state your hypothesis.
4. Materials
List everything needed to complete your experiment.
5. Methods
Describe the steps you completed during your investigation. This is your procedure.
Be sufficiently detailed that anyone could read this section and duplicate your
experiment. Write it as if you were giving direction for someone else to do the lab. It
may be helpful to provide a Figure to diagram your experimental setup.
6. Data
Numerical data obtained from your procedure usually is presented as a table. Data
encompasses what you recorded when you conducted the experiment. It's just the
facts, not any interpretation of what they mean.
7. Results
Describe in words what the data means. Sometimes the Results section is combined
with the Discussion (Results & Discussion).
8. Discussion or Analysis
The Data section contains numbers. The Analysis section contains any calculations
you made based on those numbers. This is where you interpret the data and determine
whether or not a hypothesis was accepted. This is also where you would discuss any
mistakes you might have made while conducting the investigation. You may wish to
describe ways the study might have been improved.
9. Conclusions
Most of the time the conclusion is a single paragraph that sums up what happened in
the experiment, whether your hypothesis was accepted or rejected, and what this
means.
10. Figures & Graphs
Graphs and figures must both be labeled with a descriptive title. Label the axes on a
graph, being sure to include units of measurement. The independent variable is on the
X-axis. The dependent variable (the one you are measuring) is on the Y-axis. Be sure
to refer to figures and graphs in the text of your report. The first figure is Figure 1, the
second figure is Figure 2, etc.
11. References
If your research was based on someone else's work or if you cited facts that require
documentation, then you should list these references.
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Label: General Chemistry