A covalent bond forming H

2
(right) where two hydrogen atoms share
the two electrons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A covalent bond is the chemical bond that
involves the sharing of pairs of electrons
between atoms. The stable balance of
attractive and repulsive forces between
atoms when they share electrons is known as
covalent bonding.
[1]
For many molecules,
the sharing of electrons allows each atom to
attain the equivalent of a full outer shell,
corresponding to a stable electronic
configuration.
Covalent bonding includes many kinds of
interaction, including -bonding, -bonding,
metal-to-metal bonding, agostic interactions, and three-center two-electron bonds.
[2][3]
The term covalent bond
dates from 1939.
[4]
The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a
"co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory.
In the molecule H
2
, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding.
[5]
Covalency is greatest
between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms
be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Although covalent bonding entails
sharing of electrons, it is not necessarily delocalized.
1 History
2 Physical properties of covalent compounds (polar and non-polar)
3 Polarity of covalent bonds
4 Subdivision of covalent bonds
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 External links
The term "covalence" in regard to bonding was first used in 1919 by Irving Langmuir in a Journal of the
American Chemical Society article entitled "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules". Langmuir
wrote that "we shall denote by the term covalence the number of pairs of electrons that a given atom shares
with its neighbors."
[6]
The idea of covalent bonding can be traced several years before 1919 to Gilbert N. Lewis, who in 1916
described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
[7]
He introduced the Lewis notation or electron dot
notation or Lewis dot structure in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots
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Early concepts in covalent bonding
arose from this kind of image of
the molecule of methane. Covalent
bonding is implied in the Lewis
structure by indicating electrons
shared between atoms.
around the atomic symbols. Pairs of electrons located between atoms
represent covalent bonds. Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as
double bonds and triple bonds. An alternative form of representation, not
shown here, has bond-forming electron pairs represented as solid lines.
Lewis proposed that an atom forms enough covalent bonds to form a full (or
closed) outer electron shell. In the methane diagram shown here, the carbon
atom has a valence of four and is therefore surrounded by eight electrons
(the octet rule); four from the carbon itself and four from the hydrogens
bonded to it. Each hydrogen has a valence of one and is surrounded by two
electrons (a duet rule) - its own one electron plus one from the carbon. The
numbers of electrons correspond to full shells in the quantum theory of the
atom; the outer shell of a carbon atom is the n=2 shell which can hold eight
electrons, while the outer (and only) shell of a hydrogen atom is the n=1
shell which can hold only two.
While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative
picture of covalent bonding, quantum mechanics is needed to understand
the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple
molecules. Walter Heitler and Fritz London are credited with the first
successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond, specifically
that of molecular hydrogen, in 1927.
[8]
Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a
chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the atomic orbitals of participating atoms. These
atomic orbitals are known to have specific angular relationships between each other, and thus the valence bond
model can successfully predict the bond angles observed in simple molecules.
Physical properties Covalent compounds
States (at room temperature) Solid, liquid, gas
Electrical conductivity Usually none
Boiling point and Melting point Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds
Solubility in water Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds
Thermal conductivity Usually low
Covalent bonds are affected by the electronegativity of the connected atoms. Two atoms with equal
electronegativity will make nonpolar covalent bonds such as HH. An unequal relationship creates a polar
covalent bond such as with HCl.
There are three types of covalent substances: individual molecules, molecular structures, and macromolecular
structures. Individual molecules have strong bonds that hold the atoms together, but there are negligible forces
of attraction between molecules. Such covalent substances are gases. For example, HCl, SO
2
, CO
2
, and CH
4
. In
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molecular structures, there are weak forces of attraction. Such covalent substances are low-boiling-temperature
liquids (such as ethanol), and low-melting-temperature solids (such as iodine and solid CO
2
). Macromolecular
structures have large numbers of atoms linked in chains or sheets (such as graphite), or in 3-dimensional
structures (such as diamond and quartz). These substances have high melting and boiling points, are frequently
brittle, and tend to have high electrical resistivity. Elements that have high electronegativity, and the ability to
form three or four electron pair bonds, often form such large macromolecular structures.
[9]
Metallic bonding
Bonding in solids
Linear combination of atomic orbitals
Hybridization
Hydrogen bond
Noncovalent bonding
Disulfide bond
Ionic bond
Covalent radius
Resonance (chemistry)
Bond order
Shared pair
^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life (http://www.phschool.com
/el_marketing.html) . Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6. http://www.phschool.com
/el_marketing.html. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
1.
^ March, J. Advanced Organic Chemistry 4th Ed. J. Wiley and Sons, 1991: New York. ISBN 0-471-60180-2. 2.
^ G. L. Miessler and D. A. Tarr Inorganic Chemistry 3rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher, ISBN
0-13-035471-6.
3.
^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000). 4.
^ Covalent Bonds, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html 5.
^ Langmuir, Irving (1919-06-01). "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules". Journal of the
American Chemical Society 41 (6): 868934. doi:10.1021/ja02227a002 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1021%2Fja02227a002) .
6.
^ Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916-04-01). "The atom and the molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society 38 (4):
762785. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002) .
7.
^ W. Heitler and F. London, Zeitschrift fr Physik, vol. 44, p. 455 (1927). English translation in Hinne Hettema
(2000). Quantum chemistry: classic scientific papers (http://books.google.com/books?id=qsidHRJmUoIC&pg=140)
. World Scientific. pp. 140. ISBN 978-981-02-2771-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=qsidHRJmUoIC&
pg=140. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
8.
^ Stranks, D. R.; M. L. Heffernan, K. C. Lee Dow, P. T. McTigue, G. R. A. Withers (1970). Chemistry: A
structural view. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-522-83988-6.
9.
"Covalent bonding Single bonds" (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html) .
chemguide. 2000. http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
"Electron Sharing and Covalent Bonds" (http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/electronsandbonds
/intro1.htm) . Department of Chemistry University of Oxford. http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry
/electronsandbonds/intro1.htm. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
"Chemical Bonds" (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html#c5) . Department of
Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical
/bond.html#c5. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Covalent bond - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond
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Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure (http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516
/Chapter_07.html)
Structure and Bonding in ChemistryCovalent Bonds (http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/pt/harvey
/gcse/covalent.html)
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