GEMSTONES

The minerals with special beauty and physical properties which attract attention to process for
personal decorative purposes are gemstones.
Gemology is the study of gemstones: what constitutes a gem, the terminology of gemstones,
their physical and optical properties, and how those properties are used to identify gems. Of the
some 2000 minerals that have been identified, only about 90 have varieties that produce
specimens possessing the requisite beauty and durability to be considered gemstones. Of this
90, only about 20 are particularly important to the jeweler.
Estimation of carats:
The standard international weight of gems are in metric carat which is 1/5 of gramme (200 mg) .
The gemstones must be hard enough to resist the mechanical and chemical actions of
everydays life. The cutstones are known as gems, while uncut-ones are gemstones.
The gemstones may be grouped into:
1. Precious stones, namely diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby precious opal and pearl
2. Semi-precious stones which include aquamarine (beryl), moonstone (feldspar), amethyst
(quartz), peridote (olivine).
Classification and identification of gemstones
Classification method used in gemology is the same one applied by mineralogists to the various
minerals, with minor adjustments.Gems are characterized in terms of colour, trransparency,
hardness, host rock, refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture,
and luster.
GEM IDENTIFICATION
Knowing how to distinguish ruby from garnet, or diamond from CZ is an essential skill for
anyone dealing with gemstones. The keys to identifying these gems are specific gravity and
birefringence.
The mineral's composition and crystalline structure impart the various physical properties that
characterize each specimen. Knowledge of the properties of gemstones is important for the gem
cutter and setter, as well as to the consumer who can use that information to care for the gem.
Colour
The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is
actually a mixture of different colors of light. When light passes through a material, some of the
light may be absorbed, while the rest passes through. The part that is not absorbed reaches the
eye as white light minus the absorbed colors.
A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light (blue, yellow, green,
etc.) except red.
Transparency
Based on transparency the gems may be grouped into: Transparent gems which may be
coloured, or colourless b) Translucent or opaque.
Chemical composition:
Natural gems can be grouped into pure element (diamond),
Oxides (ruby, sapphire, amethyst etc)
Silicaates ( emarald, garnet, tourmaline, etc)
Sulphides (pyrite)
Carbonates (malachite, pearl, calcite)
Phosphates (aptite)
Fluorides (fluorspar)
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a gemstone is the ratio of the weight of the material to the weight of the
same volume of water at a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius. In general, minerals composed of
heavy elements will have a higher specific gravity than those composed of lighter elements,
although bonding and crystalline structure can also effect the specific gravity. Also, the more
closely packed the atoms, the stronger the bonding, and the higher the specific gravity. Heavier
gemstones are usually harder as well. The range is from amber, which has a specific gravity of
1.08 and opal, with a specific gravity of 2.05, all the way up to corundum (sapphires and rubies)
with a specific gravity of 3.99, spessartite garnet, specific gravity of 4.15, marcasite, specific
gravity of 4.9, and cuprite (s.g., 6.0) and casseterite (s.g., 6.9). Diamond is in the heavy mid-
range, with a specific gravity of 3.52.
Hardness:
The hardness of the mineral refers to its resistance to scratching and abrasion and also to the
cutting resistance. The more resistant the surface is to scratching, the harder the mineral, and
the stronger the bonding forces are holding the atoms together. Gemstones are often tested by
using the Mohs' hardness scale to determine just how hard they are. The harder minerals are
more durable in that they do not scratch easily and will hold up better in jewelry. This scale was
devised by an Austrian, Friedrich Mohs, and runs from talc, the softest (H=1), and diamond, the
hardest (H=10). Simply stated a harder mineral will scratch a softer one, and minerals of the
same hardness will scratch each other. Gems with a hardness of 2 or less are considered soft;
those with hardness 3 to 5 are called medium; gems with hardness of 6 and over are hard.
Only 10 or 12 of the major gemstones have the ideal hardness or a hardness greater than 7.
Quartz gemstones (citrine, amethyst, etc.) range in the 7's, topaz rates 8, and corundum
(sapphires and rubies) are a 9 on the Mohs' hardness scale. Talc is the softest mineral with a
hardness of 1 and can be easily scratched with a fingernail. There is more of a spread between
the gems and minerals found between 2 and 3 and between 5 and 6, however corundum is only
about 10 per cent harder than topaz. The hardness is relative, but it is, nevertheless, a useful
identification tool. Hardness is almost never used as a separation test with gemstones since it is
considered a destructive test and other nondestructive tests exist to enable separation and
identification.
Cleavage and Fracture
Cleavage and fracture refer to the characteristic manner in which gems will break when an
external force or stress is applied. Some minerals have a special way of breaking parallel along
planes of atomic weakness, creating smooth flat surfaces. This break is called cleavage.
Crystalline minerals have cleavage and fracture, whereas amorphous or massive stones only
fracture.

In rough material, a cleavage break may already be obvious or it can be determined by giving
the specimen a tap with a hammer. Rough diamond is often cleaved and then cut into shapes.
Cleavage is not possible to observe in fashioned gems unless an internal imperfection can be
observed or there is an accidental blow struck along a cleavage direction and the gem breaks.
Thus, diamond has very well developed cleavage and although it is the hardest known
substance, the ready cleavage makes it suspectible to damage.

Fracture is the way a stone breaks. It is a break in a direction other than along cleavage planes
and results when the bonding forces are similar in all directions. Consider fracture to be similar
to a piece of wood breaking in a direction other than the direction of it's grain. A distinctive,
common fracture is called conchoidal, which is a shell-like break. This break is seen in glass,
quartz, opal, peridot, and amber, to name a few. Other possible fractures include uneven,
splintery, granular, or subconchoidal.
Tenacity or Toughness
Tenacity or toughness is the ability of a stone to withstand pressure or impact. It is the
resistance to crushing, breaking, or tearing. Minerals which crumble into small pieces or a
powder are said to be brittle. Tenacity terms include flexible, elastic, malleable, sectile, and
ductile. If a gem bends but returns to its original position, it is said to be elastic (mica, nephrite,
jadeite); these minerals are tough and difficult to break. The jade gemstones (jadeite, nephrite)
are the toughest of all gems, making them also difficult to cut. Talc and gypsum are examples of
minerals which are flexible. Ductile or malleable minerals are those (gold, silver, etc.) which may
be flattened out into thin sheets under pressure. The brittleness factor of a gemstone is an
important consideration in gem cutting and polishing. Many gem crystals shatter or chip easily,
and this must be taken into consideration when cutting. Diamond is the hardest known
substance but because of well developed cleavage and a brittle tenacity, it can easily shatter
when hit.
The degree of tenacity
exceptional - like nephrite and jadeite jade
excellent - like corundum
good - like quartz
fair - like tourmaline
poor - like topaz
Host rock
Certain gemstones are associated with a particular type or rock, like:
diamond and pyrope with periodotite (kimberlite),
tourmaline, spodumen, emarld, aquamarine, etc. with granite-pegmatites,
corundum , carcrinite etc. with syenite and
quartz, opal, zeolite chert etc. with volcanic rocks.
Hardness
The hardness test can be carried out by a set of standard specimens of gypsum(2) , copper
coin(3), pen knife(5.5), quartz(7), topaz(8) and corundum(9).
Refractive index
Refractive index test is quite reliable, since each gem has a constant value. If a grain is
immersed in a liquid of known R.I, it is possible to determine whether it has a higher or lower R.I
than the liquid as examined under the microscope.
Distribution of Gemstones in Tanzania
Tanzania is endowed with various species of coloured gemstones including the unique, famous
and beautiful tanzanite. In the past, small-scale miners have dominated the gemstone mining
operations. There has been an increase in the official gemstone exports from 137,165 tonnes
valued at US$10 million in 1996 to 1,531,547 tonnes valued at US$ 19.05 million in 2004.
Nearly all production is by small-scale miners.
The important gemstones which occur in Tanzania are : Tanzanite, Ruby and Sapphire,
Alexandrite and Chrysoberyl, Emerald etc.
The Other gemstones which occur in Tanzania are :.
Other gemstones known in Tanzania are: Beryl (aquamarine); Garnet (almandite, pyrope,
rhodolite, tsavorite, hessonite, spessartite, Malaya garnet, color-change granite); Feldspar
(moonstone, sunstone, amazonite); Quartz (amethlyst, citrine, rose quartz, smoky quartz);
Tourmaline (green, yellow, brown, pink, water-melon, black); Spinel (violet, blue, yellow, pink,
black); Scapolite (purple and yellow) Topaz (white, yellow, blue); Zircon (brown, pink, colorless);
lolite; Chalcedony (chrysoprase); Opal (cat's eye, yellow, brown, white).
Origin occurrence and distribution
Tanzanite.
Tanzanite is a variety of zoisite, which is strongly peochroic. In its rough form it radiates three
different colours from each of its crystallographic axes: blue, violet and burgundy. Once cut and
polished, the colour of tanzanite range from pale blues and violets to a deep indigo. It was first
discovered in the Merelani area, Tanzania in 1967. The variety was named tanzanite after the
name of the only country in which it is found. Tanzanite's exquisite violet-blue colour and rarity
have made it one of the most popular coloured gemstones. The only commercial deposit of
tanzanite is at Merelani, located about 40km south of Arusha town and 24 km southwest of the
Kilimanjaro International Airport.
Tanzanite occurs mainly in boundinaged pegmatitic veins and hydrothermally altered graphite-
bearing diopside gneiss.
Tanzanite is located within a relatively complex geological environment and is found in
'chocolate-tabletboudin structures typically located in the hinges of isoclinal folds (folds dipping
in the same direction) present in the ore body. The ore body extends across the mining license
and indicated that multiple folding is present in the structure contains significantly more boudins
than previously anticipated.
Ruby and Sapphire.
Mining areas are located at Longido in Arusha, Umba River in Tanga, Matombo and Mahenge
in Morogoro and Tunduru and Kitai in Ruvuma. The host rocks in Tanga and Morogoro Regions
are metamorphosed ultramafic rocks or marbles of the Usagaran Supergroup.
In the Ruvuma Region sapphire is recovered from alluvial deposits. Blue and pink sapphires
occur in the areas of Amani Makoro, Kitai and Mafurungu in the Mbinga District.


Alexandrite and Chrysoberyl.
Recent discoveries of gemstones, including alexandrite, chrysoberyl cat's eye and sapphire, are
being worked by small-scale and artisanal miners in the beds of the Muhuwesi, Mtetesi,
Lumesule and Nambalapi Rivers, located in the districts of Tunduru and Nachingwea.
Emerald.
In Tanzania the best-known emerald deposit is in Mayoka Village at the southern tip of Lake
Manyara in the Manyara Region. The deposit has both emerald and alexandrite. They occur in
contact zones between biotite-actinolite schists/gneisses and pegmatites.
Production statistics indicate that over one million carats of emerald have been mined. No
official emerald reserve exists, but it is believed that the western sides of Lake Manyara host
more emerald deposits. Another emerald deposit is at Ponda near Sumbawanga town in the
Rukwa Region.
Origin of Gemstones
Most of the gemstones occur in the Palaeoproterozoic metamorphic rocks of the Mozambique
(Usagaran) belt in the east and the Ubendian Supergroup in the west.
Cut and uncut varieties of ruby, corundum and sapphire found in Tanzania.