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The Endocrine
System
Works with the Nervous System
Nervous System
fast-acting, short-term response
neurotransmitterschemical
messengers
target cells close
Endocrine System
slower and longer lasting
hormoneschemical messengers
target cells distant
Major Glands
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal
Pineal
Thymus
Organs with
Endocrine
Function
Pancreas
Gonads
ovaries
testes
Hypothalamus
Hormones
Chemical substances
Secreted into extracellular fluid
Regulate activities of target cells
Endocrine glands ductless
Hormones
Amino-acid Based
amino acid derivatives
peptides
proteins
Steroidscholesterol based
EicosanoidsArachidonic acid
basedleukotrienes, prostaglandins
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Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Alter normal cell activities (target cells)
change membrane permeability or
membrane potential
alter protein synthesis
alter enzyme activity
alter secretory activity
stimulate mitosis
Major Mechanisms
Second messenger (G-protein)
Direct gene activation
protein hormones
steroid hormones
thyroid hormone
Second Messenger
Protein hormones can not enter cell
hormone
receptor activates G protein
activates second
messenger molecule
Second Messenger
cAMP
G protein
adenylate
cyclase
ATP cAMP
protein
kinases
phosophorylate
proteins
altered enzyme
activity
Second Messenger
PIP-Calcium Signal Mechanism
Hormone binds to cell receptor
Activates phospholipase
PIP
2
splits to DAG and IP
3
activates
protein
kinases
Ca
++
release
(third messenger)
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Direct Gene Activation
Steroid hormones lipid soluble
Diffuse through cell membrane
Bind to intracellular receptor
Receptor-hormone complex acts
as transcription factor
Activates gene to produce new
protein (enzyme)
Target Cells
Hormones only influence certain
cells--target cells
Target cell has receptor for hormone
Activation of target cell
Blood level of hormone
Number of receptors--
number may change
Hormone-receptor bond
Target Cells
Hormone receptors dynamic
up-regulation
down-regulation
Interactions of Hormones at
Target Cells
Permissiveness
Synergism
Antagonism
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Permissiveness
a hormone must be present for
full effects of second hormone
thyroid hormone must be present
for many other hormones to
work
Synergism
two hormones work together to
amplify effects
glucagon and epinephrine both
target liver to release glucose
if both hormones act together
effects are amplified (150%)
Antagonism
one hormone reverses effect of
second hormone
glucagon increases blood glucose
insulin decreases blood glucose
Control of Hormone Release
Negative feedback
Hormone secretion triggered by
Some internal or external stimulus
As hormone levels rise further
hormone release is inhibited
Hormone levels vary within a
narrow range
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
Humoralblood levels of substance
regulated triggers response
Neural stimulinerve fibers
stimulate hormone release
Hormonal stimulihormones from
one gland stimulate hormone
release from another gland
Blood calcium
levels control
the release of
calcitonin and
parathyroid
hormone
Humoral
Stimulation
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Nervous
Stimulation
Fibers of sympathetic
nervous system
directly stimulate
adrenal medulla
to release
epinephrine
Releasing and
inhibiting hormones
from hypothalamus
stimulate pituitary
and pituitary hormones
stimulate other glands
Hormonal Stimulation
Pituitary-Hypothalamus
Relationships
Posterior pituitary stores
neurohormones formed by
hypothalamus
Inhibiting and releasing hormones
from hypothalamus control secretion
of anterior pituitary hormones
Pituitary--Hypophysis
Direct connection to hypothalamus
infundibulum
Neurohypophysis--posterior pituitary
Adenohypophysis--anterior pituitary
Hormones of the Hypothalamus
All target anterior pituitary
Thyrotropin releasing hormone--TRH
Corticotropin-releasing hormone--
CRH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone--
GnRH
Prolactin-releasing and inhibiting
hormones--PRH and PIH
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Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone--GH
Thyroid-stimulating hormone--TSH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone--ACTH
Follicle-stimulating hormone--FSH
Luteinizing hormone--LH
Prolactin--PRL
Growth Hormone
Stimulates growth of all cells
particularly bone and skeletal
muscle
Release regulated by hypothalamus
Hypersecretion
Children--gigantism
Adults--acromegaly
Hyposecretion
Children--dwarfism
TSH--Thyrotropin
Stimulates development and
function of thyroid gland
Regulated by hypothalamus--TRH
ACTH--Adrenocorticotropin
Stimulates adrenal cortex
Regulated by hypothalamus--CRH
FSH and LH--Gonadotropins
FSH stimulates gamete production
LH promotes production of
gonadal hormones--estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone
Regulated by hypothalamus--
GnRH
PRL--Prolactin
Stimulates milk production
Regulated by hypothalamus
PRH (serotonin)--release
PIH (dopamine)--inhibition
PIH dominant in males
In females PIH release when
estrogen levels low
PRH when estrogen levels
high
Posterior Pituitary
Stores hormones made by
hypothalamus
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone--ADH
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Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contractions
and milk ejection
Positive feedback mechanism
In males and non-pregnant
females--cuddle hormone
May also play role in sexual
arousal and orgasm
ADH--Antidiuretic Hormone
Inhibits urine production
Hyposecretion--Diabetes insipidus
Polyuria and polydipsia
Hypersecretion--SIADH
Fluid retention
Brain edema, weight gain
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxin (T
4
), Triiodothyronine (T
3
)
Stimulates metabolism
Regulated by hypothalamus
Calcitonin
Decreases blood Ca
++
Regulated by blood Ca
++
levels
Follicles
contain
thyroid
hormones
Parafollicular
cells
secrete
calcitonin
Hypothyroidism
Myxedema in adult
Decreased metabolism, lethargy
Cretinism in infant
Mentally retarded dwarf
Endemic goiter
Caused by iodine insufficiency
Hyperthyroidism
Graves disease
Autoimmune
Increased metabolism
Nervousness
Weight loss
Exophthalmos
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Calcitonin
Stimulates osteoblasts
Inhibits osteoclasts
Decreases blood Ca
++
levels
Important only in childhood
Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone--PTH
parathormone
Increases blood Ca
++
levels
Stimulates osteoclasts
Enhances reabsorption of Ca
++
by kidneys
Increases Ca
++
absorption by
intestines
Hyperparathyroidism
Osteitis cystica fibrosis
Depression of nervous system
Formation of kidney stones
Hypoparathyroidism
Tetany--hyperexcitability of
nerves and muscles
Laryngospasm
Adrenal Cortex
Mineralocorticoids
Mineral and water balance
Glucocorticoids
Glucose metabolism--stress
Gonadocorticoids
Masculinization
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone
Stimulates Na
+
reabsorption
in kidney
K
+
, Cl
-
, H
+
, HCO
3
-
, and water
regulation coupled with Na
+
Important in regulation of blood
pressure and blood volume
Regulated by Na
+
and K
+
levels
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Hyperaldosteronism
Hypertension and edema
K
+
loss results in nervous system
depression and muscle
weakness
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone
Essential to life--stress
Regulated through hypothalamus
Primary effect--gluconeogenesis
Effects of excessive cortisol
Depress cartilage and bone
formation
Anti-inflammatory--depresses
immune system
Promotes changes in neural,
cardiovascular, and gastro-
intestinal systems
Cushings disease
Adrenal cortex hypersecretion
Persistent hyperglycemia
Protein loss
Water and salt retention--edema
and hypertension
Cushingoid signs--moon face,
buffalo hump, bird legs
Addisons Disease
Adrenal Cortex Hyposecretion
Decreased Na
+
and glucose
Increased K
+
Severe dehydration and
hypotension
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Gonadocorticoids
Androgens--male hormones
May contribute to onset of
puberty and secondary
sex characteristics
Hypersecretion
Masculinization or virilization
Androgenital syndrome
Adrenal Medulla
Catecholamines
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Sympathomimetic effects
Pheochromocytoma
Catecholamine secreting tumor
Massive, uncontrolled
sympathetic response
Pancreas
Insulin--reduces blood glucose
Glucagon--increases blood glucose
Regulated by blood glucose levels
Glucagon
Increases glycogenolysis
Increases gluconeogenesis
Increases release of glucose
from liver
Insulin
Enhances glucose transport into
cells
Decreases glycogenolysis
Decreases gluconeogenesis
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Diabetes Mellitus
Hyposecretion of insulin or
hypoactivity of insulin
Glucose can not move into cells
Cells starved--ketoacidosis
Glycosuria
Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia
Type I --IDDM
Insulin dependent
Formerly known as juvenile onset
Probably autoimmune
Early onset--long term vascular
and neural problems
Type II--NIDDM
Non-insulin dependent
Formerly known as mature onset
Inadequate insulin production or
faulty receptors on cells
Usually overweight--control with
exercise and diet
Hyperinsulinism
Hypoglycemia
Anxiety, nervousness, tremors,
weakness
Insufficient glucose to brain
Disorientation, convulsions,
unconsciousness, death
Gonads
Ovaries
Estrogen and progesterone
Development and maintenance
of female reproductive system
Testes
Testosterone
Development and maintenance
of male reproductive system
Pineal Gland
Roof of third ventricle of brain
(epithalamus)
Secretes melatonin
Diurnal rhythm: ? night; ? noon
Biological clock
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Thymus
Thymopoietins and Thymosins
Develop T-cells and immune
response
Other Hormone Producing
Structures
HeartANP
Gastrointestinal tract--enteroendocrines
Placentaestrogens, progesterone
Kidneyerythropoietin
Skincholecalciferol
Adipose tissueleptin, resistin
Developmental Aspects
Acts smoothly throughout life
Difficult to study effects of aging
anterior pituitary becomes fibrous
no apparent effect on performance
GH levels decrease (aging)
ovaries decline (menopause)
Aging may alter secretion rates,
Breakdown, excretion, sensitivity