a. Eukaryotic cells are composed of many membranous organelles.
These organelles are
what differences eukaryotic from prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells always contain a nucleus. The nucleus is an organelle that is important for genetic control. It also contains most of the genes in the form of DNA. This DNA is linear. In addition, the nucleus directs protein synthesis. There are three parts that compose the nucleus: the nucleolus, chromatin and finally the nuclear envelope. The nucleolus is a nonmembranous organelle which is composed of dense granules and fibers. Here ribosomes are synthesized by DNA. Moreover some proteins are assembled into large or small ribosomal subunits which exit through the nuclear pores. A nucleus can have one or more nucleoli. Furthermore, chromatin is the uncoiled and not condensed form of DNA and proteins. The coiled and visible DNA is before cell division, which then is called chromosomes. DNA is what codes later for protein synthesis made by ribosomes. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane, which is usually known as the phospholipid bilayer (composed of lipid bilayer and embedded proteins), that encloses the nucleus from the cytoplasm. This envelope is perforated by nuclear pores; they are continuous in the inner and outer part of the phospholipid bilayer. The nuclear envelope is then followed by the endoplasmic reticulum. This organelle is an extensive network that occupies about half of the total cellular membrane. It is composed of membranous sacs and tubes which is called the cisternae. The cisternae separate the endoplasmic reticulum lumen from cytosol. The endoplasmic reticulum has two parts: the rough and the smooth region. The smooth region is the outer surface and it lacks ribosomes. In this region lipids are being synthesized by specific enzymes such as steroids, there is detoxification of poison also by enzymes such as drugs or alcohol by increasing the hydroxyl concentration and making the poison soluble, stores calcium ions which trigger contraction (sarcoplasmic reticulum), glycogenolysis-the breakdown of glycogen, and it packages proteins for transport. Moreover, the rough region synthesizes and secretes proteins by bound ribosomes (primary amino acids into polypeptide chains by peptide bonds- and secondary coils and foils the polypeptide chain, made by H-bonds -structure). It is called rough because of the ribosomes bounded to its surface. The polypeptide chain from bound ribosome goes through the endoplasmic reticulum lumen, crosses by the pores made by protein complexes until they get to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Most of secretory proteins are glycoproteins (proteins with covalently bonded carbohydrates). Ribosomes can also appear in the cytosol, but still the secretory proteins produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum are made so that they can be exocytosed and be used by other parts of the body. One important organelle that should also be present is mitochondrion. These organelles are the sites for cellular respiration to occur, this means that it creates ATP from sugars, fuels, etc. with the help of oxygen. All of them are by a double membrane each composed of a phospholipid bilayer composed of lipids and proteins. Their membrane proteins are created by the free ribosomes in the cytoplasm rather than in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The inner membrane, called the cristae, is folded in order to give more surface area so that reactions can occur. Here some metabolic steps of cellular respiration occur. The space between inner and outer membrane is called the intermembrane space, and the second space (inside inner membrane) is called the mitochondrial matrix. This matrix contains many ribosomes and mitochondrial DNA. The amount of mitochondria found in a cell depends on the cells metabolic activity. Finally, other organelle is one of the microtubules from the cytoskeleton called centrioles. Centrioles are found inside the centrosomes (nine set of triple microtubules). The centrioles are found near the nucleus and just before the cell divides, these centrioles replicate. They are indispensable but may help to organize microtubules assembly. b. Prokaryotic cells can have the same functions without the membranous organelles mentioned above. For example prokaryotic cells such as bacteria and archea do have DNA and RNA but they do not have it enclosed in the nucleus. Moreover the circular DNA, called plasmids, is compacted in a region called nucleoid. DNA still has the code for protein synthesis and even though there is no endoplasmic reticulum the mRNA is still translated by free ribosomes located in the cytosol. These free ribosomes are the ones who synthesize proteins instead of the ones synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The difference on the ribosomes is that for example there are fewer ribosomal mRNA and obviously less ribosomal proteins. Moreover prokaryotes lack mitochondria but still they use ATP as the chemical energy for cellular work. Instead of having the whole process in the mitochondria (citric acid cycle and electron transport chain) these cells just have glycolysis which occurs in the cytosol creates ATPs by splitting fuels such as sugars, fats, etc. This is why bacteria have alcohol fermentation, anaerobic process of cellular respiration, showing glycolysis in their ATP production. Mitochondria are said to be really similar to prokaryotes, and that is evidence for endosymbiosis which leads to the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. Bibliography :
Reece, N. C. (2005). AP Biology. San Francisco: pearson Education.
Mortgage, L (2012). Prokaryotic Cell Structure and Function. Retrieved on October 24, 2012 from: http://www.shmoop.com/biology-cells/prokaryotic-cells.html
N.A (2012). Chromatin Function. Retrieved on October 24, 2012 from : http://www.buzzle.com/articles/chromatin-function.html