1

Experienced-Based Rules of Chemical Engineering

Experience is typically what turns a good engineer into a great engineer; an engineer who can
look at a pipe and a flowmeter and guess the pressure drop within 5%, or someone who can,
at least, estimate the size of a vessel without doing any calculations.
Walas book, Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design has been widely used in
the process industry and in chemical engineering education for years. Branan most popular
work is Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers.
Be aware that these rules are for estimation and are not necessary meant to replace rigorous
calculations when such calculations should be performed. But at many stages of analysis and
design, these rules can save you hours and hours.
Equipment Sizing
- Economic analysis of a process requires knowledge of capital and operating costs.
- Capital costing is based on equipment size, capabilities and associated costs.
- In preliminary design, direct and non-iterative correlations are used in sizing of
equipment units i.e. using Guthries method
- Simplified sizing and costing are at 25% to 40% level of accuracy.
2
Table 2(a): Physical Properties of Liquids and Gases
Property Units Water Organic
Liquids
Steam Air Organic
Vapors
Heat Capacity kJ/kg
o
C 4.2 1.0-2.5 2.0 1.0 2.0-4.0
Btu/lb
o
F 1.0 0.239-0.598 0.479 0.239 0.479-0.958
Density kg/m
3
1000 700-1500 1.29 @ STP
lb/ft
3
62.29 43.6-94.4 0.08 @ STP
Latent Heat kJ/kg 1200-2100 200-1000
Btu/lb 516-903 86-430
Thermal
Conductivity
W/m
o
C 0.55-0.70 0.10-0.20 0.025-0.070 0.025-0.05 0.02-0.06
Btu/h ft
o
F 0.32-0.40 0.057-0.116 0.0144-0.040 0.014-0.029 0.116-0.35
Viscosity cP 1.80 @ 0
o
C
0.57 @ 50
o
C
0.28 @ 100
o
C
0.14 @ 200
o
C
*See Below 0.01-0.03 0.02-0.05 0.01-0.03
Prandtl No. 1-15 10-1000 1.0 0.7 0.7-0.8
* Viscosities of organic liquids vary widely with temperature


Liquid density varies with temperature by:


Gas density can be calculated by:


Boiling point of water as a function of pressure:

T
bp
(C) = {P (MPa) x 10
9
}
0.25

For example: for water
P, MPa T,
o
C
0.1 100.0
1.0 177.8
1.5 196.8
4.0 251.5
4.5 259.0
3

Vacuum
4
Materials of Construction
Table 9.4 Effect of Typical Materials of Construction on Product Color, Corrosion,
Abrasion, and Catalytic Effect
Material Advantage Disadvantage
Carbon steel,
most commonly
used
Low cost, readily available, resists abrasion,
standard fabrication, resists most alkaline
environments well.
Poor resistance to acids and strong alkalis.
Often causes discoloration and
contamination. More brittle than other
materials, especially, at cryogenic
temperatures.
Stainless steel:
Type SS 302,
SS 304, SS 316
are common
Relatively low cost, still easy to fabricate.
Corrosion resistance for most acids, High
temperature strength, Reduces discoloration,
available with a variety of alloys, abrasion less
than mild steel.
Not resistant to chlorides and resistance
decreases significantly at higher
temperatures. More expensive, fabrication
more difficult, alloy materials may have
catalytic effects.
254 SMO
(Avesta)
Moderate cost, still easy to fabricate.
Resistance is better over a wider range of
concentrations and temperatures compared to
stainless steel.
Little resistance to chlorides. Resistance at
higher temperatures could be improved.
Nickel Very good resistance to high temperature
caustic streams.
Moderate to high expense. Difficult to
weld.
Monel-Nickel Little discoloration, contamination, resistant to
chlorides
Not resistant to oxidizing environments,
expensive
Hasteloy Improved over Monel-Nickel. Very wide
range to choose from. Some have been
specifically developed for acid services where
other materials have failed.
More expensive than Monel-Nickel. Fairly
expensive alloys. Their use must be
justified. Most are easy to weld.
Other exotic
metals
Improves specific properties Can be very high cost
Titanium-based
alloys
Very good resistance to chlorides (widely
used in seawater applications). Strength
allows it to be fabricated at smaller
thicknesses.
While the material is moderately expensive,
fabrication is difficult. Much of cost will be
in welding labor.
Pd stabilized
Titanium
Superior resistance to chlorides, even at
higher temperatures. Is often used on sea
water application where Titanium's resistance
may not be acceptable.
Very expensive material and fabrication is
again difficult and expensive.
Tantalum Superior resistance to very harsh services
where no other material is acceptable
Extremely expensive, must be absolutely
necessary
Graphite One of the few materials capable of
withstanding weak HCl streams.
Brittle, very expensive, and very difficult to
fabricate. Some stream components have
been known to diffusion through some
types of graphites.
Glass Useful in laboratory and batch system, low
diffusion at walls
Fragile, not resistant to high alkali, poor
heat transfer, poor abrasion resistance
Plastics Good at low temperature, large variety to
select from with various characteristics, easy
to fabricate, seldom discolors, minor catalytic
effects possible
Poor at high temperature, low strength, not
resistant to high alkali conditions, low heat
transfer, low cost
Ceramics Withstands high temperatures, variety of
formulations available, modest cost
Poor abrasion properties, high diffusion at
walls (in particular hydrogen), low heat
transfer, may encourage catalytic reactions

5
Table (NEW): Materials of Construction for Process Equipment

Material
Maximum
Temperature,
o
C

Typical Applications
Carbon steel 400 Cooling-tower water, boiler feed water, steam, air,
hydrocarbons, glycols, mercury, molten salts, ammonia
Stainless steels 500 Aqueous salt solutions, aqueous acid, aqueous basic
solutions, intermediates, alcohols. Ethers, freons, hydrogen,
hydrogen sulfide
Nickel clad steel & Glass
lined steel
500 Caustic materials
Aluminum 150 Aqueous calcium hydroxide, hydrogen, oxygen
Copper and copper alloys 150 Aqueous sulfate and sulfite solutions, hydrogen, nitrogen,
alcohols, other organic chemicals, cooling tower water,
boiler feed water. Good for alkalis (but not ammonia)
Nickel-based alloys, e.g.,
Hastelloy, Inconel, Monel
400 Aqueous nitric and organic acid gases, chlorine, bromine,
halogenated hydrocarbons, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide, solvents, brackish and sea water
Titanium-based alloys 400 Aqueous solutions. carbon dioxide, organic solvents
Conventional plastics
(polyethylene,
polypropylene, ABS)
50-120 Aqueous solutions at near-ambient temperatures, Moderate
temperatures (< 400F) and pressures
Fluorocarbon plastics 250 Almost everything except halogens and halogenated
chemicals
Teflon Good for acids including HF and its derivatives
Rubber lining 250 Aqueous salt solutions and aqueous basic solutions at near-
ambient temperatures
Glass lining 250 Aqueous sulfuric acid solution most everything except
fluorine and hydrogen fluoride
Ceramics 2,000 Almost all aqueous solutions, except hydrogen fluoride and
sodium hydroxide, at near-ambient temperatures; most
gases, except fluorine and hydrogen fluoride: most solvents;
water

Low temperature applications:
Fluid handled Temperature MOC
Liquid Propylene -53 F 201 SS
Liquid Ethylene -154F 9% nickel steel
LNG (methane) -258 F 9% nickel steel
LNG Nitrogen -320 F 304 SS


Vacuum
6
Relative costs of materials of construction:
Material Relative Cost Comments
Carbon steel 1 Low cost, most widely used
SS 304 clad steel 5 Acids
SS 316 clad steel 6
SS 304 7 High T applications, Corrosion Resistant
SS 316 10 High T applications, Corrosion Resistant
Inconel 13 Chlorides
Hastelloy c 40
Plastics Low T Applications, Low Structural Strength
Ceramics High Temperature Applications
Glass Lab systems, Fragile, Corrosion resistant


Maximum allowable working stresses (Example):
Temperature,
o
C Tensile strength of CS SA203, bar Tensile strength of 302 SS, bar
-30 to 345 1290 1290
400 1070 1290
455 686 1100
540 273 431
7
Table 9.5 Heuristics for Drivers and Power Recovery
1. Efficiencies range from 85-95% for electric motors, 42-78% for steam turbines, 28-38%
for gas engines and turbines
2. For services under 75 kW (100 hp), electric motors are almost always used. They can be
used for services up to about 15000 kW (20000 hp)
3. Steam turbines are seldom used below 100 hp (75 kW). Their speeds can be controlled
and they make good spares for motors in case of a power failure. Turbines can be justified
in services where they will yield several hundred horse powers. Otherwise, throttle valves
are used to release pressure.
4. Combustion engines and turbines are restricted to mobile and remote locations.
5. Gas expanders may be justified for recovering several hundred horsepower. At lower
recoveries, pressure let down will most likely be through a throttling valve.
6. A quick estimate of the energy available to a turbine is given by:
( )
( )
| |
5 . 0 / 1
1 2 1
/ 1
k k
p
P P T C H

= A

where H = Actual available energy, kJ/kg; C
p
= Heat capacity at constant pressure,
kJ/kg K; T
1
= Inlet temperature, K; P
1
= Inlet pressure, bar absolute, P
2
= Outlet pressure,
bar absolute; k = C
p
/C
v
,
7. Induction motors are most popular. Synchronous motors have speeds as low as 150 rpm
at ratings above 50 hp (37.3 kW) only. Synchronous motors are good for low speed
reciprocating compressors.
8. The following useful definitions are given:
Shaft power = (Theoretical power to pump fluid (liquid or gas)) / (Efficiency of pump or
compressor,
sh
)
Drive power = Shaft power/Efficiency of drive,

dr
Overall efficiency

=

sh

dr

See Tables 3.7, 9.9, and 9.10 for values of efficiencies.
8
Table 9.6 Heuristics for Process Vessels (Drums)
1. Used for reflux drum, flash drums, and reactors.
2. Drums are relatively small vessels that provide surge capacity or separation of entrained
phases.
3. Liquid drums are usually horizontal (If D > 1.2 m, use horizontal vessel).
4. Gas/Liquid separators are usually vertical (Flash drums: P < 0.1 psi)
5. Calculate H from V = ( D
2
/4).H
6. Optimum Length/Diameter ratio is usually 3, range is 2.5 to 5
7. Holdup time is 5 min for half full reflux drums and gas/liquid separators, 5-10 min
holdup for drums feeding another column
8. In drums feeding a furnace, a holdup of 30 min for half-full drum is a good estimate
9. Knockout drum in front of compressors should be designed for a holdup of 10 times the
liquid volume passing per minute.
10. Liquid/Liquid separators should be designed for settling velocities of 0.00085-0.00127
m/s (0.00278-0.004167 ft/s)
11. Calculate vessel volume, V, (half full) from V/2 = (F
L
/
L
); where F
L
= liquid mass flow
rate, = residence time, and
L
= liquid density.
12. Gas velocities in gas/liquid separators, velocity, u = k [(
l
/
v
)-1]
0.5
, where k is 0.11 m/s
(0.35 ft/s) with horizontal mesh de-entrainers k is 0.0305 m/s (0.1 ft/s) without mesh de-
entrainers; u is in m/s (or ft/s).
13. Calculate D from V
.
= ( D
2
/4).u; where V
.
= volumetric flow rate of gas through the
vessel.
14. Entrainment removal of 99% is attained with 0.10-0.3 m (4-12 in) mesh pad thickness;
0.15 m (6 in) thickness is popular.
15. For vertical mesh de-entrainers k is 0.0525 m/s (0.167 ft/s).
16. A 0.15 m (6 in) mesh pad thickness is very popular for such vessels
17. Good performance can be expected at velocities of 30-100% 0f those calculated with the
given k; 75% is popular.
18. For positive pressure separations, disengagement spaces of 0.15-0.45 m (6-18 in) before
the mesh pad and 0.3 m (12 in) after the pad are generally suitable.
19. Cyclone separators can be designed for 95% collection at 5 m particles, but usually only
droplets greater than 50 m need be removed.
9
Table 9.7 Heuristics for Pressure and Storage Vessels
Pressure Vessels
1. Design Temperatures between -30 and 345 C (-22 to 653 F) is typically about 25 C
(77 F) above maximum operating temperature, margins increase above this range
2. Design pressure is 10% or 0.69 - 1.7 bar (10 - 25 psi) above the maximum operating
pressure, whichever is greater. The maximum operating pressure is taken as 1.7 bar (25
psi) above the normal operation pressure.
3. For vacuum operations, design pressures are 1 barg (15 psig) to full vacuum
4. Minimum thicknesses for maintaining tank structure are:
6.4 mm (0.25 in) for 1.07 m (42 in) diameter and under
8.1 mm (0.32 in) for 1.07-1.52 m (42-60 in) diameter
9.7 mm (0.38 in) for diameters over 1.52 m (60 in)
5. Allowable working stresses are taken as 1/4 of the ultimate strength of the material
6. Maximum allowable working stresses, , for example:
MOC Temperature, F -20 to 650 750 850 1000
Temperature, C -30 to 345 400 455 540
CS SA203 , psi 18759 15650 9950 2500
, bar 1290 1070 686 273
302 SS , psi 18750 18750 15950 6250
, bar 1290 1290 1100 431

7. Thickness (in inches) based on pressure and radius is given by:
C
P G E
R P
t +

=
. .
.
o


where t = thickness (in inches), P = internal gauge pressure (psig), R = vessel radius (in),
= maximum allowable working stress or tensile strength (psi), C = corrosion allowance
(in), G = 0.6. E is the weld efficiency and can usually be taken as 0.85 for initial design
work
8. Choose P
actual
= 1.5 P
design

9. Structural rigidity is based on minimum wall thickness
10. Guidelines for corrosion allowances are as follows: 0.35 in (9 mm) for known corrosive
fluids, 0.15 in (4 mm) for non-corrosive fluids, and 0.06 in (1.5 mm) for steam drums and
air receivers.
11. Select materials based on maximum operating temperature.

10
Storage Vessels
1. Storage tanks are used at low pressures and large volumes.
2. For less than 3.8 m
3
(1000 gallons): use vertical tanks on legs
3. Between 3.8 m
3
and 38 m
3
(1000 to 10,000 gallons): use horizontal tanks on concrete
supports
4. Beyond 38 m
3
(10,000 gallons): use vertical tanks on concrete pads
5. Liquids with low vapor pressures: use tanks with floating or expansion roofs for
conservation.
6. Freeboard is 15% below 1.9 m
3
(500 gal) and 10% above 1.9 m
3
(500 gal) capacity.
7. Raw material feed tanks are often specified for 30 days feed supplies.
8. Storage tank capacity should be at 1.5 times the capacity of mobile supply vessels. For
example, 28.4 m
3
(7500 gallon) tanker truck, 130 m
3
(34,500 gallon) rail cars, and
virtually unlimited barge and tanker capacities.
11
Table 9.8 Heuristics for Piping
1. Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of (5+D/3) ft/s and a pressure drop of 2.0
psi/100 ft of pipe at pump discharges. At the pump suction, size for (1.3+D/6) ft/s and a
pressure drop of 0.4 psi/100 ft of pipe. D is pipe diameter in inches
2. Steam or gas lines can be sized for 20 D ft/s and pressure drops of 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe
3. Limits on superheated, dry steam or gas line should be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure
drop of 0.1 bar/100 m or 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe. Saturated steam lines should be limited to
37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion.
4. For turbulent flow in commercial steel pipes, use the following:


5. For two-phase flow, an estimate often used is Lockhart and Martinelli: First, the pressure
drops are calculated as if each phase exist alone in the pipe, then

6. Control valves require at least 0.69 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for sufficient control
7. Flange ratings include 10, 20, 40, 103, and 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500, and 2500 psig)
8. Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is required. Gate
valves are common for most other services.
9. Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 in and smaller. Larger connections
should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
10. Pipe Schedule Number = 1000 P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pressure rating
in psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material in psig. Schedule 40 is the
most common.

Pipe Wall Thickness:
s
s
S
P
1000 # Schedule =
12






where P
s
= safe working pressure, lb
f
/in
2
, and S
s
= safe working stress, lb
f
/in
2
.

Typical Schedule # 40, 60, 80

See Nominal vs. Actual pipe diameter

Net pipe wall thickness:



Where P = internal pressure in lb
f
/in
2
, D
o
= outer pipe diameter (in),
Note: Under most cases, S
y
= yield strength = 42,000 lb
f
/in
2
for ductile iron.

Internal Pressure:



where P
work
= working pressure, P
surge
= surge pressure


Use friction factor charts to estimate
( ) F V P V P
gc
v v
z z w E + +

+ =
1 1 2 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
13


14
Table 9.9 Heuristics for Pumps
1. Power estimates for pumping liquids:
kW = (1.67)[Flow (m
3
/min)][Pressure drop (bar)]/Efficiency;
Hp = [Flow (gpm)][Pressure drop (psi)]/{1714 x Efficiency}.
Efficiency is expressed as a fraction in these relations.
2. NPSH = (pressure at impeller eye - vapor pressure)/{density x gravitational constant};
Common range is 1.2 to 6.1 m (4-20 ft) of liquid
3. An equation developed for efficiency based on the GPSA Engineering Data Book is:
Efficiency = 80 - 0.2855 F + 0.000378 F.G - 0.000000238 F.G
2
+ 0.000539 F
2
-
0.000000639 F
2
.G + 0.0000000004 F
2
.G
2

where Efficiency is in fraction form, F is developed head in feet, G is flow in gpm.
Ranges of applicability are F = 50-300 ft and G = 100-1000 gpm. Error documented at
3.5%
4. Specific speed N
s
(rpm) = (gpm)
0.5
/(head in feet)
0.75
. Pumps may be damaged if certain
limits on N
s
are exceeded, and the efficiency is best in some ranges.
5. Centrifugal pumps: Single stage for 0.057-18.9 m
3
/min (15-5000 gpm), 152 m (500 ft)
maximum head; For flow of 0.076-41.6 m
3
/min (20-11,000 gpm) use multistage, 1675 m
(5500 ft) maximum head; Efficiencies of 45% at 0.378 m
3
/min (100 gpm), 70% at 1.89
m
3
/min (500 gpm), 80% at 37.8 m3/min (10,000 gpm).
6. Axial pumps can be used for flows of 0.076-378 m
3
/min (20-100,000 gpm). Expect heads
up to 12 m (40 ft) and efficiencies of about 65-85%
7. Rotary pumps can be used for flows of 0.00378-18.9 m
3
/min (1-5000 gpm). Expect heads
up to 15,200 m (50,000 ft) and efficiencies of about 50-80%.
8. Reciprocating pumps can be used for 0.0378-37.8 m
3
/min (10-100,000 gpm). Expect
heads up to 300,000 m (1,000,000 ft). Efficiencies: 70% at 7.46 kW (10 hp), 85% at 37.3
kW (50 hp), and 90% at 373 kW (500 hp)


15
Table 9.10 Heuristics for Compressors and Vacuum Equipment

1. The above chart is used to determine what type of compressor is to be used:
2. Fans are used to raise pressure about 3% (12 in water), blowers raise to less than 2.75
barg (40 psig), and compressors to higher pressures.
3. The theoretical reversible adiabatic power is estimated by:
Power = m z
1
R T
1
[(P
2
/P
1)
a
- 1] /a
where T
1
is the inlet temperature, R is the gas constant, z
1
is the compressibility, m is the
molar flow rate,
a = (k-1)/k, and k = C
p
/C
v
, k = 1.4 (for ideal gas)
4. Outlet temperature for reversible adiabatic flow: T
2
= T
1
(P
2
/P
1
)
a

5. Exit temperatures should not exceed 204
o
C (400
o
F).
6. For diatomic gases (C
p
/C
v
= 1.4) this corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4
7. Compression ratios should be about the same in each stage for a multistage unit, the ratio
= (P
n
/P
1
)
1/n
, with n stages.
8. Efficiencies for reciprocating compressors are as follows: 65% at compression ratios of
1.5, 75% at compression ratios of 2.0, 80-85% at compression ratios between 3 and 6
9. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors handling 2.8 to 47 m
3
/s (6000-100,000 acfm
or ft
3
/min) at suction is about 76-78%
10. For vacuum pumps use the following:
Reciprocating piston type: down to 1 mmHg absolute;
Rotary piston types: down to 0.001 mmHg;
Two lobe rotary type: down to 0.0001 mmHg;
Steam jet ejectors: Single stage down to 100 mmHg absolute,
Two stage to 10 mmHg,
Three stage to 1 mmHg,
Five stage to 0.05 mmHg.
16
11. A three-stage ejector requires about 100 lb steam/lb air to maintain a pressure of 1
mmHg.
12. Air leakage into vacuum equipment can be approximated as follows: Leakage = k V
(2/3)

where k = 0.20 for P > 90 mmHg, 0.08 for 3 < P < 20 mmHg, and 0.025 for P < 1 mmHg,
V = equipment volume in ft
3
, Leakage = air leakage into equipment in lb/h

17
Table 9.11 Heuristics for Heat Exchangers
1. For the heat exchanger equation, Q = U A F (T
lm
), use F = 0.9 when charts for the T
lm

correction factor are not available
2. Most commonly used tubes are 3/4 in (1.9 cm) in outer diameter on a 1-in triangular
spacing at 16 ft (4.9 m) long.
3. A 1 ft (30 cm) shell will contains about 100 ft
2
(9.3 m
2
); a 2 ft (60 cm) shell will contain
about 400 ft
2
(37.2 m
2
); a 3 ft (90 cm) shell will contain about 1100 ft
2
(102 m
2
).
4. Typical velocities in the tubes should be 3-10 ft/s (1-3 m/s) for liquids and30-100 ft/s (9-
30 m/s) for gases.
5. Flows that are corrosive, fouling, scaling, or under high pressure are usually placed in the
tubes
6. Viscous and condensing fluids are typically placed on the shell side.
7. Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for vaporization and 3-10 psi (0.2-0.68 bar) for
other services
8. The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about 20 F (10 C)
for fluids and 10 F (5 C) for refrigerants.
9. Cooling tower water is typically available at a maximum temperature of 90 F (30 C)
and should be returned to the tower no higher than 115 F (45 C)
10. Shell and Tube heat transfer coefficient for estimation purposes can be found (a list is
given below) or in many reference books or an online list can be found at one of the two
following addresses: http://www.cheresources.com/uexchangers.shtml;
http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/uvalues1.htm
11. Double pipe heat exchangers may be a good choice for areas from 100 to 200 ft
2
(9.3-
18.6 m
2
)
12. Compact (plate and fin) exchangers have 1150 m
2
/m
3
(350 ft
2
/ft
3
), and about 4 times
the heat transfer per cut of shell-and-tube units.
13. Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320F (160C) and are often used
for interchanging duties due to their high efficiencies and ability to "cross" temperatures.
More about compact heat exchangers can be found at:
http://www.us.thermal.alfalaval.com/
14. Spiral heat exchangers are often used to slurry interchangers and other services
containing solids.
15. Air coolers: Tubes are 0.75-1.0 in. O.D., total finned surface 15-20 m
2
/m
2
(ft
2
/ft
2
bare
surface), U = 450-570 W/m
2
C (80-100 Btu/hr ft
2
(bare surface) F). Minimum approach
temperature = 22C (40F). Fan input power 1.4-3.6 kW/(MJ/h) [2-5 hp /(1000 Btu/hr)]
16. Fired heaters: radiant rate, 37.6 kW/m
2
(12,000 Btu/hr ft
2
); convection rate, 12.5 kW/m
2

(4,000 Btu/hr ft
2
); cold oil tube velocity = 1.8 m/s (6 ft/sec); approximately equal transfer
in the two sections; thermal efficiency 70-75%; flue gas temperature 140-195C (250-
350F) above feed inlet temperature; stack gas temperature 345-510C (650-950F).

18
U in Heat Exchangers
1. This is different for the overall heat transfer coefficient U. The determination of U is
often tedious and needs data not yet available in preliminary stages of the design.
Therefore, typical values of U are useful for quickly estimating the required surface area.
2. The literature has much tabulation of such typical coefficients for commercial heat
transfer services. Following is a table with values for different applications and heat
exchanger types. More values can be found in the sources given below.
3. The ranges given in the table are an indication for the order of magnitude. Lower values
are for unfavorable conditions such as lower flow velocities, higher viscosities, and
additional fouling resistances. Higher values are for more favorable conditions.
4. Coefficients of actual equipment may be smaller or larger than the values listed. Note that
the values should not be used as a replacement of rigorous methods for the final design of
heat exchangers, although they may serve as a useful check on the results obtained by
these methods.
See typical U values in the table below.

19
Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Heat Exchangers
Type Application and Conditions
U
1)

W/(m
2
K)
U
1)

Btu/(ft
2
F h)
Tubular, heating
or cooling
Gases at atmospheric pressure inside and
outside tubes
5 - 35 1 - 6

Gases at high pressure inside and outside
tubes
150 - 500 25 - 90

Liquid outside (inside) and gas at
atmospheric pressure inside (outside) tubes
15 - 70 3 - 15

Gas at high pressure inside and liquid
outside tubes
200 - 400 35 - 70
Liquids inside and outside tubes 150 - 1200 25 - 200
Steam outside and liquid inside tubes 300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular,
condensation
Steam outside and cooling water inside
tubes
1500 - 4000 250 - 700

Organic vapors or ammonia outside and
cooling water inside tubes
300 - 1200 50 - 200

Notes:
1) 1 Btu/(ft
2
F h) = 5.6785 W/(m
2
K)
2) Coefficients are based on outside bare tube surface
Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Heat Exchangers, continued
Tubular,
evaporation
steam outside and high-viscous liquid
inside tubes, natural circulation
300 - 900 50 - 150

steam outside and low-viscous liquid inside
tubes, natural circulation
600 - 1700 100 - 300

steam outside and liquid inside tubes,
forced circulation
900 - 3000 150 - 500
Air-cooled heat
exchangers
2)

Cooling of water 600 - 750 100 - 130
Cooling of liquid light hydrocarbons 400 - 550 70 - 95
Cooling of tar 30 - 60 5 - 10
Cooling of air or flue gas 60 - 180 10 - 30
Cooling of hydrocarbon gas 200 - 450 35 - 80
Condensation of low pressure steam 700 - 850 125 - 150
Condensation of organic vapors 350 - 500 65 - 90
Plate heat
exchanger
liquid to liquid 1000 - 4000 150 - 700
Spiral heat
exchanger
liquid to liquid 700 - 2500 125 - 500
condensing vapor to liquid 900 - 3500 150 - 700

Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Heat Exchangers
Type Application and Conditions
U
1)

W/(m
2
K)
U
1)

Btu/(ft
2
F h)
Tubular, heating
or cooling
Gases at atmospheric pressure inside and
outside tubes
5 - 35 1 - 6

Gases at high pressure inside and outside
tubes
150 - 500 25 - 90

Liquid outside (inside) and gas at
atmospheric pressure inside (outside) tubes
15 - 70 3 - 15

Gas at high pressure inside and liquid
outside tubes
200 - 400 35 - 70
Liquids inside and outside tubes 150 - 1200 25 - 200
Steam outside and liquid inside tubes 300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular,
condensation
Steam outside and cooling water inside
tubes
1500 - 4000 250 - 700

Organic vapors or ammonia outside and
cooling water inside tubes
300 - 1200 50 - 200

Notes:
1) 1 Btu/(ft
2
F h) = 5.6785 W/(m
2
K)
2) Coefficients are based on outside bare tube surface

20

21


22
Heat transfer with phase change
Q = m C
p
T
;
for the cooling medium

For heat transfer with phase change (zone heat
transfer):
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3

Q = (U A T
lm
)
1
+ (U A T
lm
)
2
+ (U A T
lm
)
3

Q = m C
p
V
(T
V
-T
b
) + m + m C
p
L
(T
b
-T
L
)
That is,
Zone 1: (U A T
lm
)
1
= m C
p
V
(T
V
-T
b1
)
Zone 2: (U A T
lm
)
2
= m ; occurring at T
b1

Zone 3: (U A T
lm
)
3
= m C
p
L
(T
b1
-T
L
)
where T
b1
is the dew point of the condensing
mixture


23
Table 9.12 Heuristics for Thermal Insulation
1. Up to 345C (650F) 85% magnesia is used.
2. Up to 870-1040C (1600-1900F) a mixture of asbestos and diatomaceous earth is used.
3. Ceramic refractories at higher temperature.
4. Cryogenic equipment -130C (-200F) employs insulations with fine pores of trapped air e.g.
Perlite
TM
.
5. Optimal thickness varies with temperature: 1.27 cm (0.5 in) at 95C (200F), 2.54 cm (1.0 in) at
200C (400F), 3.2 cm (1.25 in) at 315C (600F).
6. Under windy conditions 12.1 km/h (7.5 mile/h), 10-20% greater thickness of insulation is
justified.
24
Table 9.13 Heuristics for Towers
1. Distillation is usually the most economical method for separating liquids, superior to
extraction, absorption, crystallization, or others.
2. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility can be taken as the ratio of pure component vapor
pressures
3. Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the cooling medium in condenser
or the maximum allowable reboiler temperature to avoid degradation of the process fluid
4. For sequencing columns:
a. Perform the easiest separation first (least trays and lowest reflux)
b. If relative volatility nor feed composition vary widely, take products off one at time as
the overhead
c. If the relative volatility of components do vary significantly, remove products in order
of decreasing volatility
d. If the concentrations of the feed vary significantly but the relative volatility does not,
remove products in the order of decreasing concentration.
5. The most economic reflux ratio usually is between (1.2 1.5) R
min
.
6. The most economic number of trays is usually about twice the minimum number of trays.
7. The minimum number of trays is determined with the Fenske-Underwood Equation.
N
min
= ln{[x/(1- x)]
ovhd
/ [x/(1 - x)]
bot
}/1n
8. Typically, 10% more trays than are calculated are specified for a tower,
9. Actual number of trays: N
actual
= 1.1 x 2 N
min
/
tray

10. Minimum reflux for binary or pseudo-binary mixtures is given by the following when
separation is essentially complete (X
D
1) and D/F is the ratio of overhead product to
feed rate:
R
min
D/F = 1/( -1), when feed is at the bubble point, and
(R
min
+1) (D/F) = /( -1), when feed is at the dew point.
11. Reflux pumps should be at least 25% over designed
12. Reflux drums are almost always horizontally mounted and designed for a 5 min holdup at
half of the drum's capacity.
13. Gas velocity in the tower is estimated from
v s
u F = ; F
s
= 1.2 - 1.5
14. Tower diameter is estimated from ) / =
2
4 (
.
d u V t ; where V
.
= volumetric flow rate of gas
through the tower.
15. The optimum Kremsers absorption factor A = K(V/L) is usually in the range of 1.25-2.0
16. For towers that are at least 0.9 m (3 ft) in diameter, 1.2 m (4 ft) should be added to the top
for vapor release and 1.8 m (6 ft) should be added to the bottom to account for the liquid
level and reboiler return
17. Limit the tower heights to 53 m (175 ft) due to wind load and foundation considerations.
An additional criterion is that L/D be less than 30 (20<L/D<30) often will require special
design.
25
18. A rough estimate of reboiler duty as a function of tower diameter is given by: Q = 0.5 d
2

for pressure distillation; Q = 0.3 d
2
for atmospheric distillation; Q = 0.15 d
2
for vacuum
distillation; where Q is in MBtu/hr and d is tower diameter in ft.

Table 9.14 Heuristics for Tray Towers
1. For reasons of with accessibility, tray spacing should be from 45-60 cm (18 to 24 in).
2. Peak tray efficiencies usually occur at linear vapor velocities of 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) at
moderate pressures, or 1.8 m/s (6 ft/s) under vacuum conditions.
3. A typical pressure drop per tray is 5.2 cm (2 in) of water or 0.007 bar (0.1 psi)
4. Tray efficiencies for aqueous solutions are usually in the range of 60-90% while gas
absorption and stripping typically have efficiencies closer to 10-20%
5. The three most common types of trays are valve, sieve, and bubble cap.
6. Sieve tray holes are 0.6-0.7 cm (0.25-0.50 in) diameter with the total hole area being
about 10% of the total active tray area.
7. Valve trays typically have 3.8 cm (1.5 in) diameter holes each with a lifting cap. 130-150
caps/m
2
(12-14 caps/ft
2
) of tray is a good benchmark. Valve trays usually cheaper than
sieve trays.
8. Bubble cap trays are used only when a liquid level must be maintained at low turndown
ratio; they can be designed for lower pressure drop than either valve or sieve trays.
9. The most common weir heights are 5-7.5 cm (2 and 3 in) and the weir length is typically
75% of the tray diameter. Liquid rate at a maximum of 1.2 m
3
/min per m of weir (8
gpm/in of weir); multiphase arrangements are used at higher liquid rates.

26
Table 9.15 Heuristics for Packed Towers
1. Structured random packings are suitable for packed towers less than 0.9 m (3 ft) when
low pressure drop is required. Packed towers almost always have lower pressure drop
than comparable tray towers.
2. Packing is often retrofitted into existing tray towers (i.e., replace the trays) to increase
capacity and separation.
3. For gas flowrates of 14.2 m
3
/min (500 ft
3
/min) use 2.5 cm (1 in) packing, for gas flows of
56.6 m
3
/min (2000 ft
3
/min) or more, use 5 cm (2 in) packing
4. Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should be > 15/1.
5. Due to the possibility of deformation, plastic packings should be limited to an
unsupported depth of 3-4 m (10-15 ft) while metallic packing can withstand 6-7.6 m (20-
25 ft).
6. Liquid distributor should be placed every 5-10 tower diameters (along the length) for pall
rings and every 20 ft (6.5 m) for other types of dumped (random) packing.
7. For redistribution, number of distributors should be more than 32-54 per m
2
(3-5 per ft
2
)
of tower c.s. area for towers larger than 0.9 m (3 ft) in diameter. They should be even
more numerous in smaller towers.
8. Packed columns should operate near 70% flooding (evaluated from Sherwood and Lobo
correlation).
9. Height Equivalent to Theoretical Stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contacting is 0.4-0.56 m
(1.3-1.8 ft) for 2.5 cm (1 in) pall rings and 0.76-0.90 m (2.5-3.0 ft) for 5 cm (2 in) pall
rings.
10. Design pressure drops should be as follows:

Service
Pressure drop
(cm water/m packing)
Pressure drop
(in water/ft packing)
Absorbers and Regenerators
- Non-Foaming Systems
- Moderate Foaming Systems

2.1-3.3
0.8-2.1

0.25-0.40
0.15-0.25
Fume Scrubbers
- Water Absorbent
- Chemical Absorbent

3.3-5.0
2.1-3.3

0.40-0.60
0.25-0.40
Atmospheric or Pressure Distillation 3.3-6.7 0.40-0.80
Vacuum Distillation 0.8-3.3 0.15-0.40
Maximum for any System 8.33 1.0

* For packing factors and more on packed column design see: Packed Column Design




27
Table 9.17 Heuristics for Reactors
1. The rate of reaction must be established in the laboratory and the residence time or space
velocity will eventually have to be determined in a pilot plant.
2. Catalyst particle sizes: 0.10 mm for fluidized beds, 1 mm in slurry beds, and 2-5 mm in
fixed beds.
3. For homogeneous stirred tank reactions, the agitator power input should be about 0.5-1.5
hp/1000 gal (0.1-0.3 kW/m
3
), however, if heat is to be transferred, the agitation should be
about three times these amounts.
4. Ideal CSTR behavior is usually reached when the mean residence time is 5-10 times the
length needed to achieve homogeneity. Homogeneity is typically reached with 500-2000
revolutions of a properly designed stirrer.
5. Relatively slow reactions between liquids or slurries are usually conducted most
economically in a battery of 3-5 CSTR's in series.
6. Tubular flow reactors are typically used for high productions rates and when the
residence times are short. Tubular reactors are also a good choice when significant heat
transfer to or from the reactor is necessary.
7. For conversion under 95% of equilibrium, the reaction performance of a 5 stages CSTR
approaches that of a plug flow reactor.
8. Typically the chemical reaction rate will double for a 18 F (10 C) increase in
temperature.
9. The reaction rate in a heterogeneous reaction is often controlled more by the rate of heat
or mass transfer than by chemical kinetics.
10. Sometimes, catalysts usefulness is in improving selectivity rather than increasing the rate
of the reaction.
11. Determine the volume of reactor from:
V = V
catalyst
/(1-); ( ~ 0.5)
s = 1/ = (m/) /V
catalyst

12. Depending on reactor conditions, we may cost the reactor as either a pressure vessel,
heat exchanger, or furnace based on its F
BM
.
28
Table 9.18 Heuristics for Refrigeration and Utilities
1. A ton of refrigeration equals the removal of 12,000 Btu/h (12,700 kJ/h) of heat
2. For various refrigeration temperatures, the following are common refrigerants:
Temp (F) Temp (C) Refrigerant
0 to 50 -18 to -10 Chilled brine or glycol
-50 to -40 -45 to -10 Ammonia, Freon, butane
-150 to -50 -100 to -45 Ethane, propane

3. Cooling tower water is received from the tower between 27-32 C (80-90 F) and should
be returned between 45-52 C (115-125 F) depending on the size of the tower. Seawater
should be return no higher than 110 F (43 C)
4. Heat transfer fluids used: petroleum oils below 600 F (315 C), Dowtherm or other
synthetics below 400 C (750 F), molten salts below 600 C (1100 F)
5. Common compressed air pressures are: 45, 150, 300, and 450 psig
6. Instrument air is generally delivered around 3 barg (45 psig) with a dew point 16.7
o
C
(30 F) below the coldest expected ambient temperature.

Cooling Towers
1- With industrial cooling towers, cooling to 90% of the ambient air saturation level is
possible.
2- Relative tower size is dependent on the water temperature approach to the wet bulb
temperature:
T
water
-T
wb
Relative Size
5 2.4
15 1.0
25 0.55

3- Water circulation rates are generally 2-4 GPM/sq. ft (81-162 L/min m
2
) and air velocities
are usually 5-7 ft/s (1.5-2.0 m/s)
4- Countercurrent induced draft towers are the most common. These towers are capable of
cooling to within 2 F (1.1 C) of the wet bulb temperature. A 5-10 F (2.8-5.5 C)
approach is more common.
5- Evaporation losses are about 1% by mass of the circulation rate for every 10 F (5.5 C)
of cooling. Drift losses are around 0.25% of the circulation rate. A blowdown of about
3% of the circulation rate is needed to prevent salt and chemical treatment buildup.

29
More on Chemical Reactors

Factors Affecting Choice
1. Number of phases present
2. Pressure
3. Temperature
4. Residence time
5. Conversion
6. Heat effects

Specify
- Volume of reactor
- Geometry
- Heat transfer
- Agitation
- Material of construction
1. Homogenous Gas Phase
- Multiple empty tubes in parallel
- Fast reaction: 1 sec residence Time
- Strong heat effects:
- furnaces for endothermic
- diluents for exothermic
- small die for exothermic
2. Homogenous Liquid Phase
- CSTR for low to medium conversions, slow reactions (better heat transfer)
- Plug flow for faster reactions, high conversion
- combination may also be used
3. Heterogeneous liquid/gas
- stirred vessels with baffles/agitation
- use gas velocity
- 0.2 ft/sec if gas is mostly absorbed
- 0.1 ft/sec if gas is 50% absorbed
- 0.05 ft/sec if gas is mostly not absorbed
4. Liquid/Solid
- well-stirred CSTR
- slurry reactors
5. Solid/gas
- packed types (solid not consumed)
- fluidized bed
- spouted bed
30
Conveyors
A. Pneumatic conveyors are best suited for high capacity applications over distances of up
to about 400 ft. Pneumatic conveying is also appropriate for multiple sources and
destinations. Vacuum or low pressure (6-12 psig or 0.4 to 0.8 bar) is used for generate
air velocities from 35 to 120 ft/s (10.7-36.6 m/s). Air requirements are usually in the
range of 1 to 7 cubic feet of air per cubic foot of solids (0.03 to 0.5 cubic meters of air
per cubic meter of solids).
B. Drag-type conveyors (Redler) are completed enclosed and suited to short distances.
Sizes range from 3 to 19 inches square (75 to 480 mm). Travel velocities can be from 30
to 250 ft/min (10 to 75 meters/min). The power requirements for these conveyors is
higher than other types.
C. Bucket elevators are generally used for the vertical transport of sticky or abrasive
materials. With a bucket measuring 20 in x 20 in (500 mm x 500 mm), capacities of
1000 cubic feet/hr (28 cubic meters/hr) can be reached at speeds of 100 ft/min (30
m/min). Speeds up to 300 ft/min (90 m/min) are possible.
D. Belt conveyors can be used for high capacity and long distance transports. Inclines up to
30 are possible. A 24 in (635 mm) belt can transport 3000 cu. ft./h (85 cu m/h) at
speeds of 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min). Speeds can be as high as 600 ft/min (183 m/min).
Power consumption is relatively low.
E. Screw conveyors can be used for sticky or abrasive solids for transports up to 150 ft (46
m). Inclines can be up to about 20. A 12 in (305 mm) diameter screw conveyor can
transport 1000-3000 cu. ft./h (28-85 cu. m/h) at around 40-60 rpm.

31
Crystallization
A. During most crystallizations, C/C
sat
(concentration/saturated concentration) is kept near
1.02 to 1.05
B. Crystal growth rates and crystal sizes are controlled by limiting the degree of super
saturation.
C. During crystallization by cooling, the temperature of the solution is kept 1-2 F (0.5-1.2
C) below the saturation point at the given concentration.
D. A generally acceptable crystal growth rate is 0.10 - 0.80 mm/h

32
Drying of Solids
A. Spray dryer have drying times of a few seconds. Rotary dryers have drying times ranging
from a few minutes to up to an hour.
B. Continuous tray and belt dryers have drying times of 10-200 minutes for granular
materials or 3-15 mm pellets.
C. Drum dryers used for highly viscous fluids use contact times of 3-12 seconds and produce
flakes 1-3 mm thick. Diameters are generally 1.5-5 ft (0.5 - 1.5 m). Rotation speeds are
2-10 rpm and the maximum evaporation capacity is around 3000 lb/h (1363 kg/h).
D. Rotary cylindrical dryers operate with air velocities of 5-10 ft/s (1.5-3 m/s), up to 35 ft/s
(10.5 m/s). Residence times range from 5-90 min. For initial design purposes, an 85%
free cross sectional area is used. Countercurrent design should yield an exit gas
temperature that is 18-35 F (10-20 C) above the solids temperature. Parallel flow
should yield an exiting solids temperature of 212 F (100 C). Rotation speeds of 4-5
rpm are common. The product of rpm and diameter (in feet) should be 15-25.
E. Pneumatic conveying dryers are appropriate for particles 1-3 mm in diameter and in some
cases up to 10 mm. Air velocities are usually 33-100 ft/s (10-30 m/s). Single pass
residence time is typically near one minute. Size range from 0.6-1.0 ft (0.2-0.3 m) in
diameter by 3.3-125 ft (1-38 m) in length.
F. Fluidized bed dryers work well with particles up to 4.0 mm in diameter. Designing for a
gas velocity that is 1.7-2 times the minimum fluidization velocity is good practice.
Normally, drying times of 1-2 minutes are sufficient in continuous operation.


33
Evaporation
1. Most popular types are long tube vertical with natural or forced circulation. Tubes range
from 3/4" to 2.5"
(19-63 mm) in diameter and 12-30 ft (3.6-9.1 m) in length.
2. Forced circulation tube velocities are generally in the 15-20 ft/s (4.5-6 m/s) range.
3. Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) as a result of having dissolved solids must be accounted
for in the differences between the solution temperature and the temperature of the
saturated vapor.
4. BPE's greater than 7 F (3.9 C) usually result in 4-6 effects in series (feed-forward) as an
economical solution. With smaller BPE's, more effects in series are typically more
economical, depending on the cost of steam.
5. Reverse feed results in the more concentrated solution being heated with the hottest steam
to minimize surface area. However, the solution must be pumped from one stage to the
next.
6. Interstage steam pressures can be increased with ejectors (20-30% efficient) or
mechanical compressors (70-75% efficient).

34
Filtration
1. Initially, processes are classified according to their cake buildup in a laboratory vacuum
leaf filter :
0.10 - 10.0 cm/s (rapid), 0.10-10.0 cm/min (medium), 0.10-10.0 cm/h (slow)
2. Continuous filtration methods should not be used if 0.35 sm of cake cannot be formed in
less than 5 minutes.
3. Belts, top feed drums, and pusher-type centrifuges are best for rapid filtering.
4. Vacuum drums and disk or peeler-type centrifuges are best for medium filtering.
5. Pressure filters or sedimenting centrifuges are best for slow filtering.
6. Cartridges, precoat drums, and sand filters can be used for clarification duties with
negligible buildup.
7. Finely ground mineral ores can utilize rotary drum rates of 1500 lb/dat ft2 (7335 kg/day
m
2
) at 20 rev/h and 18-25 in Hg (457-635 mm Hg) vacuum.
8. Course solids and crystals can be filtered at rates of 6000 lb/day ft2 (29,340 kg/day m2) at
20 rev/h and 2-6 in Hg (51-152 mm Hg) vacuum.

35
Mixing and Agitation
1. Mild agitation results from superficial fluid velocities of 0.10-0.20 ft/s (0.03-0.06 m/s).
Intense agitation results from velocities of 0.70-1.0 ft/s (0.21-0.30 m/s).
2. For baffled tanks, agitation intensity is measured by power input and impeller tip speeds:
3. Various geometries of an agitated tank relative to diameter (D) of the vessel include:

Power Requirements Tip Speeds
Hp/1000 gal kW/m
3
ft/s m/s
Blending 0.2-0.5 0.033-0.082 ----- ----
Homogeneous Reaction 0.5-1.5 0.082-0.247 7.5-10.0 2.29-3.05
Reaction with Heat Transfer 1.5-5.0 0.247-0.824 10.0-15.0 3.05-4.57
Liquid-Liquid Mixtures 5.0 0.824 15.0-20.0 4.57-6.09
Liquid-Gas Mixtures 5.0-10.0 0.824-1.647 15.0-20.0 4.57-6.09
Slurries 10.0 1.647 ----- ----

Liquid level = D,
Turbine impeller diameter = D/3
Impeller level above bottom = D/3
Impeller blade width = D/15
Four vertical baffle width = D/10
4. For settling velocities around 0.03 ft/s, solids suspension can be accomplished with
turbine or propeller impellers. For settling velocities above 0.15 ft/s, intense propeller
agitation is needed.
5. Power to mix a fluid of gas and liquid can be 25-50% less than the power to mix the
liquid alone.