SCIENCE PROJECT

CHANDRAYAAN
Chandrayaan-1 (Sanskrit: -, lit: Moon
vehicle
[3][4]
pronunciation (helpinfo)) was India's first unmanned lunar
probe. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in
October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The mission included a lunar
orbiter and an impactor. India launched the spacecraft using a PSLV-
XL rocket, serial number C11,
[1][5]
on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre, Sriharikota, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh, about 80 km
north of Chennai, at 06:22 IST (00:52 UTC).
[6]
Former prime minister Atal
Bihari Vajpayee announced the project on course in his Independence Day
speech on 15 August 2003. The mission was a major boost to India's space
program,
[7]
as India researched and developed its own technology in order
to explore the Moon.
[8]
The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit
on 8 November 2008.
[9]

On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the
Chandrayaan orbiter at 20:06 and struck the south pole in a controlled
manner, making India the fourth country to place its flag on the
Moon.
[10]
The probe impacted near the crater Shackleton at 20:31 ejecting
underground soil that could be analysed for the presence of lunar
waterice.
[11][12]

The estimated cost for the project was 3.86 billion (US$66 million).
The remote sensing lunar satellite had a mass of 1,380 kilograms (3,042 lb)
at launch and 675 kilograms (1,488 lb) in lunar orbit.
[13]
It carried high
resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and
hard X-ray frequencies. Over a two-year period, it was intended to survey
the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics
and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest
as they might contain ice.
[14]
The lunar mission carried five ISRO payloads
and six payloads from other space agencies including NASA, ESA, and
the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free of cost.
[15]

After suffering from several technical issues including failure of the star
sensors and poor thermal shielding, Chandrayaan stopped sending radio
signals at 01:30 IST on 29 August 2009 shortly after which,
the ISRO officially declared the mission over. Chandrayaan operated for 312
days as opposed to the intended two years but the mission achieved 95
percent of its planned objectives.
[2][16][17][18]
Among its many achievements
was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in lunar
soil.
[19]


The mission had the following stated scientific objectives:
[20]

to design, develop, launch and orbit a spacecraft around the Moon using
an Indian-made launch-vehicle
to conduct scientific experiments using instruments on the spacecraft
which would yield data:
for the preparation of a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and
altitude resolution of 510 m) of both the near and far sides of the
Moon
for chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface at
high spatial resolution, mapping particularly the chemical
elements magnesium, aluminium, silicon,calcium,
iron, titanium, radon, uranium, and thorium
to increase scientific knowledge
to test the impact of a sub-satellite (Moon Impact Probe MIP) on
the surface on the Moon as a fore-runner to future soft-landing
missions
TYPES OF SATELLITES
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has
been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes
called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as
the Moon.
The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet
Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into
orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations, have been
launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from
more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of
ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas
thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth
as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around
other bodies and become artificial satellites to the
Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include
military and civilian Earth observation satellites,communications
satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research
satellites. Space stations and humanspacecraft in orbit are also satellites.
Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and
are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes
include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.
About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that
3,600 remain in orbit.
[1]
Of those, about 1,000 are operational;
[2][3]
the rest
have lived out their useful lives and are part of the space debris.
Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are
in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), the rest are in geostationary orbit (at
36,000 km).
[4]

Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch
vehicle itself is a rocket lifting off from a launch pad on land. In a minority of
cases satellites are launched at sea (from a submarine or a mobile maritime
platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).
Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems.
Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal
control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.
India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19
April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. This was
followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites which were built and
launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth
observation satellites.
The INSAT series[edit]
Main article: Indian National Satellite System
INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose
geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications,
broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India.
Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication
system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of
Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological
Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and
management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT
Coordination Committee.
The IRS series[edit]
Main article: Indian Remote Sensing satellite
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation
satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides
remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian
use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-
synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and
temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken
relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1
(A,B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area
of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, Resource Sat.
Radar Imaging Satellites[edit]
ISRO currently operates two Radar Imaging Satellites.RISAT-1 was launched
from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 on board a PSLV.RISAT-1
carries a C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) payload, operating in a
multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with
coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions.
[24]
India also operates RISAT-
2 which was launched in 2009 and acquired from Israel at a cost $110
million.
[24]

Other satellites[edit]
ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known
as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological
satellite,
[25]
was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12
September 2002.
[26]
The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.
[27]
In
February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla a NASA
astronaut of Indian origin who perished in Space Shuttle Columbia
[29]



ISRO has also successfully launched the Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25
February 2013, 12:31 UTC.SARAL or Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa is a
cooperative altimetry technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the
oceans surface and sea-levels.AltiKa will measure ocean surface. topography
with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using current-
generation altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.
[28]


Anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are
designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, and other space assets.
Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant
planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally
for scientific experimentation.
Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the
purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites
typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low masses and small
sizes.
[17]
New classifications are used to categorize these satellites:
minisatellite (500100 kg), microsatellite (below
100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
[citation needed]

Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals
transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their
exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and
receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics,
allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on
the order of a few meters in real time.
Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation
satellite or communications satellite deployed
for military or intelligence applications. Very little is known about the full
power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep
information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military
uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc.
(See especially Earth Observing System.)
Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite
by a thin cable called a tether.
Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather
and climate.
[18]

Recovery satellites are satellites that provide a recovery of
reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from
orbit to Earth.
Manned spacecraft (spaceships) are large satellites able to
put humans into (and beyond) an orbit, and return them to Earth.
Spacecraft including spaceplanes of reusable systems have
major propulsion or landing facilities. They can be used as transport to
and from the orbital stations.
Space stations are man-made orbital structures that are designed
for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is
distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major
propulsion or landing facilities. Space stations are designed for
medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even
years.
A Skyhook is a proposed type of tethered satellite/ion powered space
station that serves as a terminal for suborbital launch vehicles flying
between the Earth and the lower end of the Skyhook, as well as a
terminal for spacecraft going to, or arriving from, higher orbit, the
Moon, or Mars, at the upper end of the Skyhook.
[19][20]


ISRO
The Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO, /sro/; Sanskrit:

Bhratya Antarika Anusandhna Sagahana) is the primary space
agency of India.
[3]
ISRO is amongst the largest government space
agencies in the world. Its primary objective is to advance space
technology and use its applications for national benefit.
[4]

Established in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National
Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR). Headquartered inBangalore,
ISRO is under the administrative control of the Department of
Space, Government of India.
Since its establishment, ISRO has achieved numerous milestones. It built
India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by theSoviet Union on
19 April in 1975. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in
orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle,SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed
two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching
satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have
launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation
satellite. On 22 October in 2008, Chandrayaan-1, India sent its first mission
to the Moon. Over the years, ISRO has conducted a variety of operations for
both Indian and foreign clients. ISRO's satellite launch capability is mostly
provided by indigenous launch vehicles and launch sites. In 2008, ISRO
successfully launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, while future plans
include indigenous development of GSLV, manned space missions, further
lunar exploration, mars exploration and interplanetary probes. ISRO has
several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international
community as a part of several bilateral and multilateral agreements. 5
November 2013, ISRO launched its Mars Orbiter Mission, which is currently
en route to Mars



pace activities in the country started during early 1960s with the
scientific investigation

of upper atmosphere and
ionosphere over the magnetic
equator that passes over Thumba
near Thiruvananthapuram using
small sounding rockets Realising
the immense potential of space
technology for national
development, Dr. Vikram
Sarabhai, the visionary leader
envisioned that this powerful
technology could play a meaningful
role in national development and
solving the problems of common
man.


Thus, Indian Space programme born in the church beginning, space
activities in the country, concentrated on achieving self reliance and
developing capability to build and launch communication satellites for
television broadcast, telecommunications and meteorological
applications; remote sensing satellites for management of natural
resources.

The objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its
application to various national tasks. Accordingly, Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully operationalised two
major satellite systems namely Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for
communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for
management of natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites.

The Space Commission formulates the policies and oversees the
implementation of the Indian space programme to promote the
development and application of space science and technology for the
socio-economic benefit of the country. DOS implements these
programmes through, mainly Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO), Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), National Atmospheric
Research Laboratory (NARL), North Eastern-Space Applications Centre
(NE-SAC) and Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL). The Antrix
Corporation, established in 1992 as a government owned company,
markets the space products and services

CONSTELLATIONS
Constellations are formed of bright stars which appear close to each other on
the sky, but are really far apart in space. The shapes you see all depend on
your point of view. Many societies saw patterns among the stars with gods
and goddesses or stories from their culture.
Most of the constellations with which we are familiar come from ancient
Greece. But other civilizations created their own patterns in the sky based on
stories and people that were important to them.
Many peoples noticed that the planets, the moon, and comets moved
through the sky in a different way than the stars.
Because of the rotation of the Earth and its orbit around the Sun, we divide
the constellations into two groups. Some constellations never rise nor are
set, and they called circumpolar. All the rest are divided into seasonal
constellations. Which constellations will be circumpolar and which seasonal
depends on your latitude. In the northern hemisphere, we will always be
able to see stars and constellations in the the northern circumpolar sky,
while in the southern hemisphere, we will always be able to see stars and
constellations in the southern circumpolar sky.
Constellations in the northern circumpolar sky include Auriga,
Camelopardalis, Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Draco, Lynx, Perseus, Ursa Major,
and Ursa Minor. These constellations are always visible in the night sky of
the Northern Hemisphere.
Constellations in the southern circumpolar sky include Grus, Phoenix, Indus,
Tucana, Pavo, Ara, Eridanus, Hydrus, Horologium, Reticulum, Octans, Apus,
Triangulum Australe, Lupus, Circinus, Musca, Crux, Centaurus,Carina, Vela,
Puppis, Dorado, and Chamaeleon. These constellations are always visible in
the night sky of the Southern Hemisphere.
ASTEROIDS AND METEORS
Asteroid is a relatively small, inactive, rocky body orbiting the Sun.
Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System.
The larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have
historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did
not show the disk of a planet and was not observed to have the
characteristics of an active comet, but as minor planets in the outer Solar
System were discovered, their volatile-based surfaces were found to
resemble comets more closely and so were often distinguished from
traditional asteroids.
[1][not in citation given]
Thus the term asteroid has come
increasingly to refer specifically to the small bodies of the inner Solar
System out to the orbit of Jupiter.
[
The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e. not
very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1
and 1.9 million asteroids larger than 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter,
[38]
and
millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of
the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into
planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by
large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter.
A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body travelling through space.
Meteoroids are significantly smaller than asteroids, and range in size from
small grains to 1 meter-wide objects. Smaller objects than this are classified
as micrometeoroids or space dust.
[1][2][3][4]
Most are fragments
from comets or asteroids, while others are collision impact debris ejected
from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.
[5][6][7][8]

When such an object enters the Earth's atmosphere, it heats up from
atmospheric friction and produces a streak of light, both from the glowing
object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This
phenomenon is called a meteor, or colloquially a "shooting star" or "falling
star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart, and
appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky, is called
a meteor shower. Incoming objects larger than several meters (asteroids
or comets) can explode in the air. If a meteoroid, comet or asteroid or a
piece thereof withstands ablation from its atmospheric entry and impacts
with the ground, then it is called a meteorite.
Around 15,000 tonnes of meteoroids, micrometeoroids and different forms
of space dust enter Earth's atmosphere each year.
[9]
Millions Of meteors
occur in the Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors
are about the size of a pebble. Meteors may occur in showers, which arise
when the Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet, or as
"random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream
of space debris. A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely
by members of the public and largely by accident, but with enough detail
that orbits of the meteoroids producing the meteors have been calculated.
All of the orbits passed through the asteroid belt.
[21]
The atmospheric
velocities of meteors result from the movement of Earth around the Sun at
about 30 km/s (18 miles/second),
[22]
the orbital speeds of meteoroids, and
the gravity well of Earth.