Islamic - Literature

Various Muslim dynasties ruled much of India from their arrival

in the 1100's and 1200's. Most of them spoke Persian or
Turkish. These were the languages used, in a slightly
Indianized form, for the business of government and court.

Muslim poets Malik Mahammod Jayasi, Raskhan, Rahim, and

others wrote Sufi and Vaishnava (pertaining to Vishnu) poetry.
The religious and cultural synthesis of Islam and Hinduism that
was a special concern of medieval India finds frequent
expression in their literature. Bulleh Shah, the most famous
Muslim Punjabi poet, popularized Sufism (Islamic doctrine of
divine love) through Punjabi kafi (verse form). Shah Laatif, a
Sindhi Muslim poet, wrote an important Sufi text, Risalo.

In the medieval period, Urdu came into being. Amir Khusrau

(1253-1325), a great Sufi poet and an early architect of India's
composite culture, experimented with poetry in a language that
was a mixture of Persian and Hindi. This was the origin of Urdu.
See KHUSRAU, AMIR.

Urdu poetry has largely followed Persian forms and metres, but
it has also adopted some of the purely Indian forms. The
ghazal (lyrical couplet), qasidah (ode of praise), and marsia
(elegy) are of Iranian origin. The poet Sauda (1706-1781) gave
rigour and versatility to Urdu poetry. Dard (1720-1785) and Mir
Taqi Mir (1722-1810) gave Urdu maturity and ushered it into
the modern period of literature.

The Mughal Empire of the 1500's to the 1700's offered a

livelihood to many poets. Richly illustrated memoirs of
emperors form part of the historical and artistic heritage of this
period

sangam Literature laid the foundation of Bhakti Cult.By the next

century, Shaiva (in praise of Shiva) and Vaishanva (in praise of
Vishnu) writers began rising from sleep, leading to a religious
renaissance. It was the turn of devotional literature to hog the
limelight. The corpus of Shaiva hymns, sung till today, were
compiled in Tirumurarais (early 11th century). The Vaishnava saints
lay the foundation of the Bhakti cult not only for South India
(500-1000AD), but for the whole of India. Their songs were put
together in the colossal Nal-ayira-p-pirapantam or the `Book of 4000
Hymns`. Despite the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist
influence was still remaining in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and
the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction
to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached
its peak during the later part of the seventh century.
There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of
Saiva and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars and
Vaishnava Alvars provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular
devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in the sixth
century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars.The celebrated Saiva
hymnists Sundaramurthi, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Thirunavukkarasar
(also known as Appar) were of this period. Of Appar`s hymns 307 have
survived. Sambandar san 384 hymns. Together these form the first six
books of the Saiva canon, collected by Nambi Andar Nambi in the
tenth century. Sundarar wrote Tiruttondartokai which gives the list
of sixty-two Nayanmars. This was later elaborated by Sekkilar in his
Periyapuranam. Manikkavasagar, who lived around the eight century CE
was a minister in the Pandya court. His Tiruvasakam consisting of 51
hymns is noted for its passionate devotion.

Along with the Saiva Nayanmars, Vaishnava Alvars were also producing
devotional hymns and their songs were collected later into the Four
Thousand Sacred Hymns (Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham). The three
earliest Alvars were Pygai, Pudam and Pey. Each have these wrote one
hundred Venpas. Tirumalisai Alwar who was a contemporary of the
Pallava Mahendravarman I and wrote such works as
Naanmugantiruvadiandadi. Tirumangai Alvar who lived in the eighth
century CE was a more voluminous writer and his works constitute
about a third of the Diyaprabhandam. Peiyalvar and his daughter
Andal contributed nearly 650 hymns to the Vaishnava canon. Andal
symbolised purity love for the God and wrote her hymns addressing
Vishnu as a lover. The hymn of Andal which starts with Vaaranam
Aayiram (One Thousand Elephants) tells of her dream wedding to
Vishnu and is sung even today at Tamil Vaishnava weddings.
Nammalvar, who lived in the ninth century, wrote Tiruvaimoli
comprising of 1,101 stanzas and is held in great honour for its
Elucidation of the Upanishads.