Online Gaming Dependency: A Preliminary Study in China

Wei Peng, Ph.D. and Ming Liu, M.A.

Abstract
Based on theories and previous studies on problematic Internet use, we propose a model to better understand
the contributors to and consequences of online gaming dependency. A preliminary study was conducted
through a survey of online gamers in China. The results of path analysis found that maladaptive cognitions,
shyness, and depression are positively related to online gaming dependency. Online gaming dependency was
also positively related to different types of negative life outcomes. The ndings of this study have implications
for the prevention and treatment of addictive online gaming.
Introduction
W
ith the rapid penetration of broadband Internet
access, online gaming is becoming increasingly popu-
lar in China. The percentage of online game players among
Internet users has increased from18.1%(11 million) in 2003 to
59.3% (120 million) in 2008.
1,2
According to a recent national
survey of online game players in China,
3
19.5% of the players
play online games for 5 to 8 hours per day, and 22.4% play
more than 8 hours per day.
4
Amajority of online game players
(82.9 %) reported that online gaming had negative impact on
their personal life, work, or academic performance, suggest-
ing that research on this phenomenon is needed.
The main purpose of this study is to examine online
gaming dependency and identify its contributors and con-
sequences. Maladaptive cognitionsa construct imported
from Daviss cognitive-behavioral model of pathological
Internet use (PIU)
5
as well as shyness and depression
variables shown to contribute to Internet dependency
69

were hypothesized to be the contributors of online gaming

dependency. The relationships between online gaming de-
pendency and three types of negative life consequences (i.e.,
physical problems, personal life problems, and academic=
professional problems) were also investigated.
Online gaming dependency
Over the last decade, a great deal of research focusing on
excessive or problematic Internet use has been conducted.
However, investigation of this issue in the context of specic
Internet applications is very limited. Recent research dem-
onstrates that online gaming is one of the most likely reasons
for compulsive Internet use among various online activities,
10
suggesting that more focus on this particular Internet use is
especially important.
In the current study, we dene online gaming dependency
as a psychological state characterized by psychological dis-
comfort experienced by online gamers when they are unable
to play online games as they wish.
1114
A few standardized
instruments have been developed to assess addictive Internet
use. The operationalization of the online gaming dependency
construct was established by adapting items in prior research
on Internet dependency to the specic context of online gam-
ing, and the items were focused on the psychological di-
mension. Items regarding negative behavioral outcomes were
excluded.
Contributors of online gaming dependency
Maladaptive cognitions. Davis
5
introduced a cognitive-
behavioral model of PIU that emphasizes the individuals
cognitions or beliefs as the key factor preceding and leading
to the symptoms of Internet dependency. According to this
model, maladaptive cognitions, dened as cognitive distor-
tions about the self and the world, play a critical role as a
proximal and sufcient cause of PIU symptoms. One type of
distorted thoughts about the self is rumination (constantly
thinking and worrying about ones excessive Internet usage,
which reinforces memories about the Internet). Other types of
maladaptive cognitions include extreme self-concepts favor-
ing the online self (e.g., I am worthless ofine, but in the
online world I am someone) and distorted thoughts that
favor the online world over the ofine world (e.g., The on-
line world is the only place I am respected; The Internet is
my only friend). Davis suggested that the maladaptive
cognitions characterized by this all-or-nothing thinking di-
rectly lead to and intensify the individuals PIU.
In our proposed model, maladaptive cognitions refer to
online gamers cognitive distortions about the self and the
world. For example, by creating and controlling avatars that
Telecommunication, Information Studies and Media, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING
Volume 13, Number 3, 2010
Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089=cyber.2009.0082
329
can accomplish various tasks in the games, online gamers
may perceive that they are much more valuable and suc-
cessful in the virtual online game world than in the ofine real
world, which may lead to unpleasant feelings if online
gaming is suddenly unavailable to them. Online game play-
ers may also develop a cognitive bias that they are better
treated by others in the virtual online game world than in the
real world. When they are unable to play online games as
they want to, psychological discomfort or unsatisfaction is
likely to follow. Therefore,
H1: Maladaptive cognitions will be positively related to
online gaming dependency.
Shyness. Shyness is dened as ones discomfort (e.g.,
tension, concern, feeling awkward) and inhibition of nor-
mally expected social behavior when being with strangers or
casual acquaintances.
15
Shy people tend to be psychologically
insecure and anxious about being evaluated or rejected by
others in face-to-face social interactions.
9,15
In computer-
mediated communication environments, shy people are very
likely to feel less inhibited due to anonymity and the lack of
physical presence and social cues.
9,16
Stritzke et al.s study
16
found that shy and nonshy people (in ofine contexts) were
signicantly different in terms of rejection sensitivity, initi-
ating relationships, and self-disclosure. However, in the on-
line context, those differences no longer existed.
Online social interactions can be especially appealing and
important for shy Internet users who otherwise may have
their social needs unmet. When online interactions become
the primary way for shy people to socialize with others, a
psychological dependency on the Internet or specic online
activities may occur. Some research already supports this
proposition. One study on Internet dependency among
young adults in Hong Kong, China
9
found that shyness was
positively associated with participants tendency toward
Internet dependency (r 0.20). In addition, shyer people
were reported to be more likely to get involved in online
relationships.
7
It is also suggested by some researchers that
shy people tend to use the Internet for its recreational func-
tion.
9,17,18
In fact, recreation and communication are the core
components of online games. For some types of online games
such as massively multiplayer online games, recreation and
communication are even perfectly mixed, and shy people are
likely prone to become dependent on them. Therefore,
H2: Shyness will be positively related to online gaming
dependency.
Depression. Davis
5
proposed that psychosocial prob-
lems, such as depression, might render an individual espe-
cially vulnerable to dependency on the Internet. Caplan
8
further explained that people with psychosocial problems
tend to perceive online social interaction to be less threaten-
ing than similar face-to-face communication and thus de-
velop a preference for the former. Depressed people may be
especially attentive to media content that can lessen their
dysphoria.
19
Because online games are typically rich in enter-
taining and fantasy content and provide players with un-
limited chances of interacting with others and having new
experiences different from those in reality, online games seem
to be especially appealing to depressed individuals. Once
they use online gaming as a major means to relieve depres-
sion, dependent online game usage is likely to take place. In
addition, research shows that depression may also interact
with self-regulation, which may lead to problematic or de-
pendent use of online games.
20
Therefore,
H3: Depression will be positively related to online gaming
dependency.
Negative consequences
Many scholars have examined the negative life conse-
quences associated with dependent Internet use.
11,21,22
With a
specic application of the Internetonline gamesNg and
Wiemer-Hastings
23
found that online game players encoun-
tered more usage problems than ofine video game players,
including playing for more than 8 continuous hours, losing
sleep, being told that they spend too much time playing,
spending less time with ofine friends, and valuing ofine
social relationships less. In the current study, we focused on
the three most frequent types of problems resulting from on-
line gaming based on previous research: physical problems
(i.e., fatigue, physical pain, reducing sleep time, skipping
meals), personal life problems (i.e., conicts with friends or
family, lower social engagement, decreased time management
skills), and academic=professional problems (i.e., missing
work or school, deteriorated grades),
11,22,24,25
Based on the
previous empirical observations regarding negative outcomes
of Internet use, we propose the following hypotheses:
H4: Online gaming dependency will be positively related to
physical problems.
H5: Online gaming dependency will be positively related to
personal life problems.
H6: Online gaming dependency will be positively related to
academic=professional problems.
Methods
Procedure and participants
Snowball sampling was employed to recruit participants in
the current study. The URL to an online anonymous survey
on Surveymonkey.com was rst sent via e-mail to 26 Chinese
online game players known by the researchers. Those indi-
viduals were asked to participate and distribute the URL link
to all the online game players they know online and ofine.
Informed consent was obtained before they began the survey.
A total of 166 online gamers in China participated. Re-
sponses from 35 of them were excluded due to incomplete
answers or lower data quality. Of the included 131 partici-
pants, 63% were male and 33% were female, and the gender
of 5 people (4%) was undisclosed. The average age of par-
ticipants was 26 years old. Occupations of the participants
included students (38%), IT or media professionals (19%),
sales and service (14%), ofce clerks (6%), executives (2%),
agriculture-related jobs (2%), and others (19%). Additionally,
78% of participants had a college degree or were enrolled in
college. On average, participants had a 6-year or so history of
playing online games (SD2.79). The average number of
330 PENG AND LIU
hours they spent gaming on a typical workday was 3.06
(SD2.60) andon a typical weekenddaywas 5.00 (SD3.91).
The most popular online games played by the participants
were massively multiplayer online role-playing games (e.g.,
World of Warcraft, Fantasy of the Journal West) and casual
games (e.g., Popkart car racing game).
Measures
Six items were used in the current study to assess online
gaming dependency. Items were adapted from scales
2426
used in previous Internet studies. Only those relevant psycho-
logical items were included to measure online gaming de-
pendency. Items related to negative behavioral outcomes
were not included to avoid confounding with negative life
consequences. Example items include I feel preoccupied
with online gaming and I feel lost if cant play my online
game. Participants indicated their agreement on those items
using a 7-point Likert scale (a 0.93, M2.94, SD1.15).
Maladaptive cognitions were measured with ve items on a
7-point Likert scale. Four items were adapted from the ex-
amples used by Davis
5
to illustrate maladaptive cognitions
associated with PIU, such as I am worthless ofine, but in
the online game world I am someone. One item regarding
rumination was created by the authors based on the deni-
tion of this construct: I keep thinking that its a problem for
me to play online games too much. (a 0.74, M2.97,
SD1.11). Shyness was measured using the 9-item shyness
scale by Cheek and Buss
15
(a 0.89, M3.28, SD1.22). The
general level of depression was measured with the 7-item
short form of the Center for Epidemiological Studies De-
pression Scale
27
(a 0.90, M1.65, SD0.64). Three types of
problems associated with online gaming were measured
with items adapted from previous Internet dependency
studies.
2426
The physical problems scale included six items to
measure physical healthrelated problems, such as fatigue,
aches, and skipping meals (a 0.81, M3.96, SD1.22). The
measure of personal life problems involved six items covering
aspects of time management, interpersonal relationships,
spending money, and so on (a 0.80, M3.19, SD1.20).
The construct of academic=professional problems was mea-
sured with three items related to deteriorated academic or
professional performance (a 0.81, M3.17, SD1.54).
Results
LISREL 8.80 was used to perform path analysis to test
the proposed model (see Fig. 1). All of the constructs
were modeled as observed variables. The hypothesized
model resulted in an adequate and moderately good t ac-
cording to the model t indices: w
2
(9) 13.65, p 0.14; root-
mean-squared error of approximation (RMSEA) 0.06;
standardized root mean of the residual 0.04; comparative t
index 0.99; goodness of t index 0.97. All the paths were
supported by the data and shown to be signicant. The R-
square statistics indicated that 56% of the variance in online
gaming dependency, 18% of the variance in physical prob-
lems, 31% of the variance in personal life problems, and 28%
of the variance in academic=professional problems were
explained in the model.
Discussion
The current study employed previous research on prob-
lematic Internet use to gain understanding of the contributors
to and negative life consequences of psychological depen-
dency on online game playing. Data collected from a pre-
liminary study in China supported the acceptance of the
proposed model and conrmed all the hypothesized rela-
tionships. Maladaptive cognitions, shyness, and depression
were found to be positively associated with online gaming
dependency. The data also showed that online gaming de-
pendency was positively related to three common types of the
negative life outcomes: physical problems, personal life
problems, and academic=professional problems.
This study is one of the rst attempts to examine the online
gaming dependency phenomenon in China using a theoreti-
cal approach. The strong correlations between online gaming
dependency and real-life problems suggest that online gam-
ing with psychological dependency is likely to become a
negative activity that results in various detrimental effects in
ofine contexts. Even with a relatively low online gaming
dependency, players may still experience some negative life
consequences.
The current study also provides empirical evidence that the
cognitive variable maladaptive cognitions may be an im-
portant antecedent of online gaming dependency, which is
consistent with Daviss cognitive-behavioral model of PIU.
5
The nding suggests that for the prevention and treatment of
online gaming dependency, it is critical for health profes-
sionals to attend to the presence of maladaptive thoughts
among online gamers. Different from other types of depen-
dency, the amount of exposure may not be the deciding factor
for media-related dependency. In fact, hierarchical multiple
regression analysis revealed that the R-square value in-
creased signicantly from 0.07 to 0.40 by adding the variable
FIG. 1. Final model and standardized parameter estimates. *p <0.01; **p <0.001.
ONLINE GAMING DEPENDENCY 331
of maladaptive cognitions on top of the control variables of
gender and time spent on online game playing to predict
online gaming dependency ( p <0.001). This nding further
suggests that simply reducing the amount of time spent on
online gaming may not be an effective solution to prevent or
recover from dependent online gaming if the cognitive and
psychological problems of the player still exist. The practical
implication of this nding is that parents, teachers, and
counselors should be aware of and pay enough attention to
the psychological well-being as well as cognitions of the
players they try to help.
Several limitations of this study need to be acknowledged.
First, this preliminary study used a relatively small sample.
Although 131 reached the minimum requirement for path
analysis, usually a larger sample size is preferred.
28
Second,
the generalizability of the results toward other online gamers
in China remains unclear due to the lack of a large and
nationally representative sample. In future research, more
effective approaches to reach and recruit online game players
should be utilized. Third, with a cross-sectional design, it is
impossible to determine causality in the current study.
29
Re-
searchers need to conduct longitudinal studies to determine
the causal relationships and explore the potential reciprocal
associations among the constructs. Identifying the contribu-
tors of maladaptive cognitions would also add valuable in-
formation to this area of study.
An interesting extension of the current study is to identify
the predictors of maladaptive cognitions. We tested an al-
ternative model wherein shyness and depression were
modeled as the predictors of maladaptive cognitions, which
in turn were predicted to be associated with online gaming
dependency. However, the model resulted in a poor t to our
data, w
2
(2) 43.64, p 0.00; RMSEA0.40. Further research
is needed to identify the critical psychosocial variables that
may directly predict maladaptive cognitions in the context of
online gaming. The cognitive variable of preference for online
social interactions might explain maladaptive cognitions.
8,29
This preference is characterized by beliefs that one will per-
form better and feel better about oneself in online social in-
teractions and relationships than in similar activities ofine.
Caplan
8
also discussed possible explanations for the prefer-
ence by reviewing previous literature on the advantages and
attractiveness of computer-mediated interpersonal commu-
nication versus face-to-face communication, such as greater
anonymity, the presence of hyperpersonal communication,
and decreased adherence to social norms. His survey of un-
dergraduate students demonstrated that participants degree
of preference for online social interaction is a signicant
predictor of their problematic Internet use. This construct also
implies a comparison and choice conducted by users between
online and ofine social interactions and relationships. In
the future, researchers need to draw on literature on both
computer-mediated and face-to-face communication to in-
vestigate the role of this particular preference in the mecha-
nisms of dependent online gaming and Internet use.
This study extends previous research on addictive media
use by focusing on one particular Internet application: online
games, which have signicant potential for dependency. This
study investigated the cognitive and psychological anteced-
ents and real-life consequences of online gaming dependency
in China. Our model afrmed the critical role played by the
cognitive and psychological variables that contribute to on-
line gaming dependency. The data revealed that it is not just
the time spent on playing online games: the cognitions and
psychological status of the players play critical roles on neg-
ative life consequences of online game playing. The nding
can guide health professionals, consultants, and individuals
who are concerned about online gaming dependency for
prevention and treatment.
Disclosure Statement
No competing nancial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Dr. Wei Peng
Telecommunication, Information Studies and Media
Michigan State University
430 Comm Arts Building
East Lansing, MI 48824
E-mail: pengwei@msu.edu
ONLINE GAMING DEPENDENCY 333