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Macromolecules
THREADS
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Energy Flow
Perpetuation
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Human Awareness
WORKSHEETS
1
DNA replication
Enzymes
Mutations
10
Genetic manipulation
11
12
KEY IDEAS
Students should know and understand the following:
M1.
M2.
M3.
M4.
M5.
M6.
M7.
M8.
M9.
( SSABSA Stage 2 Biology Curriculum Statement 2006, p22-24 and used with permission.
Teachers and students are advised to check the website www.ssabsa.sa.edu.sa for any changes.)
Worksheet 1
DNAstandsfordeoxyribonucleicacid.Thismoleculeisfoundprimarilyinthenucleusofcells.Itisa
doublestrandedmoleculewiththestrandswoundaroundeachothertoformadoublehelix.The
moleculeismadeupofrepeatingunitscallednucleotides.Asinglenucleotideismadeupofthree
components:adeoxyribosesugar,aphosphateandanorganicbase.
Thediagrambelowisarepresentationof2nucleotidesbondedtogether.
Bases
Deoxyribose
sugar
Phosphate
G
A
G
A
C
C
TherearefourorganicbasesfoundinDNA:Adenine,Thymine,Guanineand
Cytosine.ThelettersA,T,GandCrepresentthesebases.
AsinglestrandofDNAisasequenceofnucleotidesjoinedtogetherwith
alternatingphosphateandsugarcomponents.Thedoublehelixmoleculeconsists
oftwocomplementarystrandsthatarejoinedbyhydrogenbondsbetweenthe
bases.Thebasesalwayspairinspecificways:
AdeninealwaysbondswithThymine
GuaninealwaysbondswithCytosine
ThyminealwaysbondswithAdenine
CytosinealwaysbondswithGuanine
TheadjacentdiagramshowsthedoublehelicalmodelforDNAfirstproposed
bytwoscientistsWatsonandCrickin1953.
C
T
T
C
G
A
T
A
G
A
C
T
1. Writeaconcisestatementtoexplaineachofthefollowingterms:
complementary
...
DNA
...
macromolecule
...
monomer
...
nucleicacid
...
nucleotide
...
organic
...
polymer
...
base
...
deoxyribosesugar
...
phosphate
...
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Writethesequenceofbasesthatwouldbefoundinthecomplementarystrand.
.
3. NamethefourmajororganicbasesfoundinDNA.
.....
4. WritedownthefourpossiblebasepairingsinDNA.
....
5. IfasequenceofDNAhas30%guaninebasesinitwhatpercentageofthyminewouldtherebe?
....
6. Refertothediagrambelow.
Sugar
Phosphate
Sugar
Phosphate
Sugar
Phosphate
Sugar
Phosphate
Base
Base
Base
Base
(a)CircleanucleotideintherepresentationofastrandofDNAshownabove.
(b)Howmanynucleotidesareshowninthediagram?.
7. UsethefiguretolabelABCandDinthediagrambelow.
C
D
....
....
....
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Worksheet 2
ChromosomesarethreadlikestructuresmadeupofDNAandproteinscallhistones.Thesestructuresare
foundinthenucleusofeukaryoticcellsandarevisibleasthecellsstarttodivide.Thechromosome
numberisconstantforeachspecies,e.g.46inhumans,48inachimpanzee,40inamouseand38in
cabbage.ChromosomesinnondividingcellsaresinglestrandedandtheDNAisnotcondensed,thatis,
theDNAisspreadouttomakeiteasiertoaccessgenesintranscription,animportantprocessinprotein
synthesisandreplication,whereanothercopyoftheDNAismade.Whenthechromosomesarevisible
duringtheProphasestageofmitosisand/ormeiosistheyappeardoublestranded.Thisdoublinghas
occurredastheDNAhasreplicatedinorderthatnewcellscanreceivetheircomplementofDNA.
Ageneistheunitofheredity.GenesrepresentsequencesofthebasesATGandConchromosomesand
codeforproteinmoleculesorpartsofproteinmolecules.Eachgeneisfoundonaparticularchromosome.
Genesprescribethefeaturesofanorganism:greeneyes,skincolourortheshapeofanose.Inahuman
with46chromosomesitisthoughtthattherearearound40,000genes,eachchromosomecontaining
hundredsorthousandsofgenes.
Asinglegeneusuallycontainsbetween300toseveralthousandbases.Eachgenehasastartandafinish
tosignalwheretranscriptionbeginsandends.
Thediagrambelowshowsschematicrepresentationsofsomehumanchromosomesandsomeofthegene
locationsthathavebeenidentified.
Familial
Retinitis
Colon Cancer Pigmentosa
11
12
Cystic
Fibrosis
Malignant
Melanoma
Sickle Cell
Anemia
PKU
14
Alzheimer's
Disease
17
Breast
Cancer
Thisphotographshowsatypicalsetofhuman
chromosomes,whichwastakenfromapreparedslide
usingalightmicroscope.
Theimageshavebeencutoutandpastedtogethertoshow
thehomologouspairs.Untilrecentlythiswasdonewith
scissors,itisnowdonewithcomputersoftwareTheyare
generallynumberedandarrangedfromlongesttoshortest.
Thesexchromosomesarebottomrightofthisphoto.
Thisisthemalesetofchromosomesorkaryotype.Afemale
hastwocopiesofthelonger(X)sexchromosome
insteadofonelong(X)andoneshort(Y).
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1. Writeaconcisestatementtoexplaineachofthefollowingterms:
. chromatid
...
chromosome
...
gene
...
genome
...
2. Inwhatorganellearethechromosomesfoundineukaryoticcells?
3. Whyarethechromosomesnotusuallyvisibleinnondividingcells?
...
...
4. ExplainthedifferencesbetweenDNA,genes,chromosomes.
...
...
5. Whatdoesitmeantosaythatageneislinkedtoachromosome?
...
...
6. Explainthesignificanceofdifferentspecieshavingdifferentnumbersandtypesofchromosomes?
...
.....
7. Approximatelyhowmanygenesarethere;
....
(a)ononehumanchromosome?
(b)inthehumangenome?
....
8. ScientistshaveknownforaconsiderableperiodoftimethatthegeneforcolourblindnessisontheX
chromosome.
(a)SuggesthowitwasdiscoveredthatthiswaslinkedtotheXchromosome.
...
...
(b)GeneslikethisaresaidtobeXlinkedandthecharacteristicsaresaidtobesexlinked.Explain
whythisisso.
...
...
9. Explainwhatitmeanstosaythatthestructuralunitofinformationinanorganismisthechromosome.
...
...
...
...
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10
Worksheet 3
GenesontheDNAcodeforaspecificsequenceofaminoacids(aa)thatcompriseapolypeptide.Several
poypeptidesusuallymakeupaprotein.TheycanalsocodefortheproductionofanRNAmolecule.
Proteinsynthesisrequirestwosteps:transcriptionandtranslation.
Threemainnucleicacidsareinvolved.
DNA:
providesthetemplatefortheproductionofthemRNA.
mRNA:
transcribedfromtheDNAandprovidesasequenceofcodonsthatareabletobe
translatedintoasequenceofaminoacidsontheribosomes.
tRNA:
therearemorethan20differenttypesofthese,eachonecapableofcarryingonlyone
typeofaminoacid.
Transcription
ThisprocessoccursinthenucleusofacellandiswheretheDNAtemplateactsasacodetotranscribea
genesegmentofDNAbasesintoaworkingcopyofmRNA.TheenzymeinvolvediscalledRNA
Polymerase.
Thediagrambelowshowstheprocessoftranscription.
T
C
RNA polymerase
TA
Nucleotides
used to assemble
the mRNA
G
CG
C
T
T
C
C
DNA Template
G
C
C
U
UA
T A
U
A
T A
CG
T
mRNAnucleotidesinthenucleusarebindingtotheexposedDNAbasestoformaworkingcopyofthe
genethatwillbeabletobetranslatedontheribosomestoformprotein.
Translation
IsaprocesswherethecodonsequenceonthemRNAistranslatedintoanaminoacidlanguage.tRNA
moleculescarryspecificaminoacidsintopositionastheanticodonofthetRNAlinkswiththecodonon
themRNA.
Thenextdiagramshowstheprocessoftranslation.
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Serine
11
Anti codon
A
codon
mRNA molecule
ribosome
Inthediagramabove,leucineandserinearethefirsttwoaminoacidsthatarejoinedtogetherbypeptide
bondstostartthepolypeptideorprotein.
The steps involved in protein synthesis can be set out as follows.
1.
ThedoublehelixoftheDNAunwindsandunzipsattherequiredgenesiteexposingthenitrogenous
basesonthetemplate.
2.
mRNAnucleotidebases(AUGC)attachtotheexposedDNAbaseswiththeassistanceofthe
enzymeRNApolymerase.
3.
OncethesequenceforthemRNAhasbeencompleted,themRNAisreleasedandmovesoutofthe
nucleusintothecytoplasm.
4.
TheDNAstrandswillrejoinandrecoilthemselvestoformthedoublehelix.
5.
ThemRNAmoleculeattachestotheribosomesinthecytoplasm.
6.
SpecificaminoacidscombinewiththeirappropriatetRNAmolecules.
7.
TheribosomemovesalongthemRNAmoleculeattachingtheappropriatetRNAanticodontothe
codononthemRNA.
8.
Theaminoacidsjointogethertoformapolypeptidesequence.
9.
Whenastopcodonisreachedthetranslationiscomplete.
10. Theproteinbreaksawayandisreadyforusewithinthecell,ortobepackagedandsecretedfrom
thecell.
1 Writeaconcisestatementtoexplaineachofthefollowingterms:
aminoacid
anticodon
codon
RNApolymerase
mRNA
ribosome
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12
transcription
translation
tRNA
2. TohelpyouidentifydifferencesbetweenDNA,mRNA,andtRNA,completethefollowingstatements
bywritingtheappropriatenucleicacid(s)aftereachone.
a. issinglestranded
..
b.
hasadoublehelicalstructure
..
c.
isonlyfoundinthecytoplasm
..
d.
isfoundprimarilyinthenucleusofacell
..
e.
containsthebasethymine
..
f.
containsthebaseuracil
..
g.
isinvolvedintheprocessofreplication
..
h.
carriesaminoacidstotheribosomes
..
hastripletsofbasescalledcodons
..
isfoundinboththenucleusandcytoplasm
..
k hasthreebaseswhichcomprisetheanticodon ..
3. Explaintheroleofthefollowingintheprocessofproteinsynthesis:
DNA
..
...
mRNA
..
...
tRNA
..
...
aminoacids ..
...
ribosomes ..
...
mitochondria.
..
4. Explainthedifferencebetween:
a)transcriptionandtranslation
b)acodonandananticodon
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13
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
T
C
TA
E
G
CG
C
T
T
C
C
A
A
C
U
UA
D
J
C
C
B
C
T A
U
A
Leucine
Serine
T A
CG
T
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14
6. Thetablebelowshowswhichcodonscarrytheinformationforeachaminoacid.
UUU
UUC
UUA
UUG
phe
phe
leu
leu
UCU
UCC
UCA
UCG
ser
ser
ser
ser
UAU
UAC
UAA
UAG
tyr
tyr
stop
stop
UGU
UGC
UGA
UGG
cys
cys
stop
trp
CUU
CUC
CUA
CUG
leu
leu
leu
leu
CCU
CCC
CCA
CCG
pro
pro
pro
pro
CAU
CAC
CAA
CAG
his
his
gln
gln
CGU
CGC
CGA
CGG
arg
arg
arg
arg
AUU
AUC
AUA
AUG
ile
ile
ile
start/met
ACU
ACC
ACA
ACG
thr
thr
thr
thr
AAU
AAC
AAA
AAG
asn
asn
lys
lys
AGU
AGC
AGA
AGG
ser
ser
arg
arg
GUU
GUC
GUA
GUG
val
val
val
val
GCU
GCC
GCA
GCG
ala
ala
ala
ala
GAU
GAC
GAA
GAG
asp
asp
glu
glu
GGU
GGC
GGA
GGG
gly
gly
gly
gly
Thetablebelowshowsthenamesoftheaminoacidstogetherwiththeabbreviationsusedinthetable
above.
ala=
alanine
gly= glycine
pro= proline
arg=
arginine
his= histidine
ser= serine
asn=
asparagine
ile= isoleucine
thr= threonine
asp=
asparticacid
leu= leucine
trp= tryptophan
cys=
cysteine
lys= lysine
tyr= tyrosine
gln=
glutamine
met= methionine
val= valine
glu=
glutamicacid
phe= phenylalanine
Now,usethetableofthegeneticcodeandnamesoftheaminoacidsgiventohelpyoucompletethe
followingtable.
DNAbasetriplets
AGA
mRNAcodons
________
________
________
________
CGG
________
________
tRNAanticodons
________
________
CUG
________
aminoacidcodedfor
________
________
________
methionine
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Worksheet 4
15
Proteinmoleculesarelargepolymersmadeupofabout20commonbuildingblockscalledaminoacids
linkedtogether.Organismstypically,havethousandsofthesemolecules.Humansarethoughttohave
between50,000100,000differentproteins,eachonewithauniquethreedimensionalstructurethatis
criticalforitsparticularfunction.Proteinscanbeplacedinto2maingroups,fibrousorstructural
proteins,andglobularproteins.
Protein structure can be studied at four levels
Primarystructurethesequenceofaminoacidslinkedbypeptidebonds.Eachproteinischaracterised
byitsownuniquenumber,typeandsequenceofaminoacids.Typicallyproteinsaremadeupof
hundredstothousandsofaminoacids,haemoglobin,atransportprotein,issome400timesbiggerin
sizethanaglucosemolecule.
Secondarystructurethecoilingorfoldingofthepolypeptidechain.
Tertiarystructurethethreedimensionalstructure,whichisimportantforbinding.
Quaternarystructureappliestothoseproteinswithmorethanonepolypeptidestrand.
Itisthetertiarystructureofeachspecificproteinthatdeterminesitsspecificfunction.Ifthedelicatethree
dimensionalshapeofaproteinisaltered,itusuallyfollowsthatthefunctionofthatproteinisalso
inhibited,thisiscalleddenaturation.Thediagrambelowgivesadiagrammaticrepresentationofthe
differentlevelsofstructureinamoleculeofhaemoglobinwhichisaproteinfoundinblood.
Polypeptide
chain
ala
gly
leu
val
Heme
lys
PRIMARY
STRUCTURE
SECONDARY
STRUCTURE
TERTIARY
STRUCTURE
Polypeptide
chain
QUATERNARY
STRUCTURE
Thestructuralproteinsaremorefibrousinnatureandtendtohaverepeatingunitsofaminoacid
sequences,whereastheglobularproteinseachhavetheirownuniquesequencesgivingthemtheir
particularshapethatissovitalfortheirfunction.
Types of proteins.
Proteinscanbeplacedintogroupsdependingontheirparticularrolesintheorganism.
Structural
Examplesincludethosethatmakeupligamentsandtendons,whileothersassistinmovement,for
examplemuscleproteins.Keratinisanimportantstructuralproteinfoundinorganisms,itmakesupthe
outerlayerofskin,andisthemaincomponentofhair,nails,wool,beaksandfeathers.Proteins
embeddedinthecellmembranearevitalfortheefficientfunctioningofcells.Somehaverolesinactingas
channelproteinsallowingcertainmoleculestoenterorleavecells,butnotothers.Otherproteinsactas
receptorproteinsthatcanbindtochemicalslikehormones,andthusbringaboutaparticularresponse.
Defence
Specificproteinmolecules,calledantibodies,arereleasedfromwhitebloodcellsandhavearoleinthe
inactivationanddestructionofforeignantigenmoleculesthatmayinvadeourtissues.Theuniqueshape
oftheproteinantibodymeansthattheactionofeachantibodyisspecificforaparticularantigen;one
particularantibodycanonlybindwithandinactivateoneparticularantigen.
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16
Communication
Certainmolecules,includingsomehormones,bringabouttheirspecificactionbybindingtoother
molecules.Whenthehormoneinsulinbindstoreceptorproteinsinthecellmembrane,thecellmembrane
increaseitspermeabilitytoglucoseandthecelltakesupmoreglucosetostoreasglycogen.Thediagram
belowrepresentsthebindingofahormonetoasurfacereceptor.
Transport
Haemoglobinisaproteinmoleculefoundinsidehumanredbloodcells.Ithasaspecificroleinthe
transportofoxygenmoleculestothetissuesofthebody.Theparticularshapeofthemoleculemakesit
idealforthereversiblebindingthatoccurswithoxygen.
The control of metabolic reactions.
Allreactionsinsidecellsneedspecificenzymemoleculestoensurethattheyproceed.Enzymesare
proteinmoleculeswithaspecificshapethatiscriticalforthebindingofthereactantorsubstrate
molecules.Thethreedimensionalshapeoftheproteingivesrisetoanactivesiteontheenzymewherean
inducedfitbindingoccurs.
1. Writeaconcisestatementtoexplaineachofthefollowingterms:
antibody
antigen
complementarystrand..
denature
enzyme
haemoglobin
hormone
insulin
polypeptide
protein
surfacereceptor
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