Faults on Electrical System

A Research
Presented to Electrical Engineering
School of Engineering and Architecture
Mindanao University of Science and Technology
Cagayan de Oro City
In partial fulfilment of reuirement of the degree
!achelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
Presented !y"
#ictor C$ Raca%a I#
Engr$ &ionel O$ Al'ina
Research Adviser
March ())*
Acknowledgement
+irst and foremost I ,ould li-e to than- our .ord /esus Christ for helping finish my
research 0+aults on Electrical System12 ,hom ,ithout his help2 it ,ould have 'een
difficult to finish this research$
To the author2 for using their valua'le topics on their 'oo-s during my research$
To Engr$ &ionel O$ Al'ina our research adviser for giving us instructions and discussions
on ho, to ,or- and finish our research$
To Engr$ .eo &$ Mira for allo,ing I copied his electronic 'oo-s for using them as one of
my reference$
To my family2 ,hom I inspire most2 to help gain more encouragement on finishing my
research$
i
Abstract
In electrical system2 there is a common and une3pected that once occurred of
some other time on a system2 the 0+aults on Electrical System12 +ault2 a connection or a
situation on ,hich causes un'alanced on particular three phase system2 no,adays2 'y
technology po,ered techniue on either digital or analog types of protection that can
prevent faults on the system$ !y clearing those as mention on this research2 their
occurrance2 its location this entire situation can 'e euate ,ith the corresponding
formulas on 'alancing such un,anted harmonics on a system$ 4ith also the maintenance
of a transient sta'ility reuirements of the synchroni%ing 'alance po,er to overcome the
sufficient occurance of a fault$ All this matter is 'eing discuss on this research$
Acknowledgement i
Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the roblem 1
1.! "b#ecti$e of the Study 2
1.% Significance of the Study 2
1.& Sco'e and (imitation 2
2 )e$iew of )elated (iterature 2
2.1 Transient System Stability 2
2.1.1 Factors Affecting Transient Stability 2
2.1.2 *tili+ation on Transient Stability !
2.2 Se,uence -etwork %
2.! Fault &
2.!.1 Ty'es of Fault ./0
2.!.2 Fault 'oint 1/2
2.% Symmetrical Com'onents 2
2.%.1 ositi$e Se,uence 2
2.%.2 -egati$e Se,uence 13
2.%.! 4ero Se,uence 13
! 5ethodology 11
!.1 Introduction 11
!.2 *nbalanced Analysis for Faults *sing 6us Im'edance 11
!.2.1 Single/(ine to 7round Fault 11
!.2.2 (ine/to/(ine Faults 11/12
!.2.! 8ouble (ine to 7round Fault 12
!.! Three hase Fault Calculations 1!
!.% (ocation on (ine Faults 1%/1&
% Abstract 1.
& )eferences 10
Cha'ter 1
1.1 Introduction
In Electrical system there is an interrupted system called +ault2 a connection or a
situation that causes an un'alance among the three phases$ That can 'e 'ro-en do,n into
three groups of 'alanced vectors$ 4hen all the factors have 'een tentatively selected and
'alanced2 they should 'e chec-ed 'y calculations for the limiting the fault condition$
Such calculations can 'e made 'y hand 'ut are very la'orious if more than t,o
generating stations are involved2 and in such cases the use of the a5c calculating 'oard is
the only satisfactory means of solution$ +oregoing discussion has treated transient
sta'ility ,hen faults occur$ 6o,ever2 a first consideration in system design is the
prevention of faults$ This includes such factors as clearances2 ruggedness of structures2
lightning5diverting ca'les and to,ers2 and guards against 'irds and animals$ 4ith proper
structural designs and fast clearing of ground and phase5to5phase faults2 the possi'ility of
three5phase faults on the higher voltage lines can 'e practically eliminated$
The researcher chooses the topic 0+aults on Electrical System1 to discuss the
types fault systems on ho, to 'e cleared out into the system2 another form that ,ill
satisfy on the electrical system$
1.2 Statement of the roblem
In general2 transient insta'ility results ,hen the flo, of synchroni%ing po,er
'et,een generating stations during and follo,ing a fault is insufficient to overcome the
speed changes acuired 'y the generators during and follo,ing the distur'ances uic-ly
enough to prevent faults2 system design are usually reuires that transient sta'ility shall
'e maintained if the most important interconnecting line of a net,or- shall 'e tripped out
due to one or more of the faults ,hich may 'e e3perienced$ Transient sta'ility for three
phase faults on the main lines of a transmission system is to 'e cleared$ The Researcher
pic-s the topic 0Faults on Electrical System1 to determine the importance of the faults
and to eliminate them to the system$
1.! "b#ecti$e of the Study
In every study has its o,n purpose to rely on$ Primarily2 this study is
aiming to the faults on electrical system$ Secondly2 this is aiming on the follo,ing"
7$ To discuss +aults on Electrical System$
($ To discuss the clearing of faults using transient sta'ility$
8$ To discuss ho, the faults occur$
9$ To ela'orate the types of faults and its location$
:$ To euate the formulas of the various types of faults$
1.% Significance of the Study
!eyond these faults using transient sta'ility2 the researcher ,ill -no, ho, to use
this clearing ,ay in a proper a manner$ The researcher ,ill not only discuss faults on
electrical system 'ut also ,ill -no, ho, it is 'eing eliminated$ The importance of this
study is to discuss the faults and ho, to 'e cleared2 ho, it can affects the system$ On the
other hand2 the researcher must -no, first the 'asic principle 'ehind on this systems and
its configuration$ It also ena'les the researcher to ,iden his -no,ledge on the certain
topic that ,ill provide enough understanding$ !y understanding its principle the
researcher ,ill -no, ho, this matter 'e done$
1.& Sco'e and (imitation
+ault on Electrical System is a very ,ide topic to discuss$ This research
focuses on the different -inds of faults on a system$ That is 'eing cleared on the system$
That is ,hy this topic tac-les +aults2 Transient Sta'ility2 and The types of faults$ ;amely9
Single5.ine to <round +ault2 .ine to .ine fault2 &ou'le .ine to <round2 Three .ine to
<round +ault2 ,here this system is 'eing discussed 'riefly 'ased on its 'asic principle
and configuration$ It also includes a 'rief history on transient sta'ility to refresh the mind
of the researcher from the various matter of Electricity$
Cha'ter 2
)e$iew on )elated (iterature
($7 Transient System Stability
A po,er system may 'e said to have transient sta'ility if the various generating
stations ,ill regain euili'rium follo,ing a periodic system distur'ances$ System
distur'ances ,hich cause the greatest trou'le are those due to line faults$ A line fault2 in
addition to the changes in generator loadings ,hich it causes 'efore 'eing cleared2 ,ill
trip out a radial line causing a loss of load2 or else it ,ill trip one of the interconnecting
lines of a net,or-2 there'y reuiring a read=ustment of phase angles all around and at the
same time increasing the impedance 'et,een plants and impairing the flo, of
synchroni%ing po,er$ Transient Sta'ility studies are essentially a study of the
momentary5speed changes of rotating euipment2 ,hich are functions of their inertias$
($7$7 Factors Affecting Transient Stability
a$ <enerator 4R
(
> rpm
(
$ The greater this uantity the lo,er the acceleration factor$
'$ System Impedance2 ,hich must include the transient reactances of all generating
units$ This affects phase angles and the flo, of synchroni%ing po,er$
c$ &uration of the fault2 chosen as the criterion for sta'ility$ &uration ,ill 'e dependent
upon the circuit5'rea-er speeds and the relay schemes used$
d$ <enerator loadings prior to the fault ,hich ,ill determine the internal voltages and
the change in output$
e$ System loading2 ,hich ,ill determine the phase angles among the various internal
voltages of the generators$
($7$( *tili+ation on Transient Stability
a$ The use of high5resistance amortisseur ,indings in salient5pole machines$ This is
no great 'enefit if faults are cleared 'y modern high5speed 'rea-ers and relays$
'$ The use of neutral grounding resistors at generating stations to reduce load
changes during ground faults$ The application of such resistors should 'e investigated for
possi'le e3cessive over voltages$
/ )esistance 7rounding of high5tension transmission neutrals is not used
e3tensively 'ut has 'een proposed as an aid to the maintenance of transient
sta'ility$
5 4hen such installations are 'eing considered2 it should 'e given a
searching analysis2 utili%ing the method of symmetrical components$
5 The 'est neutral grounding scheme is one ,hich provides the reuired
limitation of ground5fault currents and at the same time causes the minimum
distortion of the system voltages ,hen the ground fault occurs$ This usually
means that some ratio of %ero5seuence impedance to positive and negative5
seuence impedance is esta'lished as the criterion for grounding$
c$ The use of neutral grounding reactors to reduce the drop in positive5phase seuence
voltage during ground faults2 there'y improving the flo, of synchroni%ing po,er$
d$ The use of special uic-5response e3citation systems has 'een considered 'ut is no
longer 'elieved to 'e of apprecia'le 'enefit ,hen high5speed relays and circuit
'rea-ers are used$
When all the factors have been tentatively selected and balanced, they should be
checked by calculations for the limiting fault condition. Such calculations can be made
by hand but are very laborious if more the two generating stations are involved, and in
such cases the use of the a-c calculating board is the only satisfactory means of solution.
Alternating-current calculating-board studies will be found to have sufficient accuracy
for all practical purposes.
($( Se,uence -etwork
A copy of original 'alanced system to ,hich the fault point is connected and
contains the same per5phase impedances as the physical 'alanced system arranged in the
same ,ay$ The only difference 'eing that the value of each impedances are a value
uniue to each seuence$
The Thevenins euivalent or open circuit voltages in the negative and !ero
seuence networks are !ero because by definition the only voltages generated in the
three-phase system are positive seuence "seuence a-b-c# voltages.
4here" + ? +ault Point
; ? @ero A potential 'us
B E
a
? TheveninCs euivalent voltage Dper unitE or the pre5fault D+ openE
voltage of phase at point +$
@
7
? Positive seuence impedance Dper unitE
@
(
? ;egative seuence impedance Dper unitE
@
)
? @ero seuence impedance
I
a7
? Positive seuence current component of phase a Dper unitE
I
a(
? ;egative seuence current component of phase a Dper unitE
I
a)
? @ero seuence current component of phase a Dper unitE
#
a7
? Positive seuence voltage component of phase a Dper unitE
#
a(
? ;egative seuence voltage component of phase a Dper unitE
#
a)
? @ero seuence voltage component of phase a Dper unitE
($8 Faults
As any connection or situation that causes an un'alance among the three phases$
A system design usually reuires that transient sta'ility shall 'e maintained if the most
important interconnecting line of a net,or- shall 'e tripped out due to one or more of the
types of fault ,hich may 'e e3perienced$
Faults Analysis
a$ +ault currents cause euipment damage due to 'oth terminal and mechanical
processes$
'$ <oal of fault is to determine the magnitudes of the currents present during the
fault$
7round Faults
Is an undesira'le condition in an electrical system2 in ,hich electrical current
flo,s to the ground$ A ground fault happens ,hen the electrical current in a distri'ution
or transmission net,or- lea-s outside of its intended flo, path$ &istri'ution and
transmission net,or-s are generally protected against faults in such a ,ay that a faulty
component or transmission line is automatically disconnected ,ith the aid of an
associated circuit 'rea-er$
($8$7 Ty'es of Faults
5ain Ty'es:
a$E Metric faults" system remains 'alanced$ These faults are relatively rare2 'ut are the
easiest to analy%e$
'$E Unsymmetrical faults" system is no longer 'alanced$ #ery common2 'ut more
difficult to analy%e$
c$E The most common type of fault on a three phase system 'y far is the single line5to5
ground2 follo,ed 'y the line5to5line faults2 dou'le line5to5ground faults2 and
'alanced three phase faults$
a. Single/(ine to 7round Fault
This fault reuires the %ero5positive and negative5seuence net,or-s for phase FaF
'e placed in series in addition to 8$
f
in order to compute the seuence currents for phase
FaF2

b. (ine to (ine Fault
Consider a fault 'et,een phase ' and c through an impedance $
f
figure$
Connecting the seuence net,or-s

for phase FaF as found earlier Dpositive and negative5
seuence net,or-s in oppositionE$


c. 8ouble (ine to 7round Fault
6ere phase ' and c are shorted and connected to ground through a
fault impedance $
f
$

d. Three hase Fault ;Three (ine to 7round Fault<

the three5phase fault is often the most severe type of fault$

($8$( Fault oint
A system or net,or- is that point to ,hich the un'alanced connection is attached
in an other,ise 'alanced system$

4here" @
a
2 @
'
2 @
c
? Phase impedances at the fault point$
#
a
2 #
'
2 #
c
? .ine to <round voltages at the fault point$
I
a
2 I
'
2 I
c
? .ine Currents at the fault point$
($9 Symmetrical Com'onents

The -ey idea of symmetrical component analysis is to decompose the system into
three seuence net,or-s$ The net,or-s are then coupled only at the point of the
un'alance2 the fault$ The three seuence net,or-s are -no,n as the positive seuence
this is the one ,eCve 'een using2 negative seuence2 and %ero seuence$
($9$7 ositi$e Se,uence
The positive seuence sets have three phase currentsGvoltages ,ith eual
magnitude2 ,ith phase ' lagging phase a 'y 7()H2 and phase c lagging phase ' 'y 7()H$
Three eual vectors ,hose phase seuence is the same as the original seuence of the
un'alanced system of vectors2 uses su'script 7$

Positive seuence sets have %ero neutral current$
($9$( -egati$e Se,uence
The negative seuence sets have three phase currentsGvoltages ,ith eual
magnitude2 ,ith phase ' leading phase a 'y 7()H2 and phase c leading phase ' 'y 7()H$
;egative seuence sets are similar to positive seuence2 e3cept the phase order is
reversed$ Three eual vectors ,hose phase seuence is opposite of the original seuence
of the un'alanced system vectors2 uses su'script ($

;egative seuence sets have %ero neutral current$
($9$8 4ero Se,uence
@ero seuence sets have three values ,ith eual magnitude and angle$ @ero
seuence sets have neutral current$ Three vectors ,hich are eual and in phase2 uses
su'script )$

@ero seuence vectors ,ith %ero phase shift$

Cha'ter !
5ethodology
!.1 Introduction
An interrupted electrical system called fault2 foregoing discussion has treated
transient sta'ility ,hen faults occur ,ith proper structural designs and fast clearing of
ground and phase5to5phase faults2 the possi'ility of three phase faults on the higher
voltage lines can 'e practically eliminated$ 4hen all the factors have 'een tentatively
selected and 'alanced2 they should 'e chec-ed 'y calculations for the limiting the fault
condition$ Such calculations can 'e made 'y hand
!.2 *nbalanced Fault Analysis *sing 6us Im'edance 5atri=
4e sho,ed that the symmetrical components are independent2 and for each
component there is an impedance matri3 $
bus
. Thus ,e can find $
bus%
2 $
bus&
and $
bus'
in
order to deal ,ith each component separately$ If the fault is at 'us k 2 then ,e -no, that
the k
th
diagonal element of the 'us is the Thevenin impedance of the net,or- vie,ed
from that 'us$ This then allo,s us to find the seuence net,or-s2 ,hich ,e connect
according to the fault2 and then go on to solve for the fault currents and voltages$ The
impedances o'tained from the $
bus
matrices are called $
k%
2 $
k&
and @
-(
$
!.2.1 Single/(ine to 7round Fault *sing 4
bus
The single line to ground fault on line FaF
through impedance $ to ground on 'us -$ This fault
reuires the %ero5 positive5 and negative5seuence
net,or-s for phase FaF 'e placed in series in
addition to 8 $ in order to compute the seuence
currents for phase FaF2 thus"
I
k3
> I
k1
> I
k2
> ?
k
@ 4
k3
A 4
k1
A 4
k2
A !4
f
4here @
-)
2 @
-7
2 and @
-(
are the diagonal elements in
the - a3is of the corresponding impedance matri32
and (
%
is the pre5fault voltage at 'us -$ The fault phase current is" I
k,abc
= AI
k,012
!.2.2 (ine/to/(ine Fault *sing 4
bus
Consider a fault 'et,een phases ' and c
through an impedance $
f
at 'us - as sho,n in the
figure$ Connecting the seuence net,or-s for
phase FaF as found earlier Dpositive5 and negative5
seuence net,or-s in opposition2E the
symmetrical components of the fault current are"
I
k3
> 3
I
k1
> / I
k2
> ?
k
@ 4
k1
A 4
k2
A 4
f
4here $
k&
and $
k'
are on the diagonal elements in the -5a3is of the corresponding
'us impedance matri3$ The fault phase current is then o'tained using the A matri3 as
usual$
!.2.! 8ouble (ine/to/7round Fault *sing 4
bus
6ere phases ' and c are shorted and
connected to ground through a fault impedance f $
$ +rom 'efore2 the euations for the seuence
currents of phase a at 'us - are given 'y"
As usual2
the @
-)
2
@
-7
2 and
@
-(
are the diagonal elements in the - a3is of the
Corresponding impedance matri32 and #
-
is the
pre5fault voltage at 'us -$ The phase currents are
o'tained using the A matri32 and the fault current is I
k
> I
B6
A I
BC
.
!.! Three hase Fault Calculations
!.!.1 5ethod I: k? 6ase 5ethod:
7
( )
7
( )
D 8 E
8
k
k
k k f
k
k k f
(
)
$ $ $
$
$ $ $
=
+
+
+ +
Procedures"
&ra, the per phase diagram of the system
Choose a common -#5!ase D#
-
E and e3press all in impedances on the selected -#5
!ase$
4
C
> 4
A
C ?
C
@ ?
A
D
2
4here" #
c
? Common -#5!ase
#
a
? #oltage !ase of @
a
@
c
? ;e, Impedance !ase on #
c
Calculate the total or euivalent impedance D@
T
E using circuit principles
Calculate the fault current DI
f
E using ohmIs la,$
I
F
> ?
F
@ 4
T
4here" #
+
? #oltage per phase at the fault$
Evaluate the actual fault current using the relation
I
A
> I
F
; ?
C
@ ?
A
<
I
a
? Actual fault Current
!.!.25ethod II: k?A/6ase 5ethod:
Procedures"
&ra, the per phase of the system
E3press all impedances in percentage of per unit values
Choose a common -#A5!ase and e3press all @
PU
on the selected common -#A5!ase
4
C*
> 4
A*
C k?A
C
@ k?A
A
D
4here" @
c$pu
? ;e, per unit impedance 'ased on -#A
c
-#A
c
? Common -#A5!ase
Calculate the total per unit impedance of the system D@
tpu
E using circuit principles$
Calculate the fault po,er D-#A
f
E using the relation$
k?A
F
> k?A
C
@ 4
T*
Evaluate the fault current DI
f
E using the euation$
I
F
> k?A
F
@ E! ?
F
4here" #
f
? .ine5to5.ine voltage at the fault point in -#$
!.% (ocation of (ine Faults
+aults in electrical lines for the transmission and distri'ution of po,er2 may 'e
divided into t,o classes2 closed circuit faults and open circuit faults$ Close circuit fault
consist of 0shorts1 ,here the insulation 'et,een conductors 'ecomes faulty and
0grounds1 ,here the faulty insulation permits the conductor to ma-e more or less perfect
contact ,ith the earth$ Open circuit faults or 0opens1 are produced 'y 'rea-s in the
conductors$

a$E 4hen the 0shorts1 is a lo, resistance union of the t,o conductors2 such at M in
figure line faults2 the resistance should 'e measured 'et,een the ends A!J from this
value and the resistance per foot of conductor2 the distance to the fault can 'e computed$
A measurement of resistance 'et,een the other ends AC!C ,ill confirm the first
computation or ,ill permit the elimination of the resistance in the fault2 if this is not
negligi'le$

'$E the location of a 0ground12 as at ; in figure line faults2 or of a high5resistance
short is made 'y either of the t,o classical 0loop1 methods$ Provided a good conductor
remains$ In Murray .oop test arrangement2 ,hich is suita'le for lo,5resistance
0grounds1$ The faulty conductor and a good conductor are =oined together at the far end2
and a 4heatstone !ridge arrangement is set up at the near ends ,ith t,o arms a and '
comprised in resistance 'o3es ,hich can 'e varied at ,illJ the t,o segments of line 3 and
Dy K .E constitute the other t,o arms the 'attery current flo,s through the groundJ the
<alvanometer is across the near ends of the conductors$ At 'alance2
a @ b > = @ ;y A (< or ;a A b< @ b > ;= A y A (< @ ;y A (< ;ohms<
The sum 3 K y K . may 'e measured or -no,n$ If the conductors are uniform and
a li-e2 and 3 and l are e3pressed as lengths2 say in feet$
If the 0ground1 is of high resistance2 very little current ,ill flo, through the
'ridge ,ith the arrangement of Murray .oop testJ in that case2 'attery and <alvanometer
should 'e interchanged2 and the <alvanometer used should have a high resistance$ If ratio
arms a and ' consist of a slide ,ire DPrefera'ly ,ith E3tension CoilsE$ The sum Da K 'E is
constant2 and the computation of 3 is facilitated$ O'servations should 'e ta-en ,ith direct
and reversed currents2 especially in ,or- ,ith underground ca'les$

In the #arley .oop2 fi3ed ratio coils2 eual in value2 are employed2 and the 'ridge
is 'alanced 'y adding a resistance r to the near leg of the faulty conductor2
a @ b > ;r A =< @ ;y A (< or ;a A b< @ b > ;= A y A ( A r< @ ;y A (< ;ohms<
if a > b
= > y A ( F r or = > ;3.&< ;= A y A ( F r< ;ohms<
The total line resistance D3 K y K lE is conveniently determined 'y shifting the
'attery connection P to L and ma-ing ne, 'alance2 rC$ if a ? ' euation then 'ecomes 3 ?
D)$:EDrC A rE$ 4hen a and ' interchanged and the average values of r and rC su'stituted in
the foregoing euations$
c$E 0opens12 such as O in figure of line faults2 are located 'y measuring the
electrostatic capacitance to ground Dor to a <ood ConductorE of the faulty conductor and
of an identical good conductorJ the position of the fault is determined from the ratio of
the capacitances$
)eferences:
M7$N <round Resistance Testing2 /$<$ !iddle Co$$2 Philadelphia2 May2 7*8:
M($N 6E;;E!ER<ER2 T$C$2 and Ed,ards2 P$<$ !ridge Methods +or .ocating
Resistance +aults in Ca'le 4iresJ !ell System Tech$ /ou-$2 7**O2#ol$ 7)2 P$8O(
M8$N Electrical Engineering 6and'oo-2 /$C 4hiteta-er$
M9$N Electronic !oo-: Westinghouse *lectrical Transmission and +istribution
,eference -ook. *. .ittsburgh, .a., '%%/
M:$N Transmission Systems0 trans. Amer. )nst. *lec. *ngrs., &112, p 13'
&%%& Solve .roblems2 Romeo A$ Ro=as /r$