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Atkins Rail
DC ELECTRIFICATION SUPPLY SYSTEM DESIGN
Dr Roger D White
Professional Head of Electrification
ATKINS United Kingdom
roger.white@atkinsglobal.com
INTRODUCTION
Railway electrification has in the past been dominated by
overhead contact wire and DC third/ fourth conductor rail
electrification systems. The historical reasons for this
have been the success of the DC traction motor and the
necessity of a DC supply. Mercury arc rectifiers were
originally used to provide rectification at substations with
the DC power being transmitted to the traction equipment
by the conductor rail or overhead wire. Success in
producing mercury arc rectifiers capable of being
operated on board the railway vehicle, enabled railway
AC electrification systems to become a reality in the
1950/60's.
It should be noted that DC is still the most common form
of railway electrification system in the world.
HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY FEEDING
ARRANGEMENT
The Local Grid Network
The HV AC incoming supplies from a National Grid or
Regional Electricity Companies (REC), or Railway
Generators provide the feed for the DC traction power
substations. The local supplies for stations, tunnel-
cooling fans, auxiliary circuits including batteries,
chargers and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) for
computers and signalling circuits are also provided by the
REC.
The electrical supply is fed to the railway at typically
132kV, 66kV or 33kV and the electrical power is then
(on larger systems) distributed through a separate AC
network at a medium voltage of 33kV, 22kV or 11kV by
the railway/metro. This supply is used to provide traction
power at regular intervals around the railway network.
With light rail/super tram applications it is usually only
necessary to provide the supply at a couple of points and
is therefore obtained directly from the electricity supply
utility.
Positioning of HV Supply Points
The number of feed points to the railway network will
depend upon the size of the railway system and the
capacity required at any particular point. On urban mass
transit systems EHV supplies may not be available and
space for substations and feeders are difficult to obtain
and expensive. It is sometimes necessary therefore to
provide the supply from local 33/66kV supplies. This is
convenient from the supply authority viewpoint and
provides a high degree of supply integrity; however it
does raise two problems, control of the traction voltage
regulation and HV voltage harmonics.
Incoming Feeding Arrangement
The AC switchboard will have in addition to the
incoming breakers, local supply breakers and feeder
breakers to other substations. The local supply breakers
provide the supply to traction transformer-rectifier units,
and auxiliary step down transformers, which are required
in the immediate vicinity.
The incoming supplies from the electrical utility will
have its own protection provided by the Supply
Company. The protection of supply cables require the co-
operate with the Supply Company to agree on the relay
settings necessary to achieve stability and discrimination.
Power is supplied into the railway network at several
points, and it is necessary to ensure that the incoming
feeds are not paralleled. An interlocking scheme enables
the system to be fed from all power sources but ensures
that an electrical break prevents paralleling taking place.
This arrangement gives the most reliable delivery of
power to the railway even if one supply source fails
completely.
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Railway LV Feeding Arrangement and Switchboard
A typical LV supply arrangement is given in Fig 1 where
one circuit breaker is connected to each side of the Bus
Coupler Breaker which feeds step down transformers
(33kV/11kV) and the 11 kV switchboard, these circuit
breakers are equipped with the protection relays to
protect the step down transformer.
A typical 11kV distribution network is provided
throughout this system where all the passenger stations
have 11kV switchboards. At each passenger station the
11kV would be transformed to 415V 3 phase for
domestic supplies. To give a high level of security of
these supplies, duplication is provided at each location.
Providing the supply capacity for mass transit railways is
more complex as there can be up to 10 trains on a
particular substation, some of which are motoring,
coasting, braking or regenerating. The worst scenario
occurs when all the trains are accelerating or regenerating
simultaneously. The design of the electrical supply
system must be such that it can cope with worst case
scenario. The limitation of the number of trains in any
particular section is the responsibility of the Operation
Control Room.
On DC intercity lines, or freight routes, the positioning of
incoming supply feeders and substations do not pose such
a problem. Land is easier to come by and space is not at
a premium. Since each substation only supplies one or
two trains and the acceleration/deceleration is slower, the
positioning of supply points, substations, and the
specification of their capacity is relatively easy.
Figure 1 Typical feeding Arrangement for DC Electrification Systems
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DISTRIBUTION OF THE DC TRACTION
SUPPLY
One of the main drawbacks when using DC traction
systems is the fact that electrical energy is universally
generated by supply authorities in the form of
alternating current. This means that for a DC traction
system the railway authority has to provide its own
converting plant. Due to the high levels of current that
are drawn in the conductor rail or overhead catenary, the
system voltage can experience severe regulations. To
overcome this, substations are spaced at regular
intervals. This normally results in the operation of a
high voltage AC distribution network linking the
lineside substations. Obviously this increases the
capital expenditure when the various systems are
compared.
Conductor Rail and Overhead Line
The conductor rail or overhead power supply is
designed to operate within specified voltage limits and it
is necessary that the traction unit is capable of handling
the voltage provided. The traction motors and control
gear are required to be adequately insulated to the
maximum operating voltage of the supply network.
Traction motors for DC systems are normally wound for
600/750 V and connected permanently in parallel for
600/750 V DC supplies, or connected in series parallel
pairs for 1500 V DC operation. On 3000 V DC supplies
the traction motors are normally wound for 1500V
operation and connected two in series on full voltage
and as a result they are larger in diameter and more
difficult to install under the low floors of multiple unit
stock. The establishment of DC supply voltages have
traditionally been chosen to meet the needs of the DC
traction motor control.
In the past the main advantage of the DC supply system
compared to the AC supply system is that a less
complex traction control system is required, however
with the advent of high power GTO (gate turn off
thyristor), IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) and
the microprocessor, 3 phase drives are becoming more
common on both AC and DC electrification systems.
With the advent of 3 phase drives the DC voltage is not
a design requirement for the traction engineer due to the
ability of the traction input converter to set the DC link
voltage to the inverter drive, it is likely therefore with
new schemes using three phase drives that other system
voltages could be used.
Positions of the Lineside Traction Sub-Stations
A detailed analysis is needed to establish the correct
positions of sub-stations on the railway system, a simple
mathematical approach has been included. (Calculation
of voltage regulation and short circuit situation). Having
established the working voltage 600V, 750V, 1500V or
3000V the exact position of the substation has to be
decided. This decision is made on the technical
performance of the power system. It is also necessary to
take into account other factors which will determine the
final choice; availability of land, position of junctions
and crossovers, provision of road access up to the main
door of the substation building in order to facilitate the
transport of spare items of plant and any necessary
maintenance test equipment.
The most economic distance between substations is for
600V DC 3-4km; 750 V DC 5-6km; 1500V DC 8 -
13km and 3000V DC 20 - 30km.
The distribution voltage for heavy metro and freight is
1500V, 3000V DC overhead, and therefore requires less
isolation and clearance than for AC electrification. The
mechanical strength of the overhead line conductor
becomes the main factor in overhead design, making the
conductor sizes not dissimilar between 1500 V DC and
25 kV AC Where the power requirements exceed the
capability of the overhead catenary it is necessary to
include parallel feeds along the overhead masts.
Connections are made at regular intervals to the
catenary to ensure good current sharing.
The 3000 V system is applied almost entirely to the
main line in order to maximise substation spacing, with
750 V for tram and 1500 V DC supplies predominantly
chosen for urban mass transit or light rail systems. It
should be noted that London Underground use a fourth
rail system with -210V and +420V conductor rails.
Factors Influencing Substation Spacing
The substation spacing is determined by the traction
loads and the maximum permissible voltage drop in the
conductor system, i.e. including both outgoing and
return conductors that can be reasonably tolerated
without too seriously affecting either the system
efficiency or the train operation. With DC systems a
voltage drop in the order of 15 to 30% has usually been
allowed, although the lower percentage value is to be
advocated.
In considering maximum voltage drop that can be
allowed in the system, the following factors should be
borne in mind so far as running rail return systems are
used.
The greater the feeding length, the greater will be the
rail potential above earth. This should be limited on
account of the danger of risk to passengers and railway
personnel. On 660 Vdc third rail systems, rail potentials
are typically 30V with respect to earth, while on 1500
Vdc overhead systems rail potentials are typically 60-
120V. Voltages in excess of this will be obtained under
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more severe operational and feeding modes. The greater
the rail potential the greater the risk of electrolysis.
Factors affecting the Length of the DC Feeding
i. System Loading
The system loading can be obtained from
analysis of train operating schedules or from the
output of a multi train simulator. This will enable
the optimum number of rectifier substations to be
selected; also the substation plant capacity.
ii. Conductor Section
The greater the cross section area of the
conductor system the less the electrical resistance
and hence the greater the distance for a given
voltage drop with a specified load. The capital
cost of the conductor system however increases
directly as the conductor cross section area;
furthermore the greater the cross section area, the
greater the weight and resultant load on the
supporting structures in overhead systems. With
ground collection systems the conductor rail
cross section is usually approximately equal to
that of a running rail, though in certain busy
sections of the line, at junctions, a larger cross
section is employed. With DC overhead systems
the limiting factor for the cross section area is the
load on each supporting insulator, hence the
conductor cross section is usually determined by
mechanical considerations though its electrical
conductivity in DC systems is the governing
characteristic. Where the line current exceeds the
current rating of the overhead catenary separate
feeder cables have to be provided on the
supporting structures.
iii. Circuit Breaker Tripping Current
The length of section fed by one substation must
be such that its electrical resistance, including
both outgoing and return conductors, does not
exceed the minimum system voltage divided by
the circuit breaker tripping current. With a 1500
V DC overhead system, the loop resistance is in
the order of 0.0375 ohm per km. Assuming a
10% volt drop at the far end and a breaker setting
of 4000 amps, then loop resistance must not
exceed:
90% x 1500 = 0.3375 ohms
4000
(which is equivalent to approximately 9 km of
track.)
Normally the substations are situated at
approximately 8 km intervals so that the loop
resistance for a fault at the end of the section with
one substation out of service would be 0.3 ohms;
this gives a margin of 0.3375 - 0.3 = .0375 ohms,
which could be included in the fault resistance
and breaker operation would still take place.
iv. Inter- tripping
With both substations feeding into a track
section, then inter-tripping of feeder breakers is
commonly used. If a fault occurs within a section
of overhead line then the breaker nearest to the
fault would trip first and by means of pilot wires
the corresponding section breaker in the
substation at the end of the section remote from
the fault could be made to trip. This would have
the benefit of allowing longer feeding sections.
DC FEEDING ARRANGEMENTS
The normal feeding arrangement is with the substations
all connected in parallel. There is a DC circuit breaker
at each end of the feeding section to provide protection
under fault conditions. Each substation feeds from a
common DC busbar through DC circuit breakers in both
directions. The feed is separated by a bypass isolator;
this is normally open and closed only when it is
necessary to bypass the substation.
Normal Feeding Arrangement
This is where all of the feeder DC circuit breakers are
closed, providing double end feeding of the section of
traction supply. The isolator at each substation is
normally open, providing an isolated feeding section of
traction supply, and ease of protection of the feeding
section. Where regeneration is applied, the isolator at
each S/S is normally closed.
Tee Feeding Arrangement
This is implemented at a substation when a DC feeder
circuit breaker at one end of the feeding section is open.
The tee feeding arrangement is achieved by closing
the bypass isolator, allowing the remaining DC circuit
breaker at the substation to feed the traction supply in
both directions.
Single End Feeding Arrangement
Single end feeding arrangement on double end fed
sections is a temporary feeding arrangement following
the loss of the feed from a track feeder DC circuit
breaker. This mode of feeding is normally only
temporary and if the feed cannot be restored within a
reasonable period of time, the traction supply would
normally revert to tee feeding.
Bypass Feeding Arrangement
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This occurs when there is a loss of supply at the
substation or failure of the feeder DC circuit breakers in
both directions. Under this condition the associated
isolator is closed. The traction supply is provided from
the feeder DC circuit breakers at the adjacent
substations. In the case of single end fed sections, it is
necessary to close only the appropriate by pass isolator.
Loss of Supply from Transformer Rectifier Units:
The supply system is designed with more than one
transformer rectifier unit at a location. The traction
supply is normally designed to operate with one
transformer rectifier unit out of service at any location.
If the complete substation is lost, the substation should
operate as a track paralleling hut.
TRACKSIDE DC SUBSTATION
Most silicon rectifiers on traction systems use a three
phase 50 Hz national or railway supply intake. Three
phase rectification arrangement is used to reduce
harmonic distortion at the point of common coupling
and to reduce harmonic content in the DC supply.
Where the mercury arc rectifier have been replaced by a
silicon rectifier the double star transformer with inter
phase transformer is employed. The advance of the
silicon rectifier makes more simple arrangements of
design.
The advent of high reverse repetitive peak voltage
withstand of the diodes in excess of 4500V makes the
series connection of diodes in rectifier design
unnecessary, for three phase bridges and for traction
line voltage of up to 1800V. Where higher system
voltage of 3000V DC is required, two three phase
bridges can be connected in series. A low ripple on the
DC system voltage can be achieved with the connection
of one bridge in star and the other in delta.
Rectifier Design
The function of the rectifier is to convert the three-phase
current into direct current. In the past, mercury arc
rectifiers have been used, however it is now normal to
install naturally ventilated silicon rectifiers. This has
become possible with the increase in area of the silicon
wafer and has created what is practically a short circuit
proof rectifier.
Natural ventilation of the rectifier means that there are
no moving parts and therefore an increase in reliability,
economic benefits and minimum maintenance. Silicon
diode rectifiers are very robust, efficient (low on state
losses) and able to sustain large fluctuations in
temperature, high over current and over voltage rating
(reverse).
The use of capsule/disc construction permits a wide
range of the mean forward current and allows a
minimum number of devices to be connected in parallel
in each arm.
The voltage level of the supply system and the
transformer rectifier arrangement will give the
characteristic DC voltage. The DC system voltage
should be such that it complies with the train operating
requirements whether 650V/1500V or 3000V DC
Rectifier Protection
Short Circuit Protection
The rectifiers are protected against short circuit and
overloading by a thermal relay and over current time
relay. These relays will trip the rectifier AC supply,
removing the system driving force.
Internal Short Circuits
Internal short circuit of the rectifier will occur due to the
failure of one of the rectifier arms. This will produce a
two-phase transformer fault current and reverse current
flowing in the faulted rectifier arm. The fault is
interrupted by the diode fuse on the line side which
isolates the faulted diode, a micro switch on the diode
fuse indicates that the fuse has ruptured.
Where the diode is of sufficient rating it is sometimes
considered suitable not to include a separate fuse.
Over voltages
Over voltages originating from the AC supply or the
traction DC supply are normally attributed to switching
or interruption of the power system. These over voltage
are attenuated with a resistor capacitor network
provided on the DC side of the rectifier.
Commutation Protection
Commutation hole storage protection circuits are
applied to each diode. These protect the devices from
high voltages that are generated during the commutation
of the diode.
The use of these over voltage devices can be dispensed
with as the reverse voltage ratings of the devices is
increased.
Mechanical Construction Rectifier
The semiconductor diodes are mounted on aluminum
extruded heat sinks. These are required to ensure that
the device does not operate outside its normal junction
operating temperature. The diodes are normally
connected in parallel in a bridge and are hermetically
sealed against the ingression of dust and moisture etc.
The diode fuses and micro switches are mounted
adjacent to the diodes, the diode units are then mounted
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so that the heat sink fins can circulate air freely. The AC
and DC busbars are arranged at either the top or bottom
of the cubicle. The rectifier arm can then be connected
to provide any arrangement that is required.
Substation Performance
Ref. Figure 4 on Page 9
The detailed electrical performance of the substation has
to be designed into the electrification system at the
outset The performance is dependent upon the traction
load specified by the operating business, and the level of
supply redundancy required. Provision for future
extension of the system, the increase in train loads, and
the change of type of vehicles to be operated must also
be considered.
In the design of a traction substation it is necessary to
take into consideration the following aspects:-
i. Traction sub station rating
ii. Traction supply and converter arrangements
iii. DC Traction supply voltage
iv. The regulation of the DC traction voltage
v. The characteristic DC short circuit fault current
vi. The power factor of the traction rectifier unit
vii. The production of harmonics in the input AC
supply current, and the distortion to the input
supply voltage.
1 Typical Traction Substation Rating: Design
specification for Greenwich Traction Substation
(Jubilee Line Extension)
+ Rated capacity 2400kW
+ Rated DC traction voltage 600VDC
+ Rated DC traction current 4000A
+ Short circuit protection 40 kA 0.25 sec
+ Transformer 22kV/415V
+ Rated Capacity 2 MVA
+ Short circuit protection 40 kA 0.25 Sec
A typical design specification for a 750V supply
system:-
+ Rated capacity 3000 kW
+ Rated DC traction voltage 750 V DC
+ Rated DC traction current 4000 A
+ Overload capabilities 150% 300% 450% of the
rated load current for permitted overload
periods.
150% 6000 A for 1 hr
300% 12000 A for 1 min
450% 18000 A for 10 secs
Typically the voltage regulation will vary by up to 6%
at full load current over the linear portion of the
characteristic, with a specified maximum and minimum
values of supply voltage over the operating range
2 Transformer and Rectifier Circuit
Arrangement
Ref. Figure 2 and 3
The pulse characteristic of the supply system is
primarily defined by the transformer winding and
converter arrangement. A number of simple
arrangements of the transformer windings may be
chosen with a 3 phase AC supply system to provide 6,
12, 18, and 24 pulse DC output voltage. Other ripple
frequencies may be achieved using two converters and
windings, which are phase displaced or wound in an
alternative star/delta configuration.
A 12 pulse rectifier therefore can be obtained by
connecting two separately fed phase displaced, 6 pulse
systems in series or parallel. The arrangement will
provide the necessary 30
o
displacement of the supply to
provide a twelve pulse ripple when the respective
bridges are connected in series or parallel.
The arrangement of the windings during the design and
construction of the transformer determine the short
circuit reactance, commutating reactance and the
operating load loss due to winding resistance. These
design parameters are responsible for dominating the
DC short circuit fault current level, the operating DC
voltage regulation level, transformer efficiency,
transformer and converter power factor and the level of
harmonics produced in the supply side.
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Figure 2 12-Pulse Parallel Bridge Converter
Figure 3 12-Pulse Series Bridge Converter
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3 DC Traction Supply Voltage
European regulation EN 50163 (Supply Voltage of
Traction Systems)
Table 1 DC Traction System Voltages
Definition of
operating DC
System Voltages
600
*
750 150
0
300
0
lowest non permanent
voltage duration
10min,

lowest permanent
voltage duration
indefinitely,
400 500 100
0
200
0
nominal voltage
designed system value,
600 750 150
0
300
0
highest permanent
voltage duration
indefinitely
720 900 180
0
360
0
highest non permanent
voltage duration 5
min.
770
+
950
^
195
0
390
0
*Future DC traction systems for tramways and local
railways should conform with system nominal voltage of
750, 1500, 3000V
+In case of regenerative braking a voltage of 800 may be
admissible
^In case of regenerative braking a voltage of 1000
may be admissible
4 The Regulation of DC Traction Voltage
Regulation of the substation is a vital characteristic of
the DC electrification system. If the regulation is too
steep then the train will not have sufficient volts to
maintain train timetables. Raising the voltage at the
substation will provide a higher voltage on the load but
may produce excessive voltages under no load
conditions. A lower regulation is achieved by reducing
the impedance of the supply transformer. This however
will increase the short circuit fault current which will
require a higher rating for the circuit breakers and
converters. The optimum design is therefore a
compromise between regulation of the substation and
the level of short circuit fault current.
Advanced transformer designs using coupled secondary
allow low regulation over the normal load range and yet
limit the short circuit current. This is achieved by using
secondary windings which are coupled to achieve the
correct short circuit to regulation relationship.
Calculation of Voltage Drop in the Feeding Network
For accurate calculation of remote DC faults computer
modelling is necessary utilising the following data:
+ substation is modelled as a transformer of known
impedance,
+ a rectifier whose characteristics include overlap;
+ power rail and return conductor being
represented by a resistance and inductance both
of which may vary with the frequencies of the
load current.
The following calculations are simplified to show the
principles involved. The supply is assumed to be a
constant voltage supply with zero source impedance and
the power rail and return conductor purely resistive.
One train in a double track section without
track-sectioning equipment (Ref Figure 5 on page
10)
Let the distance between the substations be L metres,
the resistance of the conductor be R
c
O/m and the
resistance of each rail be R
t
O/m. If both substations
have the same voltage at their busbars then the
maximum voltage drop will occur when the train is at
the mid section.
The maximum voltage drop
Vd
max
= R
c
L I + R
t
L I (V)
or Vd
max
= I L(R
c
+ R
t
) (V)
assumptions:-
+ where L is the distance in metres between
substations;
+ where I is the maximum current taken per train;
+ one running rail is available for traction return
circuit;
+ IR - current per rail;
+ IR -I (if one rail available per track).
+ IR -I/8 (if two rails available per track).
One train in a double track section with
track-sectioning equipment (Ref Figure 6 on page
10)
Again the maximum volt drop occurs when the train is
at the midsection. However, the track section cabin
provides a means of paralleling the conductors, hence
Voltage Drop = R
c
L I + R
t
L I (V)
= (IR
c
+ IR
t
)L /8 (V)
Assume one running rail is available for traction return
current.
.
46
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.
Figure 5 Voltage Regulation of Train in Double Track Section without Track Sectioning Equipment

Figure 6 Voltage Regulation of Train in Double Track Section with Track Sectioning Equipment
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5 Characteristic DC Short Circuit fault Current
The DC short circuit level is an important design
characteristic of the power supply system. The fault
level must be such that it does not interfere with normal
train operation. The level must be also be such that the
short circuit rating of the rectifier devices is not
exceeded. The short circuit rating of the rectifier
devices is specified by the surge rating of the device
under a fault condition. It is also necessary to ensure
that the transformer windings are adequately braced
against stress brought about by short circuit forces.
Finally, the DC track circuit breakers must be capable
of successfully interrupting any short circuit.
A short circuit at the output of the rectifier terminals
applies a balanced three phase short circuit to the AC
system. Normal circuit theory can be applied to
establish the fault current which flows. The secondary
circuit of the transformer and rectifier can be
represented as a source e.m.f., supply reactance and
supply resistance per phase. This produces a DC fault
current that rises to 40-80kA in 10-20mS. The di/dt of
the fault current is dependant on the inductance of the
supply system and the inductance of the overhead line
the return current system.
(t) = V
m
sin (et + ) source emf
the AC current which flows can be calculated as

ShortCircuit
ac
e L E e
r t
L

R
2
e
2
L
2
+
|
\
|
.

(
(
(
(
(

E
R
2
e
2
L
2.
+
|

\
|
|
|
.
sin e t atan
e L
R
|

\
|
|
.
+ u +
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.

(
(
(

+ :=
ac
L = supply and line inductance
R = supply and line resistance
e= angular velocity of the supply rad/sec
The analysis can be used to establish the instantaneous
fault current obtained from faults remote from the
substation itself, provided that a value of line
inductance and resistance can be established.
The value of the DC fault current can be achieved by
adding each of the secondary line currents point by
point during the DC short circuit. With a 6-pulse
system this will include the inverse of the line currents
shown. The DC fault current obtained will be the
typical fault current. Alternatively the current can be
approximated to
I
dc
= I
m
(1- e
-(R/L)t
)
Calculations of Short Circuit Currents The circuit
breaker setting must be low enough to enable the
circuit breaker to trip when a short circuit occurs, yet
the setting must be sufficiently high to cover the
maximum current likely to result from normal
operation of the schedules. When calculating fault
currents precise details of the track bonding and
conductor supply arrangements are necessary.
(a) Single unit substation without track-sectioning
equipment (figure 7)
The circuit breaker, shown open, immediately trips, but
current can still flow to the fault from the next
substation as shown. The short circuit current I
sc
is
approximated to the current flow from substation B,
this is to a first approximation only:
I
sc
= V (A)
L (R
c
+ R
t
)
where V is the voltage at the substation busbars and
only one running rail is available for traction return
current.
If there are two tracks and all the running rails are
bonded together at each substation for connection to the
negative busbar, then the resistance of the return
conductors is halved increasing the current to:
I
sc
= V (A)
L (R
c
+ R
t
)
(b) Single-unit substation with track-sectioning
equipment (figure 8)
This is most easily solved by applying Kirchhoff's
second law, i.e. in a closed loop the sum of the applied
e.m.f.s is equal to the sum of the products of current
and resistance. Hence :
V
A
= I
a
R
c
L + (I
a
+ I
b
)R
c
L (V)
V
B
= I
b
R
c
L + (I
a
+ I
b
)R
c
L + I R
t
(V)
Assuming the voltage at the substations remains
constant, these two equations can be solved for I
A
and
I
B
, and one running rail is available for traction return
current.
If there are four running rails able to return fault current
is as shown:
V
A
= I
A
R
c
L + (I
A
+ I
B
)R
c
L (V)
V
B
= I
B
R
c
L + (I
A
+ I
B
)R
c
L + I
B
R
t
(V)
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.
Figure 7 Short Circuit Fault Current Double Track Section without Track Sectioning Equipment
Figure 8 Short Circuit Fault Current Double Track Section with Track Sectioning Equipment
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6 Power Factor of the Transformer Rectifier Unit
The overall power factor of the rectifier unit and the
traction supply transformer are normally specified to be
better than 0.9 pu (including distortion factor).
Power Factor = I
rms
(fundamental) x cos
I
rms
(total)
cos (phase angle of fundamental)
The distortion factor needs to be included within the
power factor equation to take into consideration the
effect of the line current harmonics.
Distortion factor = I
rms
(fundamental)
I
rms
(total)
7 The production of harmonics in the DC and
input AC supply current.
Any complex wave can be resolved into its Fourier
Series; that is a series of sinusoidal waves of specific
amplitude, frequency, and phase. Complex waveforms
are therefore, the summation of a specific set of even
and odd harmonics as indicated below.
(t) = 0.5
0
+
1
sin(
1
t-
1
) +
2
sin(
2
t+
2
) + .
The rectifier circuit is a major source of harmonics in
the AC supply and the DC traction supply. This effect is
due to a number of system parameters including:
Rectifier pulse number
Balance of the firing circuits
Supply voltage symmetry
Transformer tolerances
The rectifier switches the load current from one phase to
the next; this is necessary to keep the polarity of the DC
voltage positive. This process is called 'commutation'.
The line current cannot switch instantaneously due to
the effect of the leakage reactance; this process is called
'overlap'. During the overlap period all devices are
conducting in the outgoing and incoming arms of the
rectifier. This produces a short circuit on the input and
the output to the rectifier.
The input supply voltage waveform and the output DC
waveform will therefore be interrupted, producing a
notch and oscillation due to the RLC characteristic of
the voltage waveform supply system. This has the effect
of distorting the AC supply waveform at the point of
common coupling.
The input current to the rectifier produces line current
with a stepped waveform due to the switching strategy of
the rectifier converter.
Harmonic distortion levels are specified by the Electricity
Council recommendation G5/4. This lays down the limits
of harmonic current which may be generated back in the
supply network. As a result of design predictions it is
possible to decide whether 6, 12 or 24 pulse will meet the
supply authorities regulations. In urban areas with
systems supplied at 33/66/132 kV it is normal to use 12 or
24 pulse rectifiers to ensure compliance with G5/4 AC
Side Harmonics.
Characteristic harmonics: the DC output voltage
waveform produces a ripple that is related to the pulse
number of the converter. This will produce harmonics in
the load current waveform that are typically related to
300Hz, 600Hz, 900Hz etc. depending on the rectifier
pulse number. The characteristic DC side harmonics are
therefore related to the pulse number.
AC side harmonics can be characterised by the Fourier
Analysis of the quasi square waveform. This produces
harmonics that are related to V
hn
= n pulse 1.
Pulse
Number
DC side AC Side
p np np 1
6 0,6,12,18,2
4
1,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,
25
12 0, 12,
24
1, 11,13,
23,25
The harmonics are responsible for undesirable effects
including
Overheating capacitors
Overheating generators and induction motors
Instability in converter control systems
Interference with control systems
Noise on telephone lines
Interference with signaling systems
The main mechanism of reducing harmonics on DC
electrification systems
Increase of the converter pulse number
Installation of filters
Uncharacteristic harmonics
The uncharacteristic harmonics are produced by :
unbalance in three phase systems positive,
negative and zero phase sequence
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voltage waveform distortion
unbalance in phase impedances
inaccuracy in the converter delay angles
supply frequency variation
The harmonics of low uncharacteristic orders are
normally much smaller than those of adjacent
characteristic harmonics in the converter itself, however
on the ac side the uncharacteristic harmonic may be of
about the same magnitude as those of the characteristic
harmonics that are produced.
Under normal conditions the frequency of the National
Grid transmission system is required to be within 1% of
the nominal frequency i.e. from 49.5- 50.5 Hz. The
design of a users plant and apparatus must enable
operation within this range within this range also
complying with.
47.5 - 52.5 Hz continuous
47 - 47.5 Hz operation for a period of at least
20s is required whenever the frequency falls
below 47.5 Hz.
Permitted Harmonics and the Engineering
recommendation G5/4
Stage 3 assessment is applicable to connection of non
linear equipment with supply systems having a Point of
Common Coupling (PCC) at 33kV and higher voltages.
Requirements of the Railway Company
i. The railway system is required to provide the
characteristics of the load to be installed, when this
is a non linear equipment,
ii. Prediction of the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
is required to assess all harmonics up to and
including the 50
th
harmonic.
Requirements of the NOC (Network Operating
Company)
iii. NOC is required to provide the system harmonic
impedance values at the PCC which will enable the
customer to evaluate his system harmonic
performance.
iv. The existing distortion that already exists on the
system is required to be measured.
v. The prediction of the total harmonic levels by the
addition of the results of existing and new
harmonics.
Calculations
i. For unbalanced harmonic conditions, the phase
with the highest THD should be used.
ii. For individual harmonics which have the summated
magnitude and hence the greatest THD, the
measured and calculated values of distortion are
assumed to peak at the same time and to be in phase.

V
hp
= V
hm
+ V
hc
(Total = Measured + Calculated)
For other harmonics an average phase difference of 90
o
is
assumed at the time of maximum THD
_______
V
hp
= V
hm
+V
hc
Total = Measured + Calculated
The THD is then given by

THD
2
50
h
V
hp
( )
2
_
=
:=
Planning and Compatibility Levels
Planning Levels are the levels for public supply system
harmonics and are specified in the IEC Basic Standards
IEC 61000-3-3, these levels are used in the design study
to ensure that any increase in load on the system does not
cause adverse reduction of performance.
Compatibility Levels for public supply system harmonics
are specified in the IEC Basic Standards 61000-2-2 and
61000-2-12. The immunity test levels for equipment are
higher levels based on the specified compatibility levels.
If the network distortion exceeds the relevant
compatibility level, experience has shown that there will
be a sudden increase in equipment failure and customer
complaints.
System Planning Levels
(IEC 61000-3-
6)
Compatibility
Levels
400V 5% 8% (IEC 61000-
2-2)
6.6, 11,
22 kV
4% 8% (IEC 61000-
2-12)
>20kV
and
<145kV
3% 5% (UK)
275 and
400kV
3% 3.5% (UK)
Stage 3 Limits
The values of V
hp
for all harmonic orders and the THD
which have been assessed at the PCC should not exceed
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the individual and the THD harmonic voltage planning
levels for the relevant supply network.
Where existing harmonic voltage levels are more than the
planning levels, the risk of disturbance to other customers
is increased.
Compatibility levels for 66,132,275 and 400kV systems
have not been specified internationally. The margins for
the THD in the UK are 4% for 6.6, 11 kV, 5% 22,33kV,
2% 66 and 132 kV and 0.5% for 275 and 400kV.
Note The planning and compatibility levels quoted in
G5/4 are the required limits at the point of common
coupling.
Supplies that are derived from traction supplies cannot be
expected to comply with these
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Figure 9 Transformer Primary and Secondary Voltage
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TRACTION RETURN CURRENT SYSTEMS
There are typically four earthing strategies for DC
railways and these are detailed below:
Fourth Rail Systems:
problem relating to leakage currents is
overcome by the insulation of the fourth rail
(London Underground UK)
Running Rails as the return conductor:
Rail Nominally Insulated (Network Rail UK)
Diode Earthed (Hong Kong MTRC, Sheffield
Super Tram)
Floating Negative Earth with Rail Potential
Control Devices ( Singapore MRT, Hong
Kong LRT)
Rail Insulation
The railway normally uses the train wheels and running
rails as the traction current return path to the DC
substation, (except fourth rail systems). Where the rails
are not insulated from the sleepers, the earth return is
considerably more complex since the current may flow
out of the rails and return at some other point (stray
current). Most modern rail systems use high insulated
rails to prevent the current from leaving the rails and
corroding metallic structures
A very important aim when designing a DC electrified
railway is to control return DC traction current and
avoid passing these currents through the reinforcement
of concrete structures, and in particular highly stressed
concrete structures to avoid causing damage to the
reinforcement through electrolytic corrosion.
The Running Rail is normally insulated from the sleeper
/ concrete pad by the use of insulation pads placed under
the rails with an insulation value in line with the
European Standard EN 50122-2. (Table 1 Page 6; No
added rail insulation 0.5 S/km for open formation and
2.5 S/km for closed formation). This level can be
improved with the application of track insulation
mounting pads or polymeric insulation. This value of
insulation however will reduce over time, due to
degradation of the track insulation. For closed
formation, improved levels of insulation can be
achieved where the rail is to be embedded in the road.
The level of insulation is determined not only by the
installation but the maintenance of the track bed. Every
effort should be made to minimise the risk of ballast
coming into contact with the rails, since ballast,
especially when wet will reduce the insulation value of
the rails to earth.
Hazards Associated with Rail Potentials
The track is insulated from ground to minimise leakage.
Introducing insulation means that voltages between the
rails and ground will occur. These voltages are a
potential hazard to passengers and railway staff when
coming into contact with rail or anything connected to it
and the ground. Reduction of rail touch voltages can be
achieved by clamping the rail to ground if a dangerous
voltage is reached and resetting as soon as possible
afterwards. It is necessary to have quick detection of the
high voltage and then activate a "clamp", by a thyristor
device, GTO device or contactor, to short out the
voltage.
Diode Earthed System (Figure 10)
This arrangement includes a diode at the traction
substation which is connected to the substation local
earth. The inclusion of the diode will cause the rail
potentials to be either at zero (diode is conducting) or
above zero if the diode is reverse biased.
Characteristics of the diode earth system:
Stray current is minimal where there is no rail
leakage
Where there is rail leakage the diode returns
this to the substation
The diode acts as a unidirectional connection
to remote earth
Diode conducts with negative rail potentials
( typically at substations and regenerating
trains)
There are particular difficulties in operating a diode
earthed system in conjunction with regenerative trains,
which may produce negative rail potentials and hence
encourage diode conduction.
Floating Negative Return Current System (figure
11)
In this arrangement there is no intentional connection
between the traction substation negative and the
substation earth. The effect is to produce a system that
floats about the remote earth potentials.
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Figure 10 Typical Rail Potentials in Diode Earthing System
Substation Rectifier
Vrail
Diode Earth
Traction Current
Traction Return Current
DC System Voltage
Catenary
Main Earth bar
Vrail Vrail
Vrail
Figure 11 Typical Earth Currents and Rail Potentials in DC Negative Floating Return System
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System configuration and generation of High Rail
Potentials
High traction load can cause high rail potentials which
subsequently cause spurious trips of the Over Voltage
Detection Circuits.
High Rail potentials may occur under the following:
Multiple train loads
Substation outage
Single end feeding
Long feeding section; i.e. during substation
outage
Remote Regenerative Train
The likelihood of all these circumstances occurring
simultaneously is rare; however the concurrence of
some circumstances will happen on a regular basis.
Rail Potentials under Fault Conditions
The magnitude of the fault impedance is dependant
on a number of factors
Fault Impedance
Substation impedance
Impedance of the OLE rails and bonds
Feeding length i.e. emergency feeding
Earth Fault Path dependant on:
Traction return rails
Earth wire or fault current return wire
Remote earth
The magnitude of the rail potentials dependant on:
Magnitude of the fault current
Feeding length i.e. emergency feeding
Path of the fault back to the substation
Earthing Management Plan
Statutory documents
ISBN 0105437743 Health and Safety at Work
Act 1974
SI 1989 No. 635 Electricity at Work
Regulations1989.
Relevant Standards
UK and European
European Standard EN 50122 Part 1 electrical
safety and earthing
European Standard EN 50122 Part 2 provision
against stray currents
BS 7430 Code of Practice for Earthing
BS7671 17th Edition of the IEE Wiring
Regulations
G59/1 Electricity Association Engineering
Recommendation
LU Standards
MR-S-PO-0009-Part 1Earthing Code of
Practice
MR-S-PO-0008 Earthing management
1-106 Earthing and Bonding of LU Electrical
Networks
E7720 A3 Engineering Standard 25kV 50Hz
immunisation
SSL-SE-0858-A1 Earthing Practice 1985-
Signal Engineering.
Network Rail
NR/SP/ELP/21085 Network Rail Earthing and
bonding Standard
RT/E/21032 Network Rail Earthing Systems
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Figure 12 Earthing and Bonding on DC Electrified Railways
NGC
Substation
Earth Wire
DC
Voltage
R D White 2004
Signall ingPSU
Track circuit
Telecoms.
Cable
Tunnel
Structure
Telecoms PSU
Rebars
Copper
Earth Mat
REC
Supply
Track Structures
Local
RECS
Station
Apparatus
Station
Metallic
Structures
Figure 13 Earthing and Bonding on DC Electrified Railways (LUL)
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14 Typical Cross Section of Cables found in a DC Mass Transit Railway
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REGENERATIVE TRACTION UNITS AND
SUPPLY POINTS
3- Phase Traction Drives
The development of 3 phase induction drives has
introduced higher power drives and the ability of
regenerative braking energy back into the supply
system. Three phase induction motors are attractive due
to the elimination of the DC commutator. This reduces
the chance of mechanical breakdown and eliminates the
need for maintenance. The induction motor is able to
develop more torque due to the control system, the
motor design and the fact that there is increased space
on the rotor. Size for size the induction motor is more
powerful than the equivalent DC motor; consequently it
has a higher power to weight and power to volume ratio.
The capital cost of introducing inverter drives on
traction equipment is close to DC drives, therefore AC
drives are financially viable and also able to produce a
superior performance. Careful analysis must therefore
be undertaken if 3 phase drives are to be introduced to
ensure that the supply network will operate
satisfactorily.
The development of traction inverters and choppers has
made the recovering of kinetic energy of the train and
returning it to the supply common place. The
introduction of microprocessor control for traction drive
enables reliable control of the traction drive and reduces
the likelihood of any interference with the low
frequency signalling circuits.
Other traction equipment can use energy that is
regenerated back into the DC electrification network. If
there is no traction unit available to use the regenerative
energy, the system voltage will rise. It is vital the supply
voltage does not exceed that specified for the DC
electrification network (reference section 3.4 Table 1).
It is necessary at times to cease regeneration or dissipate
the energy in dynamic brake resistors. The inclusion of
inverters at the substation along with the normal diode
rectifier equipment, enables the power to be returned
back to the supply system when other trains in the
feeding section cannot absorb it.
Currently there are a number of applications where
energy is being regenerated by traction units, with the
energy (allowing for receptivity) being returned to the
DC electrification network. This energy is then utilised
by other trains on the same network.
Technical Merits of Regenerative System
i. Reduction of heat produced in underground
metro systems.
ii. Elimination of brake resistors.
iii. Reduction of brake dust in tunnels.
iv. Reduction of maintenance in tunnels.
v. Improved efficiency of the Railway
Network and reduction in energy costs.
Disadvantages of Regenerative Systems
i. More capital investment in traction and supply
equipment.
ii. More harmonics in the medium voltage supply.
iii. Intelligent protection system is required on the
supply and traction equipment enabling it to
discriminate with regenerating units.
iv. Adverse effects on stray current management
Regenerative vehicles on a DC Electrified Railway.
The following are system performance issues that need
to be addressed by the traction and the electrification
engineers to achieve compatibility and are required
where appropriate to be written into the software code
for the train and the Supply Protection System.
Variation in System Voltage.
The system voltage limits will determine the operation
of the regenerate vehicle. As the system voltage drops
the following process is necessary for regenerative load
and should reduce commensurate with falling voltage.
i. Power is reduced
ii. Dont initiate regeneration
iii. Stop Regeneration
iv. Open traction unit circuit breaker
A local short circuit of the system will cause the
collapse of the voltage. Under a remote short circuit the
system voltage will not collapse as easily, therefore
there is a greater chance of the train operating into the
short circuit.
Interference between the train and the electrification
system
i. A train runs into an electrification system which is
isolated and earthed?
+ Train System must detect that there is no voltage
and not initiate regeneration
+ Train System should detect step change and
convert to rheostatic brake or friction brake.
ii. A train runs into an electrification system which is
isolated and not earthed? and with no load for the
regenerative energy:
+ System must detect that there is no system
voltage and not initiate regeneration
+ Train System should detect step change and
convert to rheostatic brake or friction brake.
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iii. The train protection system should be designed
to trip with a short circuit and subsequently allow
the main track feeder breakers to also clear the
fault.
iv. The Electrification System opens the Supply
Circuit Breakers for whatever reason with a
regenerative train in section? The train may or
may not continue to regenerate.
v. On the reapplication of the Electrification Feeder
Circuit Breaker?
+ Auto-reclose may not be considered
appropriate in case a regenerative train is
operating within the system.
+ Closure of the circuit breaker onto a
regenerating train will produce a transient
effect on the train and the electrification
system.
+ Before the system can close the supply
circuit breaker should detect that there is no
existing voltage due to a regenerative
vehicle.
+ Alternatively the system could be locked out
for a set period to ensure that all regenerative
trains have come to a standstill.
MAGNETIC FIELDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
OVERHEAD LINE
DC Magnetic Field ( ref. Figure 14)
The dc magnetic field created by the dc traction current
in the overhead line or third rail is significant within
and beyond the environment of the railway. The DC
field causes interference due to the change in load on
the system or under large di/dt during a short circuit.
The magnetic field will vary in magnitude due to the
passage of trains typically between 1-100A/m. The
limits for interference into electrical equipment are not
detailed for DC or power frequency harmonics in EN
50082-2 Generic Immunity Standard Industrial and BS
EN 50121.
The DC magnetic field during a short circuit will
typically be up to 600 A/m.
Harmonic Magnetic Fields
Harmonic fields attributed to the power frequency will
be significant within the environment of the railway.
There may be an effect on equipment within the
environment at these frequencies. The induction into
lineside cables of harmonic content of the power system
should also be considered.
CABLES AND CONDUCTORS
Applications ( ref. Figure 14)
Cabling and Conductors (copper, aluminum or steel) are
used extensively in the rail electrification system and
are used in:
+ 33kV & 11kV Distribution network, substation
feed
+ D.C, traction return cables
+ DC feeder cables.
+ Track bonding
+ Lineside cables
+ Overhead line conductors
National Regulations
Cable design is subject to stringent standards and
requirements for safety, safe installation and
serviceability. This is particularly so in the case of
tunnels where cable must comply with low smoke no
halogen specification. Also it is especially important
where the power supplies are subject to high
temperatures whether influenced by the environment or
internally by the current carrying capacity and load
demands.
Cables are manufactured to a range of specifications
including: BS 6853, BM/RT2120 and LUL/RSE/STD.
Cable Specification
Track Application
For the majority of track applications a combination of
copper and aluminum, concentric solid core and
stranded cables is used.
For solid core the insulation in many cases is PVC
applied to the cores when hot, then cooled and shrunk
onto the cores. Older cables use oil impregnated
insulated paper tapes. The outer core of the cable may
be protected by steel tape, or galvanized wire
armouring. This provides protection against abrasion
and gives strength and protection where the wire is
required to be drawn through cable ducts and laid on the
track.
HV Supply and Distribution
DC electrification uses solid, gas or oil-filled cables. In
ratings in excess 33kV. 33kV fluid filled and XLPE are
used for substation applications feeds. The most
common application of insulation for power cable feeds
now use XLPE (cross linked polyethylene) Polyethylene
is a good insulator, the main benefits of this being
greater stability at higher operating temperatures during
normal operation, degraded mode and short circuit.
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DISTURBANCE EFFECTS INTO
TELECOMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
( ref. Figure 14)
Safety of Personnel, maintainers etc
The integrity for a railway network is dependent upon
the correct operation of the low voltage signalling
circuits. The circuits use the running rails as well as
cables which run parallel to the track and to the
overhead traction conductor, therefore it is possible for
the traction current to interfere with the low power
signalling circuits due to electromagnetic or conductive
mechanisms. It is necessary that the magnitude of this
interference must be reduced to levels which will not
threaten the safe operation of trains, nor the safety of
any personnel who are likely to come in contact with a
part of the signalling system.
The levels adopted are those specified in the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee (CCITT) directives concerning the
protection of telecommunication lines against harmful
effects of power lines.
With regard to signalling circuits, the longitudinally
induced emfs should not exceed the following levels:
+ Under normal conditions: 60 volts rms. In
situations where there is no exposure to other
than technical staff to any direct contact with
signalling lines circuits, the limitation of 60V is
normally raised to 110V, as this voltage is a
common supply voltage for signalling systems.
+ Maximum induced voltage occurring on lineside
cable conductors will be 430V, the fault duration
not exceeding 200mS.
Safety for humans Telecommunications Equipment
(Longitudinal Voltage)
This is a disturbance resulting in degradation of useful
signals and merely hampers the exchange of
communications. The rating of individual
manufacturers equipment will vary but should
nominally be about rated to about 1000V. (new
equipment)
The limit defined in the European Standard states that
equipment should be able to withstand as specified for a
50Hz Railway EN 50121 - 4:
+ 150V 50Hz for traction current
+ 650V rms 50Hz for short circuit
+ 100A/m Power frequency magnetic field
Existing equipment may be specified in the UK to 430
volts rms.
Interference into telecoms equipment Transverse
Voltage
Psophometrically weighted traction line current:
Psophometric current is defined as the r.m.s addition of
all the harmonic currents in the traction units primary
current wave-shape, each harmonic first being
attenuated in accordance with the appropriate CCITT
weighting curve. The psophometric current therefore is
an indication of the level of interference that will be
produced at that point in time for the traction unit. The
interference mechanism is by electromagnetic induction
from the traction high power into the low power
telecommunications networks. Conventional
telecommunications networks only are affected.
Digitised and optical links are inherently immune from
such interference.
I
pso
= _ \ (I
2
n
p
2
n
)
where n = harmonic number
p = psophometric weighting factor of the
nth harmonic
Immunity Concerns
The immunity concerns are related to high-energy surge
on the overhead line, due to connection to the high
voltage power system. The relative slow response of the
diodes will provide a good immunity to fast transient
effects including the effects of lightning strikes to the
overhead line.
Immunity to RF fields will be high where diode
rectification is used, extra consideration will be required
where thyristor or other controlled devices are used.
Factors for Consideration with Induction
Calculations
Traction Power Disturbances
+ Change of traction load or fault current ( time
varying)
+ DC Ripple (rectifier supply)
+ Coupling increases with harmonics (j2..f.M)
+ Fast transients ( power supply)
+ Normal load Current Typically < 500A
+ Fault current typically < 10kA
Factors for DC System Design
+ Geometry of the line conductors
+ Inductance of the DC overhead line
+ Proximity of control system cables
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Factors necessary for the Calculation of Induced
Voltage
+ Traction unit psophometrically weighted current
+ Power system cables HV 50 Hz ac power cables,
DC traction power cables
+ Receptor cables telecoms cables Signalling
cables
+ Parallelism of cables
+ mutual impedance as a function frequency
+ screening factors of the earthed conductors
Calculations required by Railway Company
+ induced touch potentials
+ equipment potentials
+ induced psophometric transverse voltage
Cable Management Systems
Extensive cabling for services for power, signalling,
communications, fire systems etc need to be routed
throughout the railway. Multi-compartment cable
management systems (cms) is used which allow for
ease of installation whilst providing mechanical
protection for cabling. Cms can run for very long
distances in underground stations and may place
sensitive telecoms and communications cabling in close
proximity to noisy power cabling. These power cables
may feed a variety of switching loads with associated
harmonics. The disturbance current induces a
longitudinal voltage in parallel signal/communications
cables which may present a touch voltage or accessible
voltage hazard. In addition, the longitudinal voltage will
result in a transverse voltage in the victim cable which
may cause interference to the victim circuit in question.
A typical cms will have many cables in each of its multi
compartments.
LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION
Lightning strikes on or near railway equipment can
generate large voltage surges that can disturb or damage
railway operations. The various ways in which a
lightning strike can affect railways are:
i. Direct strike to the overhead lines
ii. Direct strike to the aerial earth wire or gantries
iii. Nearby strike to ground induced voltages
iv. Strike to ground further away rise of local
ground potential)
A direct strike to the lines can generate an overvoltage
surge of several million volts. This will cause a
flashover across the support insulators to the gantry.
The surge current will then find various routes to earth
depending on their surge impedance values. This will
also generate an overhead line earth fault.
A direct strike to the earth wire is unlikely to cause a
flashover across the support insulator, unless there is a
train at that point, as the lower impedance path will be
via the earth wire and support gantry. However, the
surge current will then find a similar path to earth as
before but with different current surge values.
A nearby strike to ground will cause induced surge
voltages of up to several 100kV to appear on the earth
wire and the lines. No flashovers are likely to occur as
most overhead wires will reach similar voltage levels.
However, the strike current will flow into the ground
and cause a local rise in ground potential (known as
earth potential rise EPR - or rise of earth potential -
ROEP). This may cause disturbance to electrical
equipment or signal cables on the railway.
A strike to ground from further away will not cause
damagingly high induced surge voltages but may still
cause problems due to ROEP.
Adequate surge protection is required to be included in
the system to protect lightning surges reaching the DC
switchboards. Surge protection must be fitted on the
incoming circuit of each DC track feeder circuit breaker,
in addition to surge protection of the OHL
Lightning Protection on Railway Lines
Specific designs for railways are not provided within
EN 50122-1; therefore guidance has been obtained from
BS 7354 Code of Practice for design of high- voltage
open terminal stations.
BS 7354 : 1990 Code of Practice "Design of high-
voltage open-terminal stations". Section 7.3 Earthing
see clause 7.3.9 states:
"An earth electrode, which may be part of the grid,
should be provided as near as practicable to each set of
surge arresters. The connections thereto should be as
direct as possible. Earth connections to surge arresters
should not pass through iron pipes which would
increase the surge impedance of the connections. The
earth connections of the arresters should be
interconnected with the main earthing system since, to
be effective in protecting the station equipment, a
definite connection of low impedance between the
equipment and the arresters is essential".
In terms of the railway, there is no copper earth mat as
exits in HV substations; there is however an earthed rail
returns system.
A copper bond (ideally flat in cross section) of the
shortest possible route shall be used. Ideally a
segregated earth for the lightning arrestors should be
used;
Where the lightning arrestor is also bonded to rail earth,
signalling, telecommunications and LV earth
connections should not be bonded to the rail within
close proximity of the connection from the surge
arrestor.
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DISTURBANCE EFFECTS OF DC
ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEMS
Characteristic System Behaviour: DC Traction Systems
produce significant amount of ripple, which is present
within the DC supply, the ripple is related to the pulse
number of the rectifier. within the transformer rectifier
unit. (Figure 9)
Resonant frequency
Resonance is related to the system characteristics of the
power supply, rectification, dc electrification
distribution and traction loads. The frequencies can
occur from the resonant frequency of the input traction
filter to MHz. System parameters that are responsible
include: capacitance of the overhead line; leakage
inductance of the overhead line; rectifier switching;
inductance of supply transformer; traction input filters;
AC LV and HV Systems
i. AC side harmonics in 3 phase supply
ii. AC voltage distortion
iii. Power Factor
iv. 50Hz Disturbance to users on the
Railway LV/HV system
i. Power Harmonic to users on the railway LV/HV
system
DC and Power System Harmonics
i. DC Side Harmonics
ii. Resonant, overlap effect, system capacitance
iii. Traction line filter resonance
iv. Magnetic and Electric Fields
Inductive and Radiated Effects
i. High frequency radiated emissions
ii. Traction load traction to regeneration.
iii. Power arcs on the ramp end of the rails
iv. Disturbance changes supply & traction
v. Switching of the DC power (di/dt)
vi. Longitudinal Transverse voltages
Return Circuit and Stray Current
i. Stray DC current
ii. Magnetic field traction/electrification
iii. Harmonics in the return circuits
RFI from the Distribution System
i. current collection mechanism.
ii. operation with multiple contact wires.
iii. HV switching of the power system
iv. resonance of the power system at MHz
v. excessive voltage stress across insulators
vi. disturbances on the overhead line
RFI from the Traction Unit
i. transients due to raising the traction unit pantograph
ii. interaction of power system contacts earthing,
wheel rail, rail to rail
iii. operation of multiple pantographs
iv. switching of thyristors and semiconductors.
RFI from the Track Circuits
v. track circuit current producing arcing poor wheel to
rail,
vi. high voltage impulse track circuit.
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Relevant UK and European Standards
i. IEC 60479-1 2005 Effects of current on human
beings and livestock.
ii. BS EN 50122-1, Railway applications - fixed
installations, Part 1: Protective provisions relating
to electrical safety and earthing,
iii. BS EN 50122-2, Railway applications - Fixed
installations - Electrical safety, earthing and the
return circuit - Part 2: Provisions against the
effects of stray currents caused by d.c.
iv. traction systems
v. BS EN 50122-3 Railway applications - Fixed
installations - Electrical safety, earthing and the
return circuit - Part 3: Mutual Interaction of a.c.
and d.c. traction systems
vi. BS EN 62305, Protection against Lightning, 2006.
vii. BS EN50388:2005 Railway applications Power
supply and rolling stock Technical criteria for
the coordination between power
supply(substation) and rolling stock to achieve
interoperability
viii. BS EN50119 Railway applications -Fixed
installations -Electric traction overhead contact
lines.
ix. BS 7671, Requirements for Electrical Installations.
IEE Wiring Regulations Seventeenth Edition, BSI,
2008.
x. BS 6651, Code of Practice for Protection of
Structures against Lightning, 1992.
xi. Guidelines for the Design Installation Testing and
Maintenance of Main Earthing Systems EATS 41-
24 1992.
xii. BS 7430, Code of Practice for Earthing, BSI,
1998.
xiii. Electricity Council Engineering S 5/1.
xiv. BS EN 32605 Protection against lightning.
xv. Engineering Recommendation P24 AC Traction
Supplies to British Rail 1984.
xvi. BS EN 50162:2004 Protection against corrosion
by stray current from direct current systems
applications.
LV Networks
xvii. BS EN 50310, Application of equipotential
bonding and earthing in buildings with
information technology equipment, BSI, 2006.
xviii.BS EN 50310, Application of equipotential
bonding and earthing in buildings with
information technology equipment, BSI, 2006.
xix. Technical Specification 4124. Guidelines for the
design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of
Main Earthing Systems in Substations, Energy
Networks Association, 1992.
xx. HD637, Power Installations Exceeding 1kV a.c.,
CENELEC, 1999.
xxi. Recommendation K-27, Bonding configuration
and earthing inside a telecommunication building,
ITU-T, 1996.
xxii. IEC 60364-1, Low Voltage electrical installations
- Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of
general characteristics, definition, IEC, 2005.
Group Standards
i. GE/RT8016 Verification of Electrification
Systems and Interactions with Other Systems
ii. GE/RT8023 Compatibility between Electric
Trains and Electrification Systems
iii. GL/RT1253 Mitigation of DC Stray Current
Effects
iv. GE/RT8270 Assessment of Compatibility of
Rolling Stock and Infrastructure
v. GL/RT1254 Electrified Lines Traction Bonding
Network Rail Standards
i. AC Traction Supplies to British Rail ER P24
[1984] Electricity Association recommendation.
ii. NR/GN/ELP/00015, Signalling Power Supply
Design
iii. NR/L2/TEL/30034, Radio Mast Lightning
Protection and Earthing System, Network Rail,
issue 02.
iv. NR/SP/ELP/21106 25 kV a.c. System Protection
Calculations
v. NR/SP/ELP/21085 Specification for the design of
earthing and bonding systems for 25kV a.c.
electrified lines
vi. NR/SP/ELP/21036 Specification for 25kV Booster
Transformers for a.c. electrified lines
vii. NR/SP/ELP/21078 Specification of design of the
Return Conductor Systems for AC Electrified
Lines
viii. NR/SP/ELP/21074 Overhead Line Equipment
Allocation design
London Underground
i. MR-S-PO-0009-Part 1Earthing Code of Practice
ii. MR-S-PO-0008 Earthing management
iii. 1-106 Earthing and Bonding of LU Electrical
Networks;
iv. 1-222 London Underground Cat 1 Standard
Electromagnetic Compatibility
v. G-222 London Underground Manual of EMC Best
Practice
vi. 1-193 London Underground Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC) with LU Signalling Assets
International Standards
i. Technical Specification 4124. Guidelines for the
design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of
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Main Earthing Systems in Substations, Energy
Networks Association, 1992.
ii. HD637, Power Installations Exceeding 1kV a.c.,
CENELEC, 1999.
iii. Recommendation K-27, Bonding configuration
and earthing inside a telecommunication building,
ITU-T, 1996.
iv. IEC 60364-1, Low Voltage electrical installations -
Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of
general characteristics, definition, IEC, 2005.
Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSIs)
i. High speed TSI ENERGY
ii. Conventional TSI ENERGY (in drafting 2006)
iii. High speed TSI RST
iv. Conventional TSI RST (in drafting 2006)
v. Rules of the Route: Rules of the Route (by area /
territory). Defines operational access, blockages,
engineering access
vi. Rules of the Plan: Rules of the Plan (by area /
territory). Defines operating rules and allowances
for operational access
vii. Working Timetable: Working Timetable (by
route). Defines existing and planned service
patterns
viii. Rolling Stock Diagrams: Rolling Stock Diagrams.
Defines existing and planned utilisation of paths
and thereby traction demand
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. 11th ETS and 13th RSCS IET Professional
Development Course Notes 2010.
2. Systems IRSE Seminar Railway Interfaces; IEE
Savoy 18 November 2004.
3. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 ISBN
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4. Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 SI 1989
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5. Construction Design and Management
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6. The Electricity Council Chief Engineers
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Kingdom Electricity Supply Engineering
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7. Proceedings of EMC in Railways IET Seminar
Austin Court Birmingham 28
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Queen Elizabeth II Conference Centre
Westminster London 16-17
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IMechE Birdcage Walk London January 2004.
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Mass Transit Systems
IEE PEP04530, 322pp., 53 papers,
ISBN 0-85296-703-9 & 978-0-85296-703-4.
14. Colloquium on Systems Engineering on Large
Railway Projects IEE Railway Industry Group
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Signalling IEE Savoy Place, Nov 1995.
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United Europe
IEE PEP04050, 210pp., 39 papers,
ISBN 0-85296-631-8 & 978-0-85296-631-0,
1995.
17. IEE Conference on 'Main Line Railway
Electrification' Publication 312 York University
1989; ISBN 85296384. X.
18. IEE Conference on 'Electric Railway Systems
for a New Century'. Publication 279; ISBN
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19. GEC Traction Symposium Main Line AC
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GEC ALSTHOM.
21. Kimbark E.W 1971. Direct Current
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22. Arrillaga, J et al, Power Systems Harmonics
John Wiley & Sons 1985.
23. J E Buttery, D N Ebenezer and B P McCormick.
"Electromechanical and electronic falling
voltage track impedance devices for fault
detection on DC track systems" Whipp and
Bourne Ltd, UK.
24. L. L. Denning Influence of Commutating
Reactance on the Design of DC Power Supply
Converters, GEC ALSTHOM Publication.
25. J.G.Yu The Effect of earthing strategies on rail
potential and stray currents in DC transit
railways CEGELEC Projects Ltd UK.
26. Dr R J Hill Electric Railway Traction Part 1-7
Power Engineering Journal 1994.
27. J G Yu and C J Goodman, University of
Birmingham Computer Analysis of touch and
step voltages for DC Railways. Proc. of the third
International Conference on Computer Aided
Design, Manufacture and Operation in the
Railway and other Advanced Mass Transit
System Washington 1992 .
28. Stray Current Design Parameters for DC
Railways Proc of the ASME/IEEE Joint Railroad
Conference pp 19-28 1992.
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29. Protective Relays For Rail Transport System
Protection and Control GEC ALSTHOM.
30. ORR Web Site: Design standards Stray current
Management Nov 2008
http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/TTGN3.pdf
31. ORR Web Site: Guidance of Tramways
Sept 2007
http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/rspg-2g-trmwys.pdf
File IEE REIS DC 2011
Author Dr R D White April 2011,
Professional Head of Electrification Atkins (UK)
roger.white@atkinsglobal.com
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