Masarykova univerzita

Filozofick fakulta

Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky
Magistersk diplomov prce
2008 Markta Novkov

1

Masaryk University
Faculty of rts
!epartment of "nglis#
and merican $tudies

English Language and Literature
Markta Novkov
%ragmatics in "nglis# &anguage 'eac#ing(
)ulture $pecific *ays of "+pression
Masters Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: doc !hDr Ludmila "r#anov$ %Sc
2008
&
' declare that ' have (orked on this thesis independentl)$
using onl) the primar) and secondar) sources listed in the #i#liograph)
***************
+uthors signature
,
M) sincere thanks go to Dr Ludmila "r#anov
-or her kind support and valua#le advice
.
Ta#le o- %ontents
'ntroduction ***********************/
)#apter , !ragmatic +spects o- EnglishTeaching and Learning**0
11 The Scope o- !ragmatics **************** 0
1& !ragmatic %ompetence ***************** 1
1&1 Determinants o- !ragmatic %ompetence ********12
1&11 Level o- !ro-icienc) *************12
1&1& Length o- Learning !rocess **********11
1&& !ragmatic Tests ***************** 1&
1&, Test o- !ragmatic and 3rammatical 4ecognition **1.
)#apter ,, %ultural +spects o- English Teaching and Learning**10
&1 %ross5%ultural !ragmatics ****************10
&& The E6tent o- %ross5%ultural Training and 'nstruction *****&,
&&1 Deductive vs 'nductive !ragmatic 'nstruction *****&7
&&& E6plicit vs 'mplicit !ragmatic 'nstruction*******&/
&, %ultural +(areness ******************&0
&,1 %ultural +(areness 4aising +ctivities in 8usiness English* ,2
&,& %ultural +(areness 4aising +ctivities in 3eneral English * ,.
)#apter ,,, Speci-ic 9eatures o- %:ech Learners o- English***,0
,1 The %:ech Learner ******************,0
7
,11 3rammatical 'nter-erence **************,0
,1& Le6ical 'nter-erence ***************.7
)#apter ,- %onte6tual +pproach*************.;
.1 Language in %onte6t *****************.;
.11 Situational %onte6t ***************.;
.1& %onte6tuali:ation %onventions ***********.1
)#apter - !oliteness Strategies in 4e<uests*********72
71 Surve) o- !ragmatic %ompetence ****72
7& 9ace5Saving Devices***************7;
7, 4e<uests: the 9orm and Meaning *********70

)#apter -, Te6t#ook +nal)sis**************;1
;1 'ntroduction ********************;1
;& New English File Intermediate ************;1
;, International Express Intermediate **********;0
%onclusion **********************//
Summar) ***********************/1
%:ech Summar)********************02
=orks %ited **********************0&

;
,ntroduction
This (ork attempts to e6plore the position pragmatics occupies in modern second
language teaching ' (ould like to emphasi:e the importance o- the presence o- pragmatic
instruction in English language teaching in order to develop learners pragmatic competence
in a meaning-ul and natural (a) Mastering a language does not onl) mean ac<uiring great
linguistic competence (ith -ocus on accurac) and -orm 't includes developing pragmatic
competence to avoid inappropriate usage o- the language English language teachers tend to
underrate pragmatic learning and thus make language teaching and learning arti-icial
>n numerous occasions pragmatic rules -or language are applied su#consciousl) Native
speakers are not al(a)s capa#le o- recogni:ing these rules in their o(n mother tongue The
e6ecution and comprehension o- certain speech acts might #e signi-icantl) incompati#le (ith
conversational management operated in a -oreign language
=ithout instruction$ a learner o- high grammatical pro-icienc) does not inevita#l) sho(
e<uivalent pragmatic development The classroom is the ideal place -or a pragmatic
discussion o- ho( the language (orks and it ma) lead to a#sor#ing de#ates on intercultural
a(areness
' intend to outline the most -re<uent pro#lematic areas non5native speakers have to cope
(ith in the course o- the language ac<uisition process ' (ill dra( on the most recent
methodological research (hich has #een conducted in respect o- the second language
ac<uisition Meticulous attention (ill #e devoted to the %:ech learner o- English and his or
her speci-ications
+ signi-icant part o- the thesis (ill #e -ound in the anal)sis and comparison o- t(o
modern English language te6t#ooks (ith -ocus on the (a) the) deal (ith introducing
/
-unctional language$ namel) re<uests Learners o- English and their teachers are o-ten reliant
on te6t#ooks and the (a)s the) mediate the comprehension o- a language The -ormat
o- a te6t#ook in-luences the learning process and thus it ought to re-lect certain
methodological$ linguistic and pragmatic kno(ledge
)#apter , %ragmatic spects of "nglis# 'eac#ing and &earning
./. '#e $cope of %ragmatics
!ragmatics has #een de-ined in various (a)s +ccording to 3eorge ?ule @pragmatics
re-ers to the stud) o- meaning in interaction or meaning in conte6t$ e6ploring ho( linguistic
utterances could #e interpreted di--erentl) as a result o- di--erent conte6tual -orces and
communicative goals A&222:,BC De de-ines pragmatics as the stud) o- speaker meaning: the
-ocus is upon the interpretation o- (hat people mean #) their utterances rather than (hat the
phrases in the utterances mean #) themselves Speaker meaning is necessaril) #ound to
contextual meaning and ho( the particular conte6t in-luences (hat is uttered The conte6t
comprises the addressee$ the place$ the time and other circumstances !ragmatics also aims at
investigating the invisible meaning: ho( (hat the unsaid is recogni:ed to #e a relevant part o-
a conversation The proportion o- (hat is said and unsaid is determined #) a ph)sical$ social
or conceptual distance 'n this respect$ pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative
distance.
David %r)stal proposes another de-inition o- pragmatics as @the stud) o- language -rom
the point o- vie( o- users$ especiall) o- the choices the) make$ the constraints the) encounter
in using language in social interaction and the e--ects their use o- language has on other
participants in the act o- communication A111/:,21BC
0
4% Stalnaker tends to #e #rie-er$ in his (ords$ pragmatics is @the stud) o- linguistic acts
and the conte6ts in (hich the) are per-ormed A11/&:,0,BC
./2 %ragmatic )ompetence
+ccording to 8achman A1112:0/B$ language competence includes t(o core components$
@organi:ational competenceC and @pragmatic competenceC The -ormer re-ers to grammatical
competence and te6tual competence The latter one consists o- @illocutionar) competenceC
and @social linguistic competenceC 'llocutionar) competence re-ers to kno(ledge o-
communicative actions and ho( to per-orm these actions Social linguistic competence means
the a#ilit) to use language appropriatel) according to the situation
Mastering a language does not onl) mean ac<uiring great linguistic competence (ith
-ocus on accurac) and -orm$ #ut it also includes developing pragmatic competence to avoid
inappropriate usage o- a language in the -orm o- a social and cultural misunderstanding
!ragmatic -ailure is -ar more serious than a -ailure caused #)$ -or instance$ using a (rong
tense 3rammatical errors ma) impl) that a speaker is a less pro-icient language user #ut
pragmatic -ailures might have pro-ound impact on the speaker as a person
+ssuming teachers do not (ish their students to appear impolite$ uncaring or un-riendl)$
pragmatic instruction has to #ecome an integral part o- the lessons 'n the classroom students
should learn to interpret language in the same (a) the) have learnt to interpret the rules o-
their mother tongue
+s Easper and 4ose A&221:7B state @The main categories o- communicative acts F in
Searles A11/;B in-luential classi-ication$ representatives$ directives$ commissives$
e6pressives$ and declarations F are availa#le in an) communit)$ as are Aaccording to current
1
evidenceB such individual communicative acts as greetings$ leave5takings$ re<uests$ o--ers$
suggestions$ invitations$ re-usals$ apologies$ complaints$ or e6pressions o- gratitude
The maGor reali:ation strategies identi-ied -or some communicative acts have #een -ound
sta#le across ethnolinguisticall) distant speech communitiesC
Sometimes second language learners as (ell as native speakers tend to underestimate
pragmatic learning To reveal the rules o- human communication$ pedagogic intervention is
necessar) @not (ith the purpose o- providing learners (ith ne( in-ormation #ut to make them
a(are o- (hat the) kno( alread) and encourage them to use their universal or trans-era#le
AL1B pragmatic kno(ledge in language t(o AL&B conte6tsC AEasper H 4ose$ &221:;B
+t the same time$ (e have to consider the e6istence o- certain culturall) speci-ic
e6pressions (hich var) -rom culture to culture and also certain communicative acts (hich are
kno(n in some cultures #ut unkno(n in others Then su--icient instructional intervention can
#e recommended or even #ecome inevita#le in order not to violate the politeness principle
applied to the speci-ic culture

./2/. !eterminants of %ragmatic )ompetence
./2/./. &evel of %roficiency
Does pro-icienc) have an) in-luence on the ac<uisition o- pragmatic rulesI 8ardovi5
Darlig argues that some areas are pro#a#l) more sensitive to level o- pro-icienc) than others
8ut in general terms$ pro-icienc) has little e--ect on the reali:ation strategies that learners use
Asee Easper H 4ose$ &221: &;5&/B
>n the other hand$ in a stud) o- re-usals carried out among Japanese ESL learners at #oth$
lo(er and higher level o- pro-icienc)$ Takahasi and 8ee#e A101/B -ound that these t(o groups
12
di--ered in the order and -re<uenc) o- semantic -ormulas the) used The lo(er5level learners
(ere also more direct than the higher5level learners
Maeshi#a$ N$ ?oshinaga$ N$ Easper$ 3 H 4ose$ S A111;B -ound out that trans-er ma) #e
also in-luenced #) the level o- pro-icienc) +dvanced learners do #etter than intermediate
learners at recogni:ing the conte6ts in (hich L1 apolog) strategies cannot #e used
Tros#org A110/B claims that the use o- modalit) markers$ such as do(ntoners$
understaters$ hedges$ su#Gectivi:ers$ intensi-iers$ also improves (ith pro-icienc)
Scarcella A11/1B -ound that (hen making re<uests$ the lo(5level students relied on
imperatives$ (hereas higher5level students sho(ed sensitivit) to status and (ere using
imperatives onl) (ith close people or su#ordinates
./2/./2 '#e &engt# of t#e &earning %rocess
!ragmatic competence is also in-luenced #) the length o- the learning process
Nevertheless$ it must #e emphasi:ed that the length does not guarantee a #etter pragmatic
competence unless the learners are trained in pragmatics =ithout consistent and regular
pragmatic training$ the process o- gaining pragmatic competence is ver) slo( or it is not
developed at all
+t the #eginning o- the 11/2s there (as a shi-t -rom teaching #ased on the presentation
and practice o- grammatical structures and voca#ular) to a more communicative concept o-
learning -unctions 'n 11/& =ilkins pu#lished a document (hich does not descri#e language
as a set o- grammatical rules and areas o- voca#ular)$ #ut as a s)stem o- -unctional categories
=ilkinss (ork (as used #) the %ouncil o- Europe in designing a communicative language
s)lla#us (hich descri#ed the communicative -unctions needed -or a success-ul
11
communication at a given level o- competence +t the end o- the 11/2s$ -irst te6t#ooks #ased
on -unctional s)lla#uses started to appear 'n a t)pical grammatical s)lla#us$ structures (ith
the (ord @(ouldC tend to appear in the conte6t o- the second conditional$ it means in later
units =hereas in a -unctional s)lla#us @(ouldC appears ver) earl) in phrases like @=ould
)ou like* C Even #eginners can #e made ac<uainted (ith social e6changes (ithout having
-ull) ac<uired the grammatical #ackground
!roviding that the learners are e6posed to a #alanced s)stem o- teaching$ including all the
skills Aspeaking$ (riting$ reading and listeningB$ grammar structures$ voca#ular) (ork and
-unctional language$ the) are a#le to ac<uire the language and communicate e--ectivel)
(ithout the necessit) o- #eing in a -oreign language environment
>n the other hand$ 8ardovi5Darlig and Dart-ord argue that ESL learners are more sensitive
than E9L learners to pragmatic lapses and the) identi-) pragmatic pro#lems more -re<uentl)
than E9L learners ESL learners also regard pragmatic pro#lems as more serious than
grammatical mistakes Asee Easper H 4ose$ &221:&0B >#viousl)$ the longer the sta) is$ the
more competent the learners #ecome
./2/2 %ragmatic 'ests

!ragmatic pro-icienc) has #ecome an essential aspect (hich is taken into consideration in
modern e6amination s)stems Students (ho undergo a regular pragmatic training sho( #etter
results than those (ho lack such attention 9ocus on pragmatic competence in language
testing re-lects the content and -orm o- language teaching
1&
!ragmatic pro-icienc) is tested in pragmatic tests There are (ritten discourse completion
tasks$ multiple5choice discourse completion tasks$ oral discourse completion tasks$ discourse
role5pla) tasks$ discourse sel-5assessment tasks$ and role5pla) sel-5assessments
8ardovi5Darlig and DKrn)ei A1110B investigated the relevance o- grammatical and
pragmatic errors as the) are vie(ed #) the English as a -oreign language AE9LB$ English as a
second language AESLB learners and native speakers ANSsB 'n a test o- 7., learners and their
teachers in Dungar) and the "nited States$ the results sho(ed that E9L learners and their
teachers identi-ied and ranked grammatical errors as more serious than pragmatic errors$ #ut
ESL learners and their NS English teachers sho(ed the opposite pattern +nother interesting
result o- this stud) (as that learners did not al(a)s recogni:e the pragmaticall) correct items
Asee Easper H 4ose$ &221: ;,5/1B
Dra(ing on the situation in the %:ech environment$ the test (ould pro#a#l) #ring similar
results Most learners still regard grammatical errors as more serious than the pragmatic ones
This is due to the old educational s)stem (hen students per-ormance (as Gudged #) their
errors$ not #) (hat the) (ere good at "n-ortunatel)$ the e--ects o- this s)stem are still to #e
o#served in %:ech schools in general "ndou#tedl)$ the a#sence o- teaching pragmatic
competence at schools contri#utes to the -act that grammatical errors are still regarded as less
relevant than the pragmatic ones (hich$ parado6icall) can lead to much more
misunderstanding and social -au6 pas
Most o- E9L learners -irst reali:e the importance o- pragmatic competence no sooner than
during their universit) studies$ ma)#e not as a part o- their practical English seminars #ut in
seminars o- sociolinguistics
1,
./2/0 'est of %ragmatic and 1rammatical "rror 2ecognition
The -ollo(ing multiple choice test is to #e -ound in an old edition o- English File Upper-
Intermediate eacher!s "ook This test is designed as a revision and consolidation o- social
responses as the) (ere introduced in !ractical English sessions at the end o- each unit in
English 9ile 'ntermediate Students are presented (ith -ourteen situations Their task is to
choose the most appropriate response >ne o- the three choices contains a grammatical error$
one is -alse -rom the pragmatic point o- vie( and one is correct #oth grammaticall) and
pragmaticall)
The test serves as a valua#le source -or pragmatic discussion Students tackle each option$
identi-) the correct one and give reasons -or their choice %:ech adult students ma)
sometimes -eel an6ious a#out making grammatical mistakes in their speech Some students
re<uire an immediate error correction$ (hich might have a counterproductive e--ect on their
-luenc) 8) providing activities (here the) are to compare the relevance and impact o-
pragmatic and grammatical errors and an appropriate teachers guidance$ students usuall)
reali:e that making a pragmatic error ma) lead to more -ar5reaching conse<uences
Teachers intervention in the -orm o- e6plicit pragmatic instruction is necessar) Students
#ene-it -rom a deductive approach in instruction (hich is #ased on a preliminar) statement o-
rules and patterns o- a particular language item The application o- these rules and patterns
-ollo(s immediatel) a-ter the instruction This prevents students -rom creating their o(n
con-using h)potheses$ (hich ackno(ledges the results o- the stud) conducted #) 4ose and
Ng E(ai5-un Asee Easper H 4ose$ &221:1.751;1B
M) intention is not to provide a comprehensive description o- a serious research #ased on
the anal)sis o- the results o- the test 't is rather an attempt to decipher the most -re<uent
1.
lapses o- %:ech students and to speci-) the main characteristics o- %:ech learners during m)
o#servation in the class
The students (ho took the test and e6plained reasons -or their choices (ere intermediate
students =ithin this level o- pro-icienc) possi#le di--erences (ere o#serva#le in terms o-
language a#ilities ' am going to illustrate the results o- m) o#servation on the situations in
(hich the appropriate usage o- re<uests (as tested
E6amples:
# $ou!re at the airport checking in. he airline steward says something about your flight
being delayed% but you don!t understand her. &hat could you say'
a( )orry% could you repeat'
b( &hat did you say'
c( *ould you say that again% please'
+ll the students identi-ied option c as the most appropriate +#out hal- o- the students
accepted option a as possi#le (ithout reali:ing the missing pronoun >ption b (as considered
to #e suita#le #e-ore the instruction$ #ut accepted as inappropriate a-ter the instruction

+ $ou!re staying at a hotel% and you have to get up at ,.#- the next morning. &hat do you
say to the receptionist'
a( *ould your wake me up at ,.#- tomorrow% please'
b( *all me at ,.#- tomorrow.
c( *an you to call me tomorrow at ,.#-% please'

The maGorit) o- students identi-ied option a as pro#a#l) more appropriate than option c
(ithout recogni:ing the grammatical error in c T(o students considered option b as
17
inappropriate #ecause the speaker did not e6plain the reason (h) he (ants to #e (oken up
and thus the receptionist (ould not kno( (hat to sa) in the morning Dal- o- the students
suggested that option b could #ecome appropriate #) adding please This re-lects a general
idea o- %:ech students that please can make a command sound polite
. $ou bought some /eans yesterday but when you got home you saw the 0ip was broken.
$ou take them back the next day. &hat do you say to the shop assistant'
a( 1ive me back my money.
b( I!d like my money back% please.
c( *ould I have back my money% please'
The maGorit) o- students identi-ied option c as the most appropriate dra(ing on a
presupposition that I!d like is similar to I want and thus #oth -orms sound impolite The
grammatical error -ailed to #e recogni:ed 'n some cases the phrase *ould I have back my
money% please' (as identi-ied as inappropriate due to #eing too polite considering the
circumstances o- a complaint
2 $ou!re on holiday and you!re trying to find the station but you!ve got lost. $ou stop
someone in the street. &hat could you say'
Excuse me%
a( could you tell me the way to the station'
b( how do I get the station'
c( you3 ell me where the station is.
1;
+ll students considered option c as impolite >ptions a and b (ere #oth -ound appropriate 't
is (orth emphasising that (hen tr)ing to catch some#od)s attention$ the phrase Excuse me is
to #e used instead o- 4lease %:ech learners tend to use 4lease in similar situations as a result
o- a negative trans-er
- $ou!re in a friend!s house and need to make a phone call. &hat could you say'
a( 5o you mind if I use your phone'
b( 6ay I to use your phone'
c( I want to make a phone call% 7k'
+ll three phrases (ere -ound appropriate (ith certain reservations >ption c (as argued to #e
accepta#le due to the -act that the addressee is a -riend and thus I want does not sound
impolite Some students e6pressed dou#ts (hether to use the 5o you mind 8 phrase The)
considered the phrase rather complicated

9 $ou!re on holiday with a friend. $ou!ve got a camera but you!d like a photo with both of
you in it. $ou stop a stranger. &hat do you say to him:her'
Excuse me%
a( would you mind take a photo of us'
b( do you think you could take a photo of us'
c( sir3 ake a photo of us% please.
The maGorit) o- students identi-ied options a and b as appropriate and option c as rude The
phrase &ould you mind (as considered rather complicated and thus unlikel) to #e used
1/
The results o- the test reveal that more linguisticall) pro-icient students (ere a#le to
recogni:e the grammatical errors more easil) The same students did not necessaril)
demonstrate the a#ilit) to recogni:e pragmatic errors This -act underlines the claim that
pragmatic pro-icienc) does not rel) on linguistic pro-icienc)
%:ech learners appear to #e reluctant to adGust to more polite inherent -eatures o- the English
language in order to #roaden their re<uesting repertoire The) deli#eratel) restrict themselves
to using *an you8 and *ould you8 phrases in order to prevent themselves -rom making
grammatical mistakes$ although a maGorit) o- students ranked the grammatical errors as less
relevant

)#apter ,, )ultural spects of "nglis# 'eac#ing and &earning
2/. )ross3)ultural %ragmatics

8ardovi5Darlig in her stud) Evaluating the empirical evidence Asee Easper H 4ose$
&221: 1,5,&B$ revie(s the empirical evidence in cross5cultural and interlanguage pragmatics
research suggesting that native speakers and nonnative speakers have di--erent s)stems o-
pragmatics She relies on %ohen A111;B (ho identi-ies three areas -or such di--erences: speech
acts$ semantic -ormulas and -orm 8ardovi5Darlig divides the di--erences #et(een learners
and native speakers into -our categories: choice o- speech acts$ semantic -ormulas$ content
and -orm
Speech acts 5 authentic conversations and role pla)s sho( that native speakers and
learners ma) use di--erent speech acts in the same situations$ or the) avoid their per-ormance
at all 9or instance$ (hen giving advice$ native speakers produce more suggestions$ (hereas
non5native speakers produce more reGections %ohen and >lshtain A111,B o--er an e6ample o-
a situation in (hich an apolog) (as to #e elicited #) a non5native speaker ANNSB:
10
Situation A%ohen H >hlstein$ 111,:7.B:
$ou arranged to meet a friend in order to study together for an exam. $ou arrive half an hour
late for the meeting.
Friend ;annoyed(< I!ve been waiting at least half an hour for you3
$ou< ----------------------------
Transcript o- the role pla) A%ohen H >hlstein$ 111,:7.577B
Friend< I!ve been waiting at least half an hour for you3
Nogah< )o what3 It!s only an = a meeting for = to study.
Friend< &ell. I mean = I was standing here waiting% I could!ve been sitting in the library
studying.
Nogah< "ut you!re in you house. $ou can = you can study if you wish. $ou can do whatever
you want.
Friend< )till pretty annoying = I mean = try and come on time next time.
Nogah< 7>% but don!t make such a big deal of it.
Friend< 7>.
Judgement and perception o- this situation #) a NNS (as completel) di--erent -rom ho(
a NS perceived it The NS opted out -rom per-orming an apolog) #ecause he did not consider
keeping someone (aiting in his or her o(n house as a serious o--ence
Semantic -ormulas 5 NSs and NNSs ma) also di--er in using di--erent semantic -ormulas
Semantic -ormulas represent the means #) (hich a particular speech act is accomplished
>lshtein and %ohen A110,B claim that an apolog) ma) contain an illocutionar) -orce
11
indicating device AI!m sorryB$ and e6planation Ahe bus was lateB an ackno(ledgement o-
responsi#ilit) AIt!s my faultB$ an o--er o- repair AI!ll fix itB or promise o- -or#earance AIt won!t
happen againB Ler#al avoidance (as -ound the second most common strateg) o- NNSs
Ler#al avoidance can #e reali:ed #) using hedges AI don!t knowB A8ee#e et al$ 1112B or #)
postponement$ asking -or repetitions and re<uests -or more in-ormation$ all in the -orm o-
<uestions A8ardovi5Darlig H Dart-ord$ 1111B
%ontent 5 even though the NSs and NNSs use the same -ormula$ the) ma) di--er in the
content o- the utterances 9or instance$ the +mericans tend to give more details in their
e6planation session$ (hereas the Japanese seem to #e vaguer A8ee#e$ Takahashi$ and "liss5
=elt:$ 1112B
4e-usal to an invitation aM #) an +merican: I have a business lunch that day.
#M #) a Japanese speaker o- English: I have something to do
9orm 5 in their longitudinal stud) o- pragmatic development in the conte6t o- advising
sessions$ 8ardovi5Darlig and Dart-ord A111,B proved that at the #eginning NSs and NNSs
mainl) di--ered in the choice o- speech acts$ #ut in latter sessions the di--erence lied not in
(hat speech acts the) used #ut in the -orm o- the speech acts NSs o-ten used mitigators$
(hich (ere never used #) NNSs >n the other hand NSs never used aggravators$ o-ten -ound
in the speech o- NNSs E6amples:
NS AsuggestionsB: 1M 4erhaps I should also mention that I have an interest in sociolinguistics
and would like% if I can% to structure things in such a way I might do as much sociolinguistics
as I can.
&M I was thinking of taking sociolinguistics
,M I have an idea for spring. I don!t know how it would work out% but 8

NNS AsuggestionsB: 1M In the summer I will take language testing.
&2
&M )o% I% I /ust decided on taking the language structure.
8ased on the -ollo(ing e6amples -rom Dart-ord and 8ardovi5Darlings stud) o- reGecting
sessions$ (e can see the same tendenc) The NS use do(ngraders AI!m not sure% reallyB$
(hereas the NNS chooses an upgrader Aat allB
NS AreGectionB: I!m not sure that I!m really interested in the topic.
NNS AreGectionB: I would rather not take this course because the topic doesn!t interest me at
all.
There are some more aspects that need to #e taken into consideration and the) are not so
easil) o#serva#le 5 perception and Gudgement NSs and NNSs ma) not perceive and
understand the same situation in the same (a) NNSs (ho (ere not #rought up in the
communit) that speaks the -oreign language ma) -ind it di--icult to identi-) the potential
meaning in the given conte6t
+ %:ech learner during her sta) in 'reland (as asked <uestions (hich she considered to #e
addressed in order to -ind out her o(n likes and dislikes:
?5o you ever go to the cinema'@
'n -act$ the) (ere regarded as invitations or conversation openers Not #eing a(are o- this
conversational routine$ her response to such <uestions (as:
?7h% yes. &hen it!s my day off I sometimes go to *arlow to see some art film.@
8eing <uite a sensitive person$ she could recogni:e the speaker did not regard her response as
ver) satis-actor) 8ut she contri#uted the speakers dissatis-action to the -act that he is not
-ond o- art -ilms and the people (ho (atch them Later on the NNS reali:ed that the proposed
<uestion (as actuall) an invitation to a date Der (rong Gudgement o- the situation caused the
speakers -eeling o- re-usal$ ma)#e -rustration or o--ence
&1
=ol-son A1101B argues that learners ma) -ind di--iculties recogni:ing the -unction o- a
speech act -rom its illocutionar) -orce 9or instance$ +mericans use compliments as
conversation openers:
American< $our blouse is beautiful.
*hinese< hank you.
A< 5id you bring it from *hina'
*< $eah.
The %hinese student (as not a#le to recogni:e the conversational -unction o- the compliment$
although the +merican speaker made a second attempt
+ similar case ma) #e seen #et(een NSs o- English and their %:ech counterparts in their
greetings The simple @Do( are )ou$C is not intended to gain a detailed description o- the li-e
o- the person (ho is asked$ (hich is o-ten (rongl) understood #) the %:ech learners o-
English
+s 8akhtin A110;B sa)s: @Language is not a neutral medium that passes -reel) and easil)
into the private propert) o- the speakers intentions$ it is populated5overpopulated5(ith the
intentions o- others E6propriating it$ -orcing it to su#mit to ones o(n intentions and accents$
is a di--icult and complicated process Asee Eramsh$ 111,:&/BC Eramsh dra(s on 8akhtin and
claims that @it is through dialogue (ith others$ native and non5native speakers$ that learners
discover (hich (a)s o- talking and thinking the) share (ith others and (hich are uni<ue to
them Asee Eramsh 111,:&/BC
@NSs speak not onl) (ith their o(n individual voices$ #ut also the voices o- their
communit) and societ)$ the stock o- metaphors this communit) lives #)$ and the categories
that represent their (a) o- li-e ALako-- and Johnson 1102$ Lako-- 110/B @ Asee Eramsh
111,:.,BThis helps other NSs understood each other$ #ut this collective (a) o- thinking and
&&
using language makes it di--icult -or NNSs to communicate (ith the speech communit) and
share their kno(ledge and e6perience
Eramsh <uotes -urther A111,:.,B @Even i- the) have mastered the -orms o- the ne(
language$ the) still ma) -ind it di--icult to overcome the di--erences in order to meet the social
e6pectations A Saville5Troike 111&$ 8ecker 111&BC 9urthermore$ the situation #ecomes more
complicated (hen (e need to -ace the communication (ith other NNSs
No(ada)s the contact (ith English is not restricted to NSs onl) NNSs meet other NNSs
(ho come -rom communities (hich might di--er in various aspects Each o- these
communities #ears their o(n culture$ kno(ledge$ (a) o- thinking and communicating (ith
other mem#ers o- the communit) Do( can a NNS #e a(are o- the nuances present in
3erman$ Turkish$ Spanish$ 4ussian$ %hinese$ etc culturesI The onl) (a) (hich (ould lead
us to glo#al understanding$ to (hatever e6tent it can #e considered possi#le$ is training in
cultural a(areness %ultural a(areness has to #ecome an important part o- a second language
ac<uisition

2/2 '#e "+tent of )ross3)ultural 'raining and ,nstruction
't is highl) <uestiona#le to (hat e6tent teachers should take these cultural speci-ications
into account The sociolinguist Saville5Troike A111&B gives the e6ample o- a Japanese learner
(ho #o(s a lot to her pro-essors:
@>ne o- her pro-essors told her that she shouldnt #o( to +merican pro-essors #ecause it is
not considered appropriate She replied: @' kno( +mericans dont #o($ #ut thats m) culture$
and i- ' dont do that$ 'm not #eing respect-ul and ' (ont #e a good person Asee Eramsh
111,:..BC
&,
Saville5Troike concludes that it should #e the learners o(n decisions to (hat e6tent the)
(ill adopt ne( (a)s o- thinking and doing >n the one hand$ not leaving ones o(n cultural
speci-ications can #e vie(ed as enrichment and contri#ution to the second language culture
>n the other hand$ it might #e misinterpreted #) people (ho are not -amiliar (ith all the
cultural nuances$ (hich is completel) understanda#le The -oreign language educator Jorden
points out a dilemma: @=ithout -orcing the person to change her (a)s$ ' think its e6tremel)
important to e6plain to her ho( the average +merican reads that particular signal The person
can then make her o(n decisionC Ai#idB
'n one ESL class$ -or e6ample$ Japanese students (ere asked to introduce themselves #)
their -irst name So the) said: @M) name is TaroC and so on$ #ut then suddenl) one man$ the
oldest in the class$ said: @' (ill #e called Mr TanakaC The teacher (as ver) upset and asked
me (hat to do a#out it +nd ' told her$ o- course its all right -or him to #e called Mr Tanaka$
#ut he must kno( ho( +mericans are going to react to someone in this culture (ho sa)s:
@Dont call me #) m) -irst name$ call me onl) Mr TanakaC Ai#idB
The <uestion is (hether teachers should -orce their students to #ehave in accordance (ith
the social conventions o- a speci-ic speech communit) +s Dun-eld (rites:
@=hat does the -oreign language mean -or the -oreign language learnerI Man) things 9or
e6ample$ the o#ligation to adapt$ to repeat the conventionall) sanctioned phrases$ to pla) a
role$ to identi-) A(ith mem#ers o- another groupB 8ut it also means #eing a#le to compare
ones o(n (orld o- language (ith that o- others$ to #roaden ones o(n e6perience (ith
language and language use$ to insert some uncertaint) into (a)s o- speaking one had hitherto
taken -or granted$ it means #order crossing #lockade$ distur#ance5in sum$ to use
Dum#olts(ords$ it means ac<uiring a ne( (a) o- vie(ing the (orldC ADun-eld 1112$ see
Eramsh 111,:10&B
&.
't can #e argued that the %:ech societ) is not al(a)s egalitarian !eople are a(are o-
status di--erences 't is up to the individual ho( he or she (ill tackle the di--erences o- status
%:echs tend to use surnames and @v)C -orm (ith people the) do not kno( (ell$ their teachers$
doctors$ emplo)ers$ authorities in general
'n ever)da) li-e %:echs (ho do not kno( each other ver) (ell (ould address themselves
#) their surnames The) (ould sa) @v)C and @do#rN denC instead o- @ahoGC 'n an English
class$ the same people have to -ace a ne( situation$ and so does the teacher 't does not -eel
ver) natural to call one student !etr and his classmate pro-essor OernN or Mr OernN The
students themselves have a similar pro#lem !etr is e6pected to call his #oss !avel$ (hich
other(ise (ould #e completel) inappropriate and vice versa This dilemma can #e vie(ed as
a matter o- instructional simpli-ication$ ie it makes the classroom communication easier 8ut
at the same time (e are dealing (ith a rather sensitive matter =e are adopting a ne( (a) o-
egalitarian thinking$ (hich is not t)pical o- the %:ech societ)
2/2/. !eductive vs/ ,nductive %ragmatic ,nstruction

ESL environment #rings considera#le #ene-its -or learners The ESL environment in (hich
learners live and stud) at the same time is undou#tedl) ac<uisition5rich and pragmatic
instruction does not have to #e supplied in such a large e6tent as in the E9L environment 'n
the ac<uisition5poor E9L environment pragmatic instruction pla)s an essential role in the
course o- natural language learning
'n terms o- instructional treatments$ t(o approaches can #e applied Decoo Asee Easper H
4ose$ &221:1.0B distinguishes Modalit) +$ (hich is descri#ed as a deductive method$ and
Modalit) 8$ de-ined as an inductive method The deductive method suggests that a
&7
grammatical rule or pattern is e6plicitl) stated at the #eginning o- the learning process and the
students appl) this rule or pattern in the -ollo(ing e6amples and e6ercises The inductive
method (orks as a guided discover) (hen students -irst encounter various e6amples o- a
language phenomenon in an appropriate te6tual conte6t The discover) is then lead #) the
teacher (ho asks a -e( clear concept <uestions in order to direct students attention to the
important aspects o- the language phenomenon and to -ormulate the rule or pattern
themselves
The e--ects o- inductive and deductive approaches to instruction in pragmatics (ere
anal)sed in the stud) 4ose and Ng E(ai5-un Asee EasperH 4ose$ &221:1.751/2B The
research <uestions -or their stud) centred on (hether learners #ene-it -rom instruction in
compliments and compliment responses in a -oreign language conte6t and the second <uestion
sought to determine (hether there are di--erential e--ects o- instruction -or inductive and
deductive approaches to the teaching o- compliments and compliment responses in a -oreign
language conte6t The authors o- the stud) claim that the results -rom a (ritten discourse
completion <uestionnaire o--er some evidence that the instruction (as e--ective Nevertheless$
it (ould have to #e concluded -rom a sel-5assessment <uestionnaire and a metapragmatic
assessment <uestionnaire that there is no evidence that the learners #ene-ited -rom the
teachers instruction The results also indicate that although inductive and deductive
instruction ma) #oth lead to an improvement in pragmalinguistic pro-icienc)$ onl) the
deductive method ma) #e e--ective -or developing sociopragmatic pro-icienc) The) even
argue that the inductive instruction had a negative impact on sociopragmatic development 't
might have #een caused #) raising di--icult issues (ithout providing unam#iguous solutions
The tentative nature o- the conclusions reached in the research provide teachers (ith a
speci-ic recommendation -or providing e6plicitl) the kind o- in-ormation necessar) -or
&;
learners to develop their sociopragmatic pro-icienc) in the target language in order to prevent
con-usion and esta#lish comprehension
2/2/2 "+plicit vs/ ,mplicit %ragmatic ,nstruction
Schmidts Noticing D)pothesis Asee Ellis$ 111/:77B states that conscious noticing is an
essential condition -or converting input to intake 'n other (ords$ learning re<uires a(areness
at the time o- learning o- target -eatures This h)pothesis is veri-ied in numerous studies on
input enhancement in second language ac<uisition The studies propose that learners #ene-it
-rom attention5dra(ing activities (ith pragmatic instruction and appropriate -eed#ack more
than #eing e6posed to ne( language items (ithout an) instruction The) sho( that the target
pragmatic -eatures are most e--ectivel) learned (hen the) are taught e6plicitl) using input
enhancement techni<ues E6plicit pedagogic intervention is vie(ed as necessar) in order to
develop learners pragmatic a#ilit)
Takahashi Asee EasperH 4ose$ &221:1/15111B argues that @the target pragmatic -eatures
(ere -ound to #e most e--ectivel) learned (hen the) (ere under the condition in (hich a
relativel) high degree o- input enhancement (as reali:ed (ith e6plicit metapragmatic
in-ormationC +t the same time$ the degree o- attainment o- a second language pragmatic
competence is to a certain e6tent limited in the classroom environment Takahashi claims that
simple noticing and attention to target pragmatic -eatures in the input do not lead to learning
Tate)ama$ Easper$ Mui$ Ta)$ and Thananart Asee EasperH 4ose$ &221:&22B studied the
e--ects o- e6plicit and implicit instruction in pragmatics (ith #eginning learners o- Japanese
Their pilot stud) revealed that the e6plicit group outper-ormed the implicit group The e--ects
o- pragmatic instruction on learners (ere especiall) apparent in rather complicated situations
&/
(here the learners #ene-ited -rom the teachers instruction 'n a later stud)$ (hich (as #ased
on the pilot stud)$ Tate)ama compared the e--ectiveness o- e6plicit and implicit instruction
via role5pla)s and multiple5choice tests The participants o- this stud) (ere assigned
randoml) to e6plicit and implicit groups 'nstructions -or the e6plicit group comprised o-
e6planations on the use o- speci-ic routine -ormulas$ vie(ing video e6tracts containing these
-ormulas$ the use o- handouts (hich illustrated and e6plained the di--erences in usage o- the
routine -ormulas in certain social conte6ts and inevita#le discussions The implicit group (as
not provided an) o- the e6plicit pragmatic activities The) (ere asked to (atch a video and
pa) attention to an) -ormulaic e6pressions The results o- the ne( stud) (ere rather
inconsistent (ith the results o- the pilot stud) There (ere no signi-icant di--erences in the
per-ormance o- the t(o groups The divergence might #e accounted -or several -actors
including the insu--icient amount o- time$ motivation$ amount o- contact (ith native speakers
outside o- class$ academic per-ormance or even individual learning st)les
2/0 )ultural 4areness

Linguistic studies in the -ield o- pragmatics have encouraged a(areness o- the degree to
(hich cross5cultural communication is a--ected #) culturall)5related -actors These -actors
include peoples e6pectations concerning the appropriate level o- -ormalit) and degree o-
politeness %ultural a(areness is a term (hich descri#es sensitivit) to the impact o-
culturall)5induced #ehaviour on language use and communication
'n eaching *ulture$ Ned Seel)e A1110B provides a -rame(ork -or -acilitating the
development o- cross5cultural communication skills The -ollo(ing are modi-ications o- his
seven goals o- cultural instruction ATomalin$ Stempleski$ 111,:/50B
&0
1 To help students to develop an understanding o- the -act that all people e6hi#it culturall)5
conditioned #ehaviours
& To help students to develop an understanding that social varia#les such as age$ se6$ social
class$ and place o- residence in-luence the (a)s in (hich people speak and #ehave
, To help students to #ecome more a(are o- conventional #ehaviour in common situations in
the target language
. To help students to increase their a(areness o- the cultural connotations o- (ords and
phrases in the target language
7 To help students to develop the a#ilit) to evaluate and re-ine generali:ations a#out the target
culture$ in terms o- supporting evidence
; To help students to develop the necessar) skills to locate and organi:e in-ormation a#out the
target language
/ To stimulate students intellectual curiosit) a#out the target culture$ and to encourage
empath) to(ards its people
Language and culture cannot #e separated Success-ul communication entails more than
competence in grammar and voca#ular) Learners must also develop an a(areness o- ver#al
and non5ver#al culturall)5determined patterns o- communication %ulturall) di--erent patterns
o- communication are a common source o- misunderstanding
%ultural a(areness raising activities should #ecome an integral part o- English lessons +
(ide range o- materials is availa#le The) include te6t#ooks$ radio and television #roadcasts$
internet sources$ ne(spapers and maga:ines Toda) te6t#ooks contain sections -ocused on
cultural a(areness These sections are to #e -ound predominantl) in #usiness te6t#ooks (hich
aim to prepare entrepreneurs -or situations in (hich the) have to demonstrate an a#ilit) to
deal (ith their -oreign #usiness partners sensitivel)
&1
2/0/. )ultural 4areness 2aising ctivities in 5usiness "nglis#

!aul Emmerson and Nick Damilton in their latest resource #ook Five-6inute Activities
for "usiness English o--er a use-ul #ank o- activities re-lecting real5li-e #usiness activities
such as emails$ telephone conversations$ making e6cuses$ negotiating$ complaints and cultural
a(areness
' am going to outline some o- these activities since ' have personall) participated in them
as a student The lessons (ere led #) !aul Emmerson himsel- 4ecentl) ' have used the same
activities m)sel- on the occasion o- a methodolog) (orkshop +ll the participants (ere
e6perienced teachers o- general English
+ctivit) 1
*utural controversy
!rocedure:
The teacher (rites one o- the -ollo(ing statements a#out culture on the #oard:
All over the world% wherever you go% people are the same.
1lobalisation means that there is now only one business culture.
&hen in Bome% do as the Bomans do.
I don!t think about cultural differences =I treat everyone I meet as an individual.
*ultural stereotypes are a dangerous thing.
"usiness is business all over the world = cultural awareness is not that important.
Students are asked to discuss the statement in pairs or small groups$ the (hole class
discussion can -ollo( ' -ind this activit) ver) eas) to set up The statements$ i- care-ull)
,2
chosen according to the capa#ilities o- the students$ provoke vivid discussions$ especiall)
(hen the students are o- di--erent nationalities
+ctivit) &
Iceberg or onion
!rocedure:
+ <uestion is stated: )ome people think that culture is like an iceberg% other people think that
it is like an onion. If culture is like an iceberg% what is below the water and what is above' If
culture is like an onion% what are the different layers'
!icture 1
Students discuss the <uestions in pairs or small groups and then the) share their ideas (ith
others
Suggested ans(ers:
Iceberg = Above the water ;what you can see( - behaviour% customs% language% dress% music%
food% etc. "elow the water = values% attitudes% beliefs
,1
7nion layers = staring from the inside = self% family% gender% age% social class% ethnic group%
region% country% universal human nature
7nion layers ;more business like version( = self% team% department% profession% organi0ation%
national culture% international culture
Emmerson suggests a -ollo(5up discussion:
Iceberg discussion = it!s relatively easy to think of how behaviour and customs differ from
one country to another ;top of the iceberg(% but how do values and beliefs differ' ;possible
answers< attitudes to time% directness vs. indirectness% facts and figures vs. personal
relationships% competitive: individualistic vs. cooperative:collectivist% hierarchical power
structure vs. flat% etc.
7nion discussion = Is it true that international business culture is becoming the same all over
the world' Cow important are the other layers of the onion% national culture ;American
business culture vs. European' *hinese vs. Dapanese'(% professional culture ;marketing
people vs. finance people'(% company culture ;Cas anyone worked for two companies in the
same area of business' Cow were the cultures different'(% gender culture ;5o women all over
the world have a similar business style'(% age culture ;5o young people all over the world
have a similar business style'(% etc.
8e-ore introducing this activit) in the class$ students needs$ e6perience$ interests$ mental
capacit) and o- course the level o- their English Apre-era#l) intermediate and up(ardsB have
to #e care-ull) considered ' can imagine doing this activit) in an international compan)$
(here people are used to responding to challenges and dealing (ith -oreign cultures To make
the activit) easier$ the teacher can suppl) possi#le suggestions on slips o- paper and students
are asked to attach them to the pictures o- ice#ergs and onions
,&
+ctivit) ,
Flight to Bubovia
!rocedure:
Teacher e6plains the situation:
?$ou are on your first business trip to Bubovia. $ou board the flight and the cabin crew and
passengers are all speaking Bubovian. $ou don!t understand a word. A Bubovian business
person sits next to you and wishes you good afternoon in excellent English. 7ver the next few
hours you have a wonderful opportunity to find out about Bubovian culture% both general
culture and business culture. &hat Euestions will you ask the friendly passenger at your
side'@
Students (rite do(n their <uestions$ &5, a#out general culture$ and &5, a#out #usiness culture
The) are asked to read their <uestions The) can also ask and ans(er the <uestions in pairs$
one pretending he or she is a 4u#ovian 'n mi6ed nationalit) classes$ students can give true
ans(er a#out their o(n culture '- there is time -or a language slot$ Emmerson suggests
(riting all the <uestions on the #oard$ re-ormulating an) language errors
+ctivit) .
5os and 5on!ts
!rocedure:
The teacher (rites do(n:
In 8;name of a country(8
It!s worth knowing that 8
5on!t be surprised if8
&hatever you do% don!t8
,,
The teacher gives a -e( e6amples and then elicits ideas -rom the students Students can re-er
to their travel or #usiness e6periences The discussion can #e held on a general or #usiness
level
+t the #eginning o- this session on cultural a(areness$ the participants -elt slightl)
uncom-orta#le during their per-ormance 't (as caused #) the -act that the) do not have
opportunities to discus cultural di--erences on a regular #asis$ and thus the) need more time to
adapt themselves to a ne( situation The teacher needs to stimulate the activit) in order to
provoke students interest and encourage participation 't is necessar) to introduce the issue in
a natural (a) allo(ing su--icient thinking time to students The teacher has to esta#lish a
rela6ed atmosphere in (hich students do not -eel uneas) to present their ideas and
e6periences !air (ork and group (ork are necessar) so that such atmosphere (as provided
2/0/2 )ultural 4areness 2aising ctivities in 1eneral "nglis#

Materials on cultural a(areness in #usiness te6t#ooks and #usiness resource #ooks are
(idel) availa#le 3eneral English te6t#ooks operate (ith the cultural a(areness phenomenon
to a rather limited e6tent$ #ut there are a -e( e6amples in (hich this topic is tackled
New English File Intermediate o--ers a dou#le page devoted to 8ritish politeness 'n a
light5hearted manner students are -aced (ith di--erent vie(s o- English politeness There is a
picture o- a dro(ning man (ho is calling -or help: @DelpPC + passer5#) (alking his dog is
taken a#ack #) such rude attitude F imperatives are considered as impolite$ especiall) (hen
talking to strangers 8ut the passer5#)$ #eing a(are o- good manners$ does not hesitate to
thro( the poor man a li-e #elt as soon as he hears: @E6cuse me$ Sir 'm terri#l) sorr) to
,.
#other )ou$ #ut ' (onder i- )ou (ould mind helping me a moment$ as long as its no trou#le$
o- courseC
+n article called %ulture Shock -ollo(s in the same manner 't descri#es di--erent notions
o- good manners among the English and the 4ussians and mentions various
misunderstandings (hich can occur due to the lack o- intercultural a(areness ' am going to
include onl) a short e6tract -rom the article +n English (i-e$ Miranda$ complains a#out her
4ussian hus#and: Another thing that Alexander /ust couldn!t understand was why people said
things like ?&ould you mind passing me the salt% please'@ Ce said% ?It!s only salt for
goodness sake3 &hat do you say in English if you want a real favour'@ The couple solved
the pro#lem o- di--erent cultural #ackground #) taking a reasona#le precaution: At home we
now have an agreement. If we!re speaking Bussian% he can say ?4our me some tea@% and /ust
make a noise like grunt when I give it to him. "ut when we!re speaking English% he has to add
a ?please@% a ?thank you@% and a smile.
+n interesting <uestion is raised as a -ollo(5up to the article: Are people in your country
more like 6iranda or Alexander' +t -irst %:ech students sa) the) de-initel) resem#le
+le6ander more$ especiall) (hen #eing at home and communicating (ith their -amil)
relatives Nevertheless$ on second thoughts$ the) admit their manners are not e6actl) 4ussian
(hen #eing out among strangers$ -or e6ample in a restaurant or other pu#lic places$ the) tr) to
#e more polite
The third part devoted to cultural di--erences consists o- a listening activit) Students
listen to -our people -rom various countries (ho have lived in England ans(ering the
<uestion: Are English people too polite'
Ls:lo$ a Dungarian teacher$ claims that English people are so polite that )ou dont reall)
understand them De (ent -or a teachers training course to London The English tutors (ere
praising them all$ the) (ere talking a#out their progress$ so in the end the trainees (ere rather
,7
surprised that some o- them -ailed the course De suggests that the English should #e more
direct and sa) (hat the) think
!aula$ a #usiness(oman -rom +rgentina$ thinks that English people are so polite that it
makes the Latin people$ (ho are o-ten nois) and e6trovert$ think the) are cold or un-riendl)
'n her opinion the English should rela6 more
Melik$ an economist -rom Turke)$ thinks it is a good thing that English people are polite
and a#le to respect other peoples opinions Their manners are much #etter than the Turkish
ones De also sa)s that it does not appl) to all English people$ -or e6ample the -oot#all
hooligans
4enata$ a student -rom 3erman)$ also o--ers an interesting vie( >n a rain) da)$ she (as
(alking along the streets o- London Ever)#od) (as carr)ing their um#rellas and ever) time
the) accidentall) hit her$ the) (ould sa): 7h% sorry. I!m awfully sorry. I!m terribly sorry
4enata does not think English people are too polite The) keep sa)ing @sorr)C and @thank
)ouC$ #ut the) do not reall) mean it
This listening activit) o--ers several vie(s on English politeness (ith (hich students can
identi-)
'n the last speaking activit)$ students are given -ive situations Agreeting people$ in a
restaurant$ men and (omen F a mans role$ driving$ visiting peopleB and the) are to discuss
(hat is meant to #e good or #ad manners in the particular situations in their countries
+lthough the authors intention (as not to introduce the issue o- cultural a(areness on its
o(n F the activities correspond (ith the grammar o- modals -or o#ligation$ and speaking$
reading and listening skills are an important part o- the unit too$ the topic is ver) (ell
designed and students usuall) appreciate #eing e6posed to an) materials (hich ena#le them to
discuss not onl) di--erences #et(een L1 and L&$ #ut also di--erences in culture as such The)
,;
are o-ten ver) motivated during similar discussions$ (hich can naturall) #ecome much
personalised
Students discuss the notion o- English politeness$ the (a) the) vie( it$ the) can provide
their o(n e6periences 'n most cases %:ech students tend to misunderstand English politeness
as insincerit) %:ech students are not satis-ied #) the greeting e6changes:
@Di$ ho( are )ouIC F @9ine$ thanksC
5 @Not #ad$ thanksC
5 @Ler) (ell$ thank )ouC
5 @So$ soC
The) -eel the need -or a more negative phrase to #e introduced The @so$soC response cannot
possi#l) #e the most negative one + considera#le num#er o- %:ech students also tend to give
a detailed description o- the state the) -ind themselves in at that particular moment and the)
are surprised$ sometimes o--ended$ (hen their list o- complaints or achievements are not
received (ith genuine s)mpath) or enthusiasm
'nvitations are also considered as a cause o- a social -au6 pas 't is said that (hen
+mericans invite people -or a visit$ it is not meant to #e taken literall) Similarl) (hen 8ritish
people make an invitation$ there is said to #e a -i-t) percent chance that the invitation is real
+ %:ech person (ould pro#a#l) respond #) asking (hen he or she could come over #ecause
it is in the maGorit) o- cases considered to #e a #inding o--er and the person (ho makes the
invitation$ i- meant seriousl)$ proposes a date himsel- or hersel-
%:ech students$ regardless their pro-ession$ o-ten have certain reservation to(ards English
politeness and indirectness 't might #e to a certain amount a conse<uence o- personal
ina#ilit) to reGect stereot)pes$ lack o- open5mindedness$ #ut most relevantl)$ it is caused #)
the a#sence o- continuous pragmatic teaching in the classes
,/
)#apter ,,, $pecific Features of )zec# &earners of "nglis#
0/. '#e )zec# &earner
'n this chapter$ ' am going to dra( on Michael S(an and 8ernard Smiths Fearner
English$ a teacher!s guide to interference and other problems A&221B. +s the title suggests the
#ook deals (ith the phenomenon o- inter-erence and helps teachers to anticipate the
di--iculties (hich result -rom the in-luence o- the learners mother tongues S(an and Smith
collected contri#utions -rom English teachers all over the (orld ' am going to -ocus on the
interlanguage o- speakers (hose mother tongue most resem#les the %:ech language$ and that
is !olish The inter-erence o- %:ech is not anal)sed in the #ook$ #ut numerous similarities can
#e -ound #et(een the pro#lems caused #) %:ech and !olish since #oth languages #elong to
the Slavonic #ranch

0/./. 1rammatical ,nterference

!olish and %:ech are highl) in-lected languages and the (ord order is much -reer than in
English %:ech students ma) -ind it di--icult to -ollo( the more or less given (ord order o- an
English sentence Nouns have grammatical gender$ num#er and seven cases The -orm o-
adGectives depends on the gender$ num#er and case o- the nouns the) re-er to Ler#s also
con-orm to a particular case The grammatical -unction o- a (ord is not indicated #) its
position in a sentence
%:ech <uestions are made #) adding a <uestion (ord or changing the intonation 'n
English the (ord order needs to #e changed and (ith most ver#s$ an au6iliar) has to #e used
in a -i6ed position in the sentence %:ech learners o-ten omit au6iliaries and make mistakes in
,0
the English (ord order o- a <uestion T)pical mistakes: &hat you said' &hen you coming
home'
'n )es Mno <uestions %:ech learners tend to omit the au6iliar) at the #eginning o- the sentence:
&ant you come to the cinema' Sometimes the) concentrate a lot on the au6iliar) (ord and
the) -orget to use the main ver# o- the sentence: 5id he the dinner' This o-ten happens (hen
the main ver# is do or make
Negatives in %:ech are made #) preceding the ver# (ith ne$ not #) a negative au6iliar) as
in English T)pical mistakes: I not know %:ech learners also -ind it di--icult to add Fs in the
third person singular$ positive$ negative or <uestions: Ce don!t know. Ce don!t knows
>n the other hand$ overgenerali:ation can lead to mistakes like this: 5o you can sing' 5o you
must go' %:ech learners o-ten use au6iliar) (ords in positive statements not #eing a(are o-
the -act that it is meant -or emphasis: I did say it. This o-ten happens in the past simple tense
since learners (ant to indicate the past #) did$ and the) -ail to use an appropriate past -orm o-
a ver#
"nlike in English$ multiple negation is possi#le in %:ech This ma) results in mistakes
like: Nobody doesn!t understand.
%:ech learners ma) sometimes sound rather a#rupt dra(ing onto their o(n language and
giving short ans(ers $es and No +lthough it is <uite common to add a comment in %:ech
too$ (hen speaking English$ learners tent to give one (ord ans(ers or the) do not -ollo( the
rule o- using a proper au6iliar): 5id you know that' - $es. : $es% I knew. &ould you like to
come' = $es. :$es% I would like.
%:ech learners o-ten omit it and there as su#Gects o- sentences: Is rainy. oday is cold.
Cere is nice. In my house are four rooms. Is a table in your kitchen'
'n %:ech there are onl) three tenses: single past$ single present and single -uture
+lthough there used to #e a tense in archaic %:ech similar to the English past per-ect$ -or
,1
instance in the (orks #) 8oQena NRmcov or Jan Neruda$ #ut it is not to #e seen in %:ech
toda) %:ech has onl) one (ord -or time and tense$ that is Gas$ time and tense are perceived as
one %:ech learners -ind it ver) con-using to distinguish #et(een past simple and present
per-ect #ecause there is no such tense as present per-ect in %:ech The) usuall) use past
simple instead o- present per-ect: Ce didn!t come yet. I never was in England. )orry% I!m late.
5id you wait long'
The di--erence #et(een simple and continuous tenses also causes plent) o- grammatical
mistakes +lthough dra(ing parallels to %:ech grammatical s)stem ma) help here
Adokonavost$ nedokonavost$ etcB$ most learners are not a#le to appl) these aspects o- the
%:ech language in terms o- the English language ac<uisition T)pical mistakes: &hat do you
do now' = I watch H. hey work at the moment. I live here all my life. &hen you phoned
last night I cooked dinner. ;-or I was cooking dinner( )he cried all afternoon. %onversel)$
once learners #ecome -amiliar (ith a ne( structure$ the) tend to overuse it: I!m going to work
every day. &e were often dancing when we were going to school. Learners also (rongl) appl)
their ne(l) ac<uired kno(ledge o- progressive -orms (hen dealing (ith state ver#s: I!m not
believing him. he soup is tasting good. + (ord #) (ord translation is t)pical o- earl) stages:
I am said A-or I saidB
The past per-ect is vie(ed as one o- the most trou#lesome and unnatural #) pre5
e6perienced %:ech learners 8ut the -act that this tense is <uite logical and can #e clearl)
sho(n on time lines does not correspond (ith the threatening impression this tense might
create The past per-ect is hardl) used #) native speakers themselves in spoken English
There is a considera#le con-usion in -uture tenses %:ech does not distinguish #et(een a
-uture tense -or plans$ predictions$ arrangements$ spontaneous decisions$ promises$ etc %:ech
learners o-ten use going to and (ill at random: 7k. Everything is planned. &e!ll go on
holiday for three weeks The) o-ten use present simple instead o- present continuous -or
.2
-uture plans and arrangements: &here do you go at the weekend' The) also seem to overlook
the progressive aspect: &hat will you do tomorrow at ten' I will study for my exam. The
-uture per-ect tense is a #ig pro#lem$ as all the per-ect tenses are: Ce will finish it by Friday
afternoon. ;-or Ce will have it finished by Friday afternoon.( %:ech people use -uture tense
a-ter time e6pressions Awhen% as soon as% until$ etcB and in conditional clauses Aa-ter ifB This
might lead to t)pical %:ech errors: &hen she will come% I will tell her. If I will pass the test% I
will be happy.(
'n reported speech %:ech does not kno( change tenses a-ter a past reporting ver#$ it uses
the tense o- the original speech: Ce said me you are ill. I asked her what are her hobbies.
Moreover$ the (ord order a-ter the introductor) phrase is that o- a <uestion %:echs o-ten sa)
said me instead o- told me
The passive voice in English$ in most cases$ e<uals the %:ech passive$ although it is not
used as o-ten as in English The progressive aspect o- the passive in %:ech is usuall) indicated
#) a time adver#ial now %:ech learners tend to avoid using the passive #eing misled #) a
(ord #) (ord translation -rom %:ech$ (hich (ould sound a(k(ard$ especiall) (hen a
preposition is to #e used in the passive construction The %:ech learner -inds such sentences
ver) odd: his house hasn!t been lived in. )he doesn!t like being looked after. Some more
t)pical mistakes: It is repaired now. )he born in 6arch
'n conditionals$ as stated a#ove$ %:ech uses the -uture tense in su#ordinate clauses o-
condition: '- it (ill rain$ (e (ill sta) at home 'n %:ech$ the conditional structure (ith would
is used in #oth parts o- a sentence in the second and third conditional: If you would tell me% I
would do something about it.
Modals are another area (here %:ech learners o-ten make mistakes 'n negatives and
<uestions$ the) tend to use au6iliar) (ords as a result o- overgenerali:ation: 5o you must go'
+lso the use o- tenses causes pro#lems: I will must go. The di--erence #et(een you must% you
.1
mustn!t% you have% you don!t have to creates con-usion among the learners Short ans(ers are
sometimes used incorrectl): )hall I wait for you' = $es% you shall. 6ay I come in' = $es% you
may. *an and know are o-ten used incorrectl): I know ski. I can him ;for I know him(. *an is
used instead o- may to talk a#out current possi#ilit): )he can know the answer. >r a
completel) di--erent structure is used: 4robably% she doesn!t know the answer
!er-ect and progressive in-initives are o-ten avoided: )he could see it ;-or )he could have
seen it(. Ce must work now ;-or Ce must be working now(. Learners tend to use maybe%
probably% it!s sure instead
'n-initives (ith to$ (ithout to and Fing -orms need to #e memori:ed and practiced to #e
used correctl) %:ech students o-ten omit to -rom the in-initive: I!d like dance. Ce wants
come. The) also tend to use in-initives more than Fing -orms$ or the) use a noun instead: I
like read. I like books %:ech uses su#ordinate clauses (here English uses an o#Gect S
in-initive structure: Ce wants that I help him. ;-or Ce wants me to help him.( &ould you like
that I open that window. ;-or &ould you like me to open the window'( %:ech also uses
in-initives or su#ordinate clauses (here English uses an o#Gect S present participle structure: I
saw her come: I saw how she came: was coming. ;-or I saw her coming.( 'n-initives o-
purpose are sometimes used instead o- su#ordinate clauses in English: Ce stopped that he
could smoke. ;-or Ce stopped to smoke.( 'n other cases in-initives are also possi#le in %:ech: I
went to the butcher!s ;to( buy some sausages. Ler) con-using are pro#a#l) ver#s that can #e
-ollo(ed #) #oth$ an in-initive or an Fing -orm (ith a di--erence o- meaning: stop$ remem#er$
regret$ go on$ etc
4e-le6ive ver#s and pronouns are <uite common in %:ech Sometimes %:ech learners tend
to overuse them< I woke myself% I washed myself% I shaved myself% I dressed myself There is
also certain con-usion #et(een oneself and each other: hey looked at themselves.
The (ord order is much -reer in %:ech than in English The main areas o- di--iculties are:
.&
1 The position o- adver#s: ' dont speak (ell English ' have ver) much like apples Never
she -orgot >-ten ' go to the cinema
& 9inal preposition: 9rom (here are )ouI =hat music do )ou listenI +t (hat are )ou
lookingI
, The ver# o-ten immediatel) -ollo(s the relative pronoun: This is the house (here live m)
parents
. Su#Gect pronouns do not have to #e present in %:ech sentences$ thanks to in-lections: ;Ce(
told me about his new /ob which en/oys.
Some more t)pical errors related to the (ord order Asee "r#anov H >akland$ &22&: 1;B:
I wanted to know what was he doing there. ;I wanted to know what he was doing there.(
Important is that everybody knows what is wrong. ;It is important that everybody knows what
is wrong.(
Under no circumstances children are to see the film without an adult. ;Under no
circumstances are children to see the film without an adult.(
Never again he would tell her secrets. ;Never again would he tell her his secrets.(
)o angry I was% I told him what I thought of him. ;)o angry was I% I told him what I thought of
him: I was so angry% I told him what I thought of him.(
Ce likes to remember the good old days. ;Ce likes to remember the good old days.(
From the *0ech Bepublic twenty military vehicles were sent. ;wenty military vehicles were
sent from the *0ech Bepublic.(
In the city centre was a big party. ;here was a big party in the city centre.(
o dance together they started eight years ago. ;hey started to dance together eight years
ago.(
Fast year we had free two weekends. ;&e had two weekends free last year.:Fast year we had
two weekends free.(
.,
There are no articles in %:ech %onse<uentl)$ some learners do not use them at all$ man)
use them incorrectl)$ and other learners tend to overuse them: I have dog. Ce is doctor. Film
yesterday was fantastic. he leaves fall off the trees in autumn.
!ossessive determiners and pronouns$ personal pronouns are the same in %:ech: this book
is my. !ossessive determiners are o-ten omitted (hen it is clear -rom the conte6t (ho the
possessor is: I have to do homework. Aunt is coming for the weekend. 4arents live in "rno. I
broke leg. Eat breakfast.
%ounta#le and uncounta#le nouns and the correct use o- much:many% a few:a little ma)
also cause grammatical errors: I need a little apples "nlike in %:ech$ (ords like news%
money% information% furniture% bread% advice$ etc are uncounta#le in English Dence$ %:ech
learners ma) sa): how many informations% how many money% I need an advice. >n the other
hand$ some %:ech (ords e6ist onl) in the plural Adoors F dveTeB: he doors are open.
Similarl)$ some and an) can #e con-using: I haven!t some oranges. &ould you like wine' It
can happen to somebody. ;-or It can happen to anybody.(
4elative pronouns are the same regardless o- (hether the) are used -or humans$ animals
or o#Gects +s a result$ learners ma) make the -ollo(ing mistakes: his is the man which I
saw on H. =hat and that are o-ten used incorrectl): ell me all that you know. his is all
what I want.
+dver#s are sometimes used in %:ech (here English re<uires an adGective This happens
a-ter the ver#s o- senses: It looks terribly. It smells well
!repositions are highl) pro#lematic -or %:ech learners There are some similarities$ #ut
also di--erences as -or the use o- a particular preposition 'n some phrases$ prepositions are not
even necessar) in one language or the other: listen ;to( music% marry ;with( her% leave from
4rague.
..
+nother area o- di--icult) is phrasal ver#s$ (hich do not e6ist in %:ech
0/./2 &e+ical ,nterference
'n this chapter$ ' am going to descri#e pro#lems %:ech learners might have in terms o-
voca#ular) There are a considera#le num#er o- (ords that are identical or similar in #oth
languages Some loan (ords$ although identical in pronunciation$ are o-ten mispronounced #)
%:ech learners$ eg s(eater$ (hich is o-ten pronounced incorrectl) as Ms(i:trM Most (ords
that are similar or identical di--er in pronunciation$ there-ore mistakes in pronunciation occur:
hotel Astress on the -irst s)lla#le instead o- the second oneB There are a lot o- @-alse -riendsC
(hich have a di--erent meaning in English$ eg #rigade F #rigade$ Uat) F dress$ concept F
concept$ kanl F canal$ etc
%:ech learners are (illing to accept that t(o or more %:ech (ords have one English
e<uivalent Asklenice$ sklo$ #rNle F glassMglassesB >n the other hand$ the) -ind it rather
con-using (hen one (ord in English have numerous$ o-ten <uite di--erent meanings A#ook F
kniha$ re:ervovat$ uVinit :pis$ etcB There are certain pairs o- (ords (hich are usuall)
associated (ith one %:ech e<uivalent: clockM(atch$ ho##)M horse$ houseMhome$ -ingerMtoe$
politicsMpolic)$ Go#M(ork$ )etMstillMalread)$ sa)Mtell$ speakMtalk$ remem#erMremind$ lendM#orro($
learnMteach$ lookM(atch$ makeMdo$ e6cuse meMsorr)$ etc The English (ord please is
sometimes used incorrectl)$ since it has a (ider use in %:ech "nlike in %:ech it cannot #e
used as a response to hank you$ or instead o- Cere you are% 4ardon% *ome in.
The (ord have is o-ten misused in phrases like: I have nine years% I have like football% Cave I
go there';-or I!m nine% I like football% )hall I go there'(.
.7
)#apter ,- )onte+tual pproac#
6/. &anguage in )onte+t
9oreign language pedagog) is a(are o- the need to teach language in conte6t 'n this
respect the language classroom o--ers a uni<ue and speci-ic conte6t +s D)mes A11/&: 6i6B
claims: he key to understanding language in context is to start not with language% but with
context.
4eali:ing a speech event means not onl) having a choice o- grammatical and le6ical
structures #ut it also involves the a#ilit) to decide (hich o- them to choose according to the
(hole situation +t the #eginning o- their learning process$ learners tend to use grammatical
and linguistic -eatures that seem to #e the simplest$ -or e6ample in terms o- shortness$
similarit) to their o(n language$ or Gust the appealing sound o- it Some learners$ not #eing
guided appropriatel) #) their teachers$ or #ecause o- their o(n reluctance to accept the
teachers instructions and recommendations$ -ind it su--icient to use onl) one o- the man)
re<uest phrases availa#le in English The) use *an you:*ould you in ever) situation$
regardless (hat the situational conte6t conve)s
6/./. $ituational )onte+t

D)mes A11/.B$ dra(ing on Malino(ski and 9irth$ and e6panding Jako#sons notion o-
conte6t$ devised his o(n set o- -actors to descri#e the situational conte6t o- the speech event
De lists these under the acron)m S!E+E'N3
.;
$etting 5 the place is o- certain importance F (e tend to change our language in
accordance (ith the setting o- our conversation Does the conversation take place in a ca-$ in
the street$ in a rail(a) station$ in the directors o--ice$ on a con-erenceI Learners need to #e
-amiliar (ith the place so that the) can adGust their language accordingl)
%articipants carr) various roles during their conversation 'n various situations$
participants are given roles$ -or e6ample$ a parent$ a teacher$ a classmate$ a patient$ a shop
assistant$ a client$ a #usiness partner + child cannot #e talked to in the same manner as an
adult This is a (ell5kno(n -act and the a(areness o- necessit) to alter our language
depending on the people (e are talking to has to #e considered in the classroom environment
too =e tend to #e more polite (hen talking to a person (e do not kno( (ell$ a person more
senior in age or someone (ho is o- a higher status English has no special pronouns through
(hich (e sho( politeness and -amiliarit) like some languages$ -or instance %:ech ty:Hy
9amiliarit) is e6pressed in other (a)s$ -or e6ample (e tend to omit polite addresses in -ront
o- peoples surnames such as Ms$ Mrs$ Mr$ pro-essor$ doctor etc =e can use -irst names or
even nicknames instead
"nds 5 the purpose o- a conversation is also signi-icant Students have to #e -amiliar (ith
the aim o- a conversation the) are going to per-orm as a role5pla) or simulation The) need to
kno( (h) the) are having a conversation and (hat the outcome is supposed to #e: an
arrangement to meet$ to make a #argain in a shop$ to give an honest opinion to a -riend$ to ask
someone a -avour$ etc
ct se7uences 5 certain t)pes o- talk re<uire certain linguistic -orms The) are culture
speci-ic Each culture has its adGacenc) pairs t)pical -or certain speech events >ne (a)
meanings are communicated and interpreted through the use o- adGacenc) pairs The) can #e
classi-ied as utterances produced successivel) #) t(o speakers in such a (a) that the second
utterance is identi-ied as closel) related to the -irst one These utterances are related$ not an)
./
second pair can -ollo( an) -irst pair part$ #ut onl) an appropriate one$ a greeting is -ollo(ed
#) a another greeting$ an apolog) #) an ackno(ledge$ a congratulation #) a thanks$ and the
like Mc%arth) A1111:1&2B argues that the -unction o- the initial part o- an adGacenc) pair is
determined #) the conte6t (hich it is uttered in Thus$ a single (ord hanks can #e an
e6pression o- appreciation$ surprise$ reproach$ relie-$ etc depending ma)#e on the intonation
This is closel) related to (hat D)mes calls t#e key F the tone$ manner or spirit o- the act$
(hich can #e serious or ironic 9or e6ample the (ord Cello can #e said in man) various (a)s
according to the situation
,nstrumentalities 5 learners have to #e a(are o- the di--erences #et(een (ritten and
spoken English (hich a--ect our language in several (a)s Spoken communication usuall)
re<uires -ast$ immediate production and understanding >n the other hand$ (hen (e (rite$ (e
usuall) have time to revise$ check and re(rite (hat (e have (ritten Similarl)$ the addressee
can read$ reread and discuss the piece o- (riting he or she receives 'n spontaneous speech (e
have ver) little or no time to prepare (hat (e are going to sa) >ur speech is o-ten -illed (ith
silent pauses$ voiced5-illed pauses AermB$ repetitions$ -alse starts =e use discourse markers F
small (ords or -i6ed phrases that indicate our involvement in the conversation and ho( (e
(ant it to continue %ontractions are used instead o- -ull -orms in order to make the
conversation more natural There are also phenomena such as the dialect$ accent or other
variet) o- English that learners should #e a(are o-$ #ut it is not ver) likel) that learners (ill
#e a#le to imitate these
Eno(ledge o- norms o- interpretation and interaction$ especiall) turn5taking signals an
alread) e6isting ver) good command o- language This can onl) #e achieved #) care-ul and
consistent training and it also re<uires certain intrinsic personal <ualities -or such skill to #e
developed
.0
%onte6t is also determined #) di--erent genres F categories such as anecdotes$
presentations and other pu#lic speeches$ commercials$ ne(spaper articles$ poems$ riddles etc
'n the language classroom students should #e a#le to distinguish various genres #) #eing
e6posed to as man) o- them as possi#le
+ll the previousl) mentioned -eatures o- interaction should #e taken into consideration in
the classroom environment as (ell as the) are present in ever)da) L1 communication
6/./2 )onte+tualization )onventions
Even i- mem#ers o- a communit) (hich speaks the same language communicate a
message$ it ma) #e interpreted according to di--erent interpretive conventions 'n social
interaction$ ho( an utterance is said is more important than (hat is said The utterances
people e6change are related to the situational and cultural conte6t in (hich the) occur There
are certain ver#al$ paraver#al Astress$ intonation$ tempo$ laughterB and non5ver#al signs Aga:e
direction$ gesture$ #od) posture$ tone o- voiceB that help to interpret the utterances 3umper:
calls them @conte6tuali:ation cuesC Asee Eramsh$ 1110:&/B
The situation #ecomes even more complicated (hen speakers have to -ace di--erent
cultural tendencies 9or an English language learner$ learning ho( to interpret and use
conte6tuali:ation cues is e6tremel) di--icult 3umper: A111;:,0,B e6plains the reason (h)
the) are di--icult to learn: @#ecause o- the comple6it) o- the re-erential processes involved
and their inherent am#iguit)$ conte6tuali:ation cues are not readil) learned$ and certainl) not
through direct instruction$ so that *second language speakers ma) have good -unctional
control o- the grammar and le6icon o- their ne( language #ut ma) conte6tuali:e their talk #)
rel)ing on the rhetorical strategies o- their -irst language %onte6tuali:ation conventions are
.1
re<uired through primar) sociali:ation in -amil) or -riendship circles or intensive
communicative co5operation in a -inite range o- institutionali:ed environmentsC Asee Easper
H 4ose$ &221: 0&B
9oreign language learners are restricted to the classroom (ith limited input and occasion
-or practice 'n order to learn to communicate in an appropriate manner$ learners have to #e
a#le to distinguish di--erent speech st)les and the social meaning associated (ith a particular
speech st)le The) need to kno( (hat their social role is in a given speech event and (hat the
social e6pectations o- such a role are in a given societ) 't is necessar) to instruct students to
pa) attention to the occurrence o- conte6tuali:ation cues in order to recogni:e the relationship
#et(een linguistic -orm and its social interpretation !resuma#l)$ it is easier to decipher
conte6tuali:ation conventions (hen learners can rel) on positive trans-er -rom their mother
tongue
)#apter - %oliteness $trategies in 2e7uests
8/. $urvey of %ragmatic )ompetence

'n the -ollo(ing chapter ' intend to provide e6amples o- the %:ech perception o-
politeness in the area o- re<uests +re %:ech learners o- English sensitive enough to
distinguish ho( the !oliteness !rinciple ALako--$ 1117B operates di--erentl) in the %:ech and
English environmentI +nd are the) (illing to recogni:e the rules o- a polite conversation at
allI
%:ech people tend to #e more direct than the English people This directness is o-ten
apparent as a result o- a negative trans-er -rom %:ech =hat a %:ech learner o- English
72
regards as polite$ a native speaker ma) vie( to have <uite an opposite impact$ #eing
inappropriate and causing social disharmon)
+ll the participants in m) surve) (ere adult intermediate learners o- English (ith a
universit) degree The) varied in pro-ession: doctors$ universit) lecturers$ compan)
managers$ la()ers$ politicians$ local authorities Se6 or age o- the participants (as not taken
into consideration No particular pragmatic instructions had #een given to them #e-ore the
test 't is di--icult to sa) to (hat e6tent the) had come across pragmatic training$ since the)
had #een taught #) several teachers each o- (hom (ould have their o(n pre-erences in
teaching methods and priorities The) had also #een e6posed to a num#er o- course #ooks
The aim o- this surve) (as to test their pragmatic competence$ (hich considering their level
o- pro-icienc)$ should alread) have developed to some e6tent +ccording to the common
European re-erential -rame(ork$ learners o- English at intermediate level A81B are e6pected to
#e a#le to understand the main points o- clear standard input on -amiliar matters regularl)
encountered in (ork$ school$ leisure$ etc The) should #e a#le to deal (ith most situations
likel) to arise (hile travelling in an area (here the language is spoken The) should manage
to produce simple connected te6t on topics (hich are -amiliar or o- personal interest %an
descri#e e6periences and events$ dreams$ hopes and am#itions and #rie-l) give reasons and
e6planations -or opinions and plans

!art 1
'n the -irst part o- the surve) participants (ere provided (ith a num#er o- re<uests:
a 'd #e grate-ul i- )ou could*
# %ould )ou*
71
c ' (onder i- )ou could*
d 's it alright i- (e*
e ' (onder i- it might #e possi#le to*
- !lease could )ou*
g Do )ou mind*
h =ould )ou mind*
i %an ' have*
G Do )ou think ' could*
k %ould )ou possi#l)*
l Thank )ou in advance -or )our help in this matter*
m 'd appreciate )our help on this
n =ould )ou*
The) (ere supposed to mark the phrases 9 A-ormalB$ ' Ain-ormalB$ N AneutralB
The ta#le #elo( illustrates the students perception o- di--erent -ormalit) levels o- the
re<uesting phrases Neither the success-ul identi-ication o- the phrases nor per-ormance o-
particular participants is commented on as these (ere not the o#Gectives o- the surve)
Ta#le 1
9 ' N
a 1.W 5 ;W
# ;W &7W ;1W
c 7;W &7W 11W
d 11W 72W ,1W
e 01W 1,W ;W
- ,1W 5 ;1W
g 1&W &7W ;,W
h ;1W ;W &7W
i 11W ,/W ..W
G ,1W 1,W 7;W
k ..W 1&W ..W
7&
l /7W 11W ;W
m ;,W 5 ,/W
n 11W &7W 7;W
There (as su#stantial variation across the participants The participants (ere not
particularl) consistent in their perception o- di--erent -ormalit) levels Despite the lo(
num#er o- participants$ the surve) re-lects a rather lo( pragmatic a#ilit) o- students The
results demonstrate the -indings that a relativel) high level o- pro-icienc) does not guarantee a
high level o- pragmatic competence
'n the -eed#ack session participants tried to Gusti-) their choices There (as no general
tendenc) to descri#e the method (hich (as used during their identi-ication stage
!art &
'n the second part o- m) pragmatic surve)$ students (ere to decide (hich o- the phrases
the) (ould never use in a conversation and$ on the contrar)$ (hich do the) use most o-ten
Xuestion 1: =hich o- the phrases (ould )ou personall) never useI =h) notI
Students comments:
S1: ' (ould never use phrases a$ c$ e$ k$ l$ m$ #ecause the) are too -ormal and too long and '
-orget (hat ' (anted to ask
S&: e$ a$ c #ecause the) are too complicated
S,: l #ecause its ver) -ormal
S.: l$ m$ e
S7: m$ e F too -ormal -or me
S;: c$ e F These phrases are rather complicated 'm not -amiliar (ith them
S/: c F too polite
7,
S0: e F too complicated
S1: i F too in-ormal
S12: d
S11: l
S1&: e$ l
S1,: a$ -$ m F these phrases are ver) -ormal
There (as a uni-)ing tendenc) not to select the long phrases -or #eing complicated and too
polite The rest o- participants (ere not a#le to identi-) an) phrases the) (ould not pro#a#l)
#e (illing to use
Xuestion &: =hich ones do )ou use the most o-tenI
Students choice: # A1&B$ n A12B$ - A0B$ i A/B$ h A.B$ g A,B$ G A,B
Students -ollo( their strong inclination to use short phrases (ith modals can and could$ (hich
the) pro#a#l) learnt at the #eginning o- their studies This might have not #een in the conte6t
o- re<uests #ut as means o- e6pressing a#ilit)
!art ,
The third part o- the surve) (as conducted in the -orm o- a multiple choice test
!articipants (ere supposed to read -ive re<uests and choose a response (hich is not
appropriate No grammatical errors (ere included Students (ere to recogni:e errors related
to an inappropriate -ormalit) or politeness level and some t)pical errors caused #) a negative
trans-er -rom %:ech (ere also included
7.
1M Do )ou mind opening the door -or meI
a Not at all # >E c ?es$ o- course
&M Ma) ' come inI
a >- course # !lease$ do c ?ou are (elcome
,M %an )ou s(itch o-- the TLI Amother to her son B
a ?es$ o- course # Sorr)$ #ut* c 'm sorr) Thats not possi#le
.M %ould ' #orro( )our dictionar)I At(o classmatesB
a >E Dere it is # ?es$ sure c 8) all means
7M =ould )ou #e kind enough to let me kno(I
a ?eah$ sure # ?es$ certainl)
Negative trans-er (as apparent in re<uest 1 and & .1W o- participants identi-ied option c
A$es% of courseB as an inappropriate response to 5o you mind opening the door for me' >nl)
10 W considered the phrase $ou are welcome as not appropriate in re<uest & 4e<uests ,$ .
and 7 (ere much #etter evaluated /;W o- participants chose the correct option in re<uests ,
and .$ and /0 W as -or re<uest 7 The results o- this su#5test sho( that the students (ere
relativel) capa#le o- identi-)ing the inappropriate level o- -ormalit) and politeness >n the
other hand$ the) (ere rather misled #) the temptation to rel) on the rules o- %:ech social
responses
77
't is evident that the participants pragmatic kno(ledge o- re<uesting strategies is not ver)
pro-ound The) (ould o#viousl) #ene-it -rom the teachers pragmatic instruction i- it (as
given on a regular #asis +nother -actor has to #e taken into consideration$ and it is the
students motivation Learners o-ten use English primaril) as a means o- communication
Their am#ition is to #ecome capa#le o- making complete sentences (ithout inspecting their
pragmatic -unctions 'n an E9L environment the motivation to understand the social meaning
o- utterances is rather lo(
8/2 Face3$aving !evices
4e<uests are -ace5threatening acts Tsui A111.: 12,B e6plains this intrinsic <ualit) o-
re<uests: @the) either predicate a -uture action o- the addressee and in so doing put some
pressure on him to do or to re-rain -rom doing an action$ hence in-ringing on his -reedom o-
action$ or the) predicate a -uture action o- the speaker and in so doing put some pressure on
the addressee to accept or reGect it$ hence incurring a de#t or a responsi#ilit) -or the action
doneC
Tsui suggests using various strategies to minimi:e the threat$ such as using hedges$
apologi:ing -or transgression$ using so-tening mechanisms
There are certain speech acts$ and re<uesting is one o- them$ (hich re<uire special
attention in terms o- politeness %ompare:
9amiliar: )hut the door% will you'
4ather polite: &ould you please shut the door'
More polite: I wonder if you would mind shutting the door.
7;
Learners should #e a(are o- these nuances so that the) are a#le to avoid possi#le
misunderstandings caused #) an inappropriate use in di--erent conte6ts %:ech learners o-ten
tend to think that it is completel) su--icient to insert please in to the re<uest to make it sound
polite This strateg) might (ork in %:ech$ #ut in English it has little e--ect in making a reall)
polite impression 4lease usuall) has to #e com#ined (ith devices o- indirectness such as
using a <uestion$ the h)pothetical could or would% etc %ompare:
Fend me your mobile% please.
&ould you mind lending me your mobile'
4lease could I possibly borrow your mobile'
I wonder if you could possibly lend me your mobile.
=hen making a re<uest speakers have to #e a(are o- ho( urgent the re<uest is Taking it
into care-ul consideration$ the degree o- indirectness should change accordingl) 'n all
pro#a#ilit)$ a greater degree o- indirectness (ould #e used in asking someone to e6tend an
important deadline than it (ould #e used in re<uesting someone to open a (indo( 3o--man
A11;/B distinguishes #et(een the notion o- @-reeC and @non5-reeC goods @9ree goodsC include
those (hich do not re<uire special permission and are not costl) to the hearer to #e reali:ed$
-or instance (hen asking someone to pass the salt in a restaurant 4e<uesting these goods
necessitate a minimal degree o- indirectness >n the other hand$ @non5-reeC goods might #e
considered as potentiall) intrusive to en<uire and the) entail using a relativel) high degree o-
indirectness Asee Thomas$ 1117:1,2B Lako-- A11/.B argues that -ree and non5-ree goods do
not necessaril) need to #e material Ai#idB
The notion can #e e6tended to in-ormation 'n English speaking countries it might #e
vie(ed as impolite to en<uire a#out peoples occupation$ income$ politics$ religion$ marital
status etc$ especiall) (hen dealing (ith a stranger$ (hereas in the %:ech environment some
o- the topics are considered as accepta#le to a certain e6tent
7/
8/0 2e7uests( t#e Form and Meaning

The aim o- this chapter is to provide a theoretical description o- re<uests (hich (ill #e
-ollo(ed #) a te6#ook anal)sis -ocused on the (a) re<uests are introduced in English
te6t#ooks
'n the -ollo(ing anal)sis e6ample sentences and phrases -rom Leech and Svartviks
A *ommunicative 1rammar of English and Emmersons "usiness 1rammar "uilder are
going to #e used:
Y 4e<uests are per-ormed in order to in-luence the addressees to do (hat (e (ant them to do
=ith the aim o- getting someone to do something a direct command can #e used: )hut the
door. *ome here. 4ut that down. %ommands ma) o-ten sound impolite$ especiall) (hen
uttered #) someone (e do not e6pect to #e in the position o- making commands >n the other
hand$ it is not considered impolite or tactless (hen a mother sa)s to his son: Dust look at this
mess. idy it up% right now. This command is made (ithin a -amil) and it is not vie(ed as
impolite #) the son$ although it can #e seen as rather anno)ing -rom the sons point o- vie(
Y >ne (a) to tone do(n or (eaken the imperative -orce o- a command is to use a rising or
-all5rise tone$ instead o- the usual -alling intonation: don!t forget your wallet.
Y +nother (a) is to add please$ although please is sometimes not enough$ or the tag <uestion
won!t you% why don!t you% will you: 4lease hurry up. Fook after the children% won!t you' his
way% please3 Cave a drink% why don!t you. 5on!t be late% will you.
Y The au6iliaries will:would -or (illingness and can:could -or a#ilit) are used ver) -re<uentl)
&ould and could are considered more tact-ul than will and can. =e can add the (ord possibly
to make the re<uest more polite:
70
&ill:&ould you give me a hand with these suitcases'
*ould you ;possibly( open the widow% please'
*an anyone tell us what the time is'
Y Negative <uestions$ (hich e6pect a positive ans(er$ can also #e used The) are less
tentative and more persuasive:
&on!t you come in and sit down'
*ouldn!t you possibly come another day'
I More indirect (a)s sho( ho( to make a polite re<uest:
I wouldn!t mind a drink% if you have one.
&ould you mind starting over again'
I wonder if you could put me on your mailing list% please.
&ould you be good:kind enough to let me know'
I would be ;extremely( grateful if you would telephone me this afternoon.
I wonder if you!d mind writing a reference for me.
I 4e<uests (ith mind:
&ould you mind opening repeating that' F -ollo(ed #) -ing
&ould you mind if I smoked' F -ollo(ed #) an if clause using a past simple ver#
5o you mind if I close the window' F -ollo(ed #) an if clause using an in-initive
Xuestions (ith mind mean Is it a problem for you' To agree to a re<uest (e sa) ?no@
A< &ould you mind opening the window'
"< No% of course not.: No% not at all.
Y To re-use phrases like I!m afraid% I!m sorry% o be honest% &ell% Actually are used and a
reason should #e added This strateg) makes the re-usal sound more tact-ul
A< &ould you mind making me a cup of coffee'
"< I!m afraid I!m a little busy right now.
71
A< &ould you mind making a couple of copies for me'
"< 7h% I!m sorry the copier is out of order at the moment.
A< &ould you mind if I took a day off tomorrow'
"< &ell% to be honest% it!s a bit inconvenient.
A< 5o you mind if I smoke'
"< I!d rather you didn!t% actually.:Actually% I!d rather you didn!t.
A< &ould you mind if I borrowed the company car tomorrow'
"< hat!s not really possible I!m afraid.
I These sentences are t)pical in -ormal letters:
I would be very grateful if you would 8
I would appreciate it if you could 8
&ould you kindly 8
hank you in advance for your help in this matter.
)#apter -, 'e+t9ook nalysis
:/. ,ntroduction
'n a -oreign language environment$ (here learners have ver) -e( opportunities to
communicate (ith speakers o- the target language outside o- class$ a care-ul choice o-
materials is o- great import English$ contrar) to other -oreign languages taught in the %:ech
4epu#lic$ is spoken and taught (orld(ide and there is an a#undance o- multimedia materials
;2
comprising copious te6t#ooks 'n the -ollo(ing anal)sis ' intend to -ocus on t(o current and
commonl) used te6t#ooks and the (a) the) meet modern methodological demands including
creating realistic conte6t$ pragmatic instruction and natural communicative opportunities
:/2 New English File Intermediate
Lesson plan
New English File is a multi5level te6t #ook -or students o- general English +t the end o-
each unit there is a practical English section (hich aims to consolidate and e6tend students
kno(ledge o- -unctional language 't helps students -eel con-ident in t)pical ever)da) social
situations The sections are: introductions and greetings$ re<uests and permission$ giving
directions$ making suggestions$ giving opinions$ giving and reacting to ne(s$ apologi:ing and
giving e6cuses These lessons also highlight other use-ul social English phrases To make
these ever)da) situations come alive there is a stor) in (hich t(o main characters Z+llie and
Mark[ appear throughout the #ook$ continuing -rom New English File Elementary The
situations are set in an environment o- a music compan)$ #ut the phrases introduced are not o-
a #usiness character
' am going to anal):e ho( the authors o- New English File Intermediate$ >6enden and
Lathan5Eoenig$ deal (ith re<uests and permission The goal o- this lesson is to revise and
e6tend (a)s o- making re<uests and asking -or permission The target phrases are:
BeEuests Besponse
&ould you mind ;sending me those concert dates(' 7f course not.
*ould you ;help me(' )ure.
;1
5o you think you could ;send me the reEuests by email(' $es% of course.
*an you ;come and see me when you have a moment('
4ermission
Is it 7> if ;I take tomorrow afternoon off(' I!m sorry but8
'n the -irst stage a situation is set that is going to create a conte6t -or the phrases the) are
going to practise 't is a listening activit) Students are asked to ans(er three <uestions:
# &hat does DacEues ask 6ark to do'
+ &hat does 6ark ask "en to do'
. &hat does Nicole ask Allie'
The teacher elicits the ans(ers$ ie -avours Athe characters are alread) -amiliar to the students
-rom previous unitsB ask each other to do
+-ter the lead5in part$ students look at the dialogues the) have listened to:
DacEue 6ark' &ould you mind ----------------- me those concert dates'
6ark 7f --------------- not. "en Are you busy'
"en 6e' Never.
6ark --------------- you help me' I can!t open this document.
"en ----------------- .
6ark hanks.
88888888888..
Allie Ci% Nicole.
Nicole *ould you sign these% please'
Allie )ure.
Nicole Is it ------------------ if I take tomorrow afternoon off'
;&
Allie I!m -------------------% but tomorrow is really difficult.
Nicole &hat about Friday afternoon'
Allie Friday' hat!s fine. 5o you ---------------------- you could ------------------------ me the
reEuest by email'
Nicole Er% yes% of ------------------------ .
Allie Cello' Ci 6ark. ------------------ you come and see me when you have a moment'
'n pairs$ students guess or remem#er the missing (ords$ the) are not to (rite them in )et
The recording is pla)ed again -or students to check +-ter(ards$ the) go through the dialogue
line #) line and check their ans(ers 't is recommended that alternatives are discussed (ith
students and to see (hether the ans(ers (hich (ere guessed incorrectl) are suita#le or not
The correct ans(ers are:
DacEue 6ark' &ould you mind sending me those concert dates'
6ark 7f course not. "en Are you busy'
"en 6e' Never.
6ark Could you help me' I can!t open this document.
"en Sure.
6ark hanks.
88888888888..
Allie Ci% Nicole.
Nicole *ould you sign these% please'
Allie )ure.
Nicole Is it OK if I take tomorrow afternoon off'
Allie I!m sorry% but tomorrow is really difficult.
Nicole &hat about Friday afternoon'
;,
Allie Friday' hat!s fine. 5o you think you could send me the reEuest by
email'
Nicole Er% yes% of course .
Allie Cello' Ci 6ark. Can you come and see me when you have a moment'
+-ter all the target phrases have #een elicited$ the -ocus turns to pronunciation Students
repeat the highlighted phrases and cop) the rh)thm and intonation
'n the -ollo(ing stage students -ocus on the chart in their te6t#ooks and are asked to complete
the chart (ith the ke) phrases -rom the recording under an appropriate column:
BeEuest< Besponse<
4ermission< Besponse<
The Teachers #ook recommends the teacher to point out that:
5 the e6pression )ou use in a given situation o-ten depends on several aspects$ -or instance
ho( #ig the -avour )ou are asking is$ or ho( (ell )ou kno( the person )ou are having a
conversation (ith
5 )ou can also use *an:*ould: 6ay I to ask -or permission$ eg 6ay I use your phone'
5 the ver# a-ter &ould you mind 8 must #e the Fing -orm This phrase re<uires a negative
ans(er$ eg ;No%( of course not i- )ou agree to the re<uest
5 apart -rom of course not% the other responses can #e used -or all re<uests or giving
permission
The ne6t stage is designed to practice the target phrases in mini dialogues Students
choose one o- the -ollo(ing things the) (ould like someone to do -or them and the) ask as
man) other students as possi#le The) are instructed to sound polite and e6plain (h) the) are
asking the -avour
look after ;my children% my dog% my cat% etc.(
;.
lend me ;some money% your car% a book% etc.(
give me a lift ;home% to the centre% etc.(
help me ;with my homework% to paint my flat% etc.(
'n a (hole class discussion$ students report on ho( man) students accepted their re<uest
or permission
Evaluation
The evaluation part is going to #e #ased on the -ollo(ing criteria: providing an
appropriate conte6t$ choice o- target phrases$ -ormalit) distinction$ accurac) vs -luenc) and
the #alance o- skills
%onte6t F the target phrases are not introduced out o- conte6t Students are provided (ith
su--icient in-ormation as to the place (here the conversation is set F in the o--ice o- a music
compan) The) are o--ered other variations in the speaking activit) during (hich students
receive more ideas a#out various settings in (hich the) might use the target phrases 'n terms
o- re<uests and permission students reali:e place is not o- great importance since making
re<uests and asking -or permission can take place in almost an) environment =hat ' -ind
more important are the roles o- participants (hich are made kno(n to the students The) are
-amiliar (ith all the people in the conversation$ ie +llie F the managing director o- the
compan)$ Mark F the marketing director$ Nicole F +llies personal assistant$ 8en F the
graphic designer$ Jac<ues F the !4 manager The nationalit) o- the participants is ver) (ell
thought out: +llie is 8ritish and some o- her 9rench colleagues regard her as rather cold and
reserved Mark is an +merican and thus considered more direct than +llie The other
participants are 9rench and (e can see di--erent tendencies regarding ho( directl) and
-ormall) the) per-orm their roles Students o#tain all the relevant in-ormation a#out the
person #eing addressed and the person doing the addressing in order to ask a -avour This
;7
kno(ledge is essential in terms o- di--erent levels o- -ormalit) students need to #e a(are o- '
am going to deal (ith -ormalit) later on +nother signi-icant aspect o- conte6t is to kno( the
purpose o- the conversation the target phrases occur in 't is generall) accepted that in order to
persuade someone to do us a -avour it is necessar) to make a re<uest Jac<ues asks Mark to
send him the concert dates #ecause he needs to -ul-il his dail) duties at (ork Mark asks 8en
to help him open a document #ecause he (ould like to read it Nicole asks +llie i- she can
have an a-ternoon o-- #ecause she pro#a#l) needs to make some private arrangements +nd
+llie asks Mark to come to her o--ice so that she can talk to him =hat the teacher must
emphasi:e is the di--erence #et(een ho( re<uests are made in %:ech compared to ho( the)
are success-ull) reali:ed in English The -ocus is on the -orm or content o- the re<uest or
permission Students need to #ecome a(are o- certain conventions o- English re<uests and
asking -or permission The teacher is instructed to point out that &ould you mind is -ollo(ed
#) a negative response in order to accept a re<uest Moreover$ it is necessar) to stress that
commands should not #e made (hen asking a -avour$ other(ise the) (ould sound impolite
and thus (ould most pro#a#l) #e not accepted$ or (hat is (orse the) might cause o--ence
The %:ech teacher has to #ear in mind such nuances to provide students (ith appropriate
pragmatic instructions Not all these diversions -rom cultural conventions are mentioned in
the #ook +s -ar as pronunciation is concerned$ students are given enough guidance via
repetition and drills The importance o- intonation and rh)thm are areas (hich are sometimes
underestimated #) language teachers =ithout guidance students do not kno( that accepting a
re<uest or granting permission can$ to an e6tent$ depend on the tone or the manner (ith (hich
it is uttered
%hoice o- phrases F the authors chose -our phrases -or re<uests$ one -or permission and
-our (a) o- responding to the phrases 'n m) opinion$ this num#er is completel) su--icient
=e cannot e6pect students to ac<uire more than ten phrases per a lesson The te6t#ook does
;;
not sho( a tendenc) to overload students
The phrases are o- di--erent -ormalit) levels and this clever choice ena#les students to
communicate their needs in a considera#le scale o- social and pro-essional situations -rom
-ormal A5o you think you could 8' &ould you mind 8..'($ to neutral and in-ormal ones
A*ould you 8.'% *an you 8'% Is it 7> if 8B Students can see ho( di--erent phrases are used
in the provided conversation in relation to (ho (as asked and #) (hom Athe #oss asks his or
her emplo)ee$ or the emplo)ee asks the #oss$ etcB The) can identi-) the most -ormal phrases
in the dialogue and discuss i- the) -ind the other phrases$ (hich are less -ormal$ appropriate in
the given situation The di--erent cultural #ackground o- the participants can also #e taken into
consideration 3enerall)$ the +mericans AMarkB tend to #e more direct than the 8ritish
A+llieB$ (hich can #e e6empli-ied on di--erent -ormalit) levels o- the phrases the) used
+ccurac) vs -luenc) F the te6t #ook provides enough space -or #oth +ccurac) activities$
(hich al(a)s come -irst$ aim to -ocus on the -orm o- the target phrases To practise accurac)
is the goal o- the e6ercise (here students have to -ill in the gaps$ the) practise pronunciation
and (rite the phrases under the correct heading +ll these activities re<uire immediate
correction 9unctional language cannot #e practised (ithout -luenc) activities >ne o- the
-luenc) activities is provided at the end o- the re<uesting session in the -orm o- a role pla)
Students use the target phrases in meaning-ul conversations The) are corrected a-ter the
activit) so as not to inter-ere (ith the aims o- the activit) 'n some cases instant correction is
re<uired$ #ut these errors must #e dealt (ith ver) sensitivel)
Skills F #oth receptive Alistening$ readingB and productive Aspeaking and (ritingB skills are
integrated and in #alance
:/0 International Epress Intermediate
;/
Lesson plan
International express o--ers a com#ination o- general and #usiness English 'ts aim is to
provide adult learners (ith the language necessar) to #e a#le to communicate their needs in
pro-essional and social situations +t the end o- each unit there is a section called 9ocus on
9unctions 't contains essential and use-ul -unctions (hich should increase learners\
con-idence in the ever)da) situations a pro-essional person is e6posed to 9unctions
introduced in International Express Intermediate are: introductions and greetings$ (elcoming
a visitor$ ans(ering the phone$ making and changing appointments$ giving opinions$ agreeing
and disagreeing$ participating in a meeting or discussion$ advice and suggestions$ leaving
recorded messages$ using mo#ile phones$ re<uests and o--ers$ e6changing in-ormation$ giving
talks and presentations$ t)pes o- #usiness communication$ te6ting$ (riting emails$ descri#ing a
process$ intervie(ing techni<ues$ #usiness correspondence$ social responses and sa)ing
good#)e
' am going to anal):e the (a) the authors deal (ith re<uests in unit si6 Darding and
Ta)lor$ the authors o- this te6t #ook do not introduce re<uesting on its o(n 4e<uests are
com#ined (ith o--ers and e6changing in-ormation
The target phrases are:
!e"uesting# $greeing#
*ould you 8' $es% of course.
&ould you mind 8 ' Not at all.
5o you think you could 8' $es% that!s no problem.
5o you mind 8 ' No% of course not.
*an you 8 ' $es% I!ll do that.
;0
Offering# $ccepting# %eclining#
&ould you like me to 8' $es% if you could. hanks% but you needn!t bother.
)hall I 8 '
+s a lead in$ the teacher -ocuses students\ attention on a #o6 containing the -ollo(ing
phrases:
*an you... '
&ould you mind ... ;J - ing('
5o you think you could ... '
*ould you ...'
IKd like you to ...
5o you mind ... ;J -ing('
Students are asked to distinguish (hich phrases sound more like an instruction -rom those
that sound like a re<uest This should make the students reali:e the di--erence #et(een a
direct instruction and a polite re<uest +t this point students can discuss the situations in
(hich the) (ould #e more likel) to use an instruction and (hen a re<uest (ould sound more
appropriate The conte6t can #e made more speci-ic and students ma) reali:e ho( the
communicative strategies di--er -rom %:ech to English environment
'n the -ollo(ing stage students are asked to put the re<uests in order o- -ormalit) Teacher
can illustrate the di--erent -ormalit) levels on the #oard as suggested in the Teacher\s #ook
A-rom -ormal to in-ormalB:
5o you think you could ...'
&ould you mind ...'
5o you mind ...'
;1
IKd like you to...
*ould you ...'
*an you... '
't is important to make students a(are o- various -ormalit) levels so that the) are a#le to
use them in speci-ic situations Some situations are provided:
Ask
# a colleague to translate a letter for you.
+ a friend to do some supermarket shopping for you.
. your secretary to work three hours overtime this week.
2 a colleague to give you a lift to the train station.
- your secretary to make some photocopies.
9 your son or daughter to tidy their bedroom.
, a colleague to help you move some furniture.
L a friend to water your houseplants while youKre on holiday.
Students are to decide (hich phrases are appropriate in the given situations and the) have
to e6plain their choices The teacher\s #ook suggests stressing that -or a more di--icult re<uest$
an indirect phrase is generall) pre-erred Stressing that there might #e di--erences #et(een
cultures is also recommended 'n %:ech direct phrases$ even commands -ollo(ed #) please
ma) sound accepta#le Nevertheless$ the) are not accepta#le in 8ritish English
'n the ne6t stage$ students listen to a conversation #et(een 4osa$ the !roGect manager$ and
%laire$ the secretar) Acharacters alread) kno(n to students since the) appear in ever) unitB
The goal o- this activit) is to listen -or speci-ic in-ormation$ ie (rite the in-ormation 4osa
asks %laire to get
/2
Students listen to the conversation once again and this time the) are to note do(n the
target language into the -ollo(ing -rame:
BeEuesting< Agreeing<
7ffering< Accepting< 5eclining<
The teacher elicits ideas -rom students '- necessar)$ the teacher can provide some possi#le
ans(ers himsel- or hersel-
During the -ollo(ing stage$ students practise making re<uests$ agreeing and re-using in
mini role5pla)s The conte6t is provided:
$ou are colleagues. 4ractise making and responding to reEuests. 1ive a reason when you
refuse a reEuest.
)tudent A )tudent "
Ask )tudent " to
# help you translate a document. Agree.
+ to give you lift to the airport. Befuse.
Student + adds t(o more re<uests Students change roles
)tudent " )tudent A
Ask student A to
# explain a new computer system. Agree.
+ look after a visitor next week. Befuse.
/1
Student 8 adds t(o more re<uests and student + responses
The ne6t stage is set up in order to practise making and responding to o--ers Students
(ork (ith a di--erent partner The conte6t is provided:
$ou are preparing for a seminar. 4ractise making and responding to offers. 1ive a reason
when you decline and offer. Add one more offer each.
)tuden A )tudent "
7ffer
# to set up the audio-visual eEuipment. Accept.
+ to check the number of participants. 5ecline.
)tudent " )tudent A
7ffer
# to open the windows. 5ecline
+ to get supplies of stationery. Accept
Evaluation

%onte6t F the te6t #ook creates su--icient and authentic conte6t necessar) to make a
conversation meaning-ul The instructions in the Teachers #ook e6plicitl) recommend
reminding students o- the previous unit and the stor) in M%T so -ar M%T$ an international
multimedia production compan)$ is considering a visit to three regions o- Spain (here the
proGect the) are currentl) (orking on is supposed to #e carried out The situation is set in the
pro-essional environment o- a success-ul compan) and all the encounters (ith the
protagonists create a -riendl) #ut -ormal atmosphere The target phrases come -rom a
conversation #et(een 4osa Lanson$ the proGect manager and her secretar) %laire +part -rom
/&
this rather -ormal environment$ students are also given the opportunit) to discuss (hich
phrases sound appropriate in situations o- a di--erent character$ -or instance in a conversation
among -amil) mem#ers$ -riends$ or colleagues 8) holding such discussions students should
reali:e the necessit) to alter re<uests and o--ers in accordance to the setting o- a situation in
(hich the) are re<uesting or o--ering and the status o- participants in a topical conte6t Most
%:ech students seem reluctant to use -ormal e6pressions although it is necessar) in certain
situations in order to achieve their goals 't is vital to emphasi:e that re<uests are reali:ed (ith
certain intentions and purposes 9or e6ample$ 4osa Lanson makes a re<uest #ecause she needs
her assistant to -ind out in-ormation a#out -lights to Spain$ (hich (ill certainl) save a lot o-
time The assistant o--ers to ask a#out -lights to 8il#ao in order to sho( (illingness to help
her #oss +ll the phrases used in their conversations sho( relativel) high level o- -ormalit)$
#) this -ormalit) 4osa Lanson sho(s her appreciation o- her secretar) especiall) (hen she
sees that %laire is ver) #us) %laire sho(s her sense o- dut) and respect to a person o- a
higher status '- students (ould like to ask someone a -avour$ the) need to kno( ho( to adGust
the -orm and content o- a re<uest depending on the setting$ the participants or the urgenc) o-
their re<uest 'n this respect$ students o#tain all the relevant in-ormation a#out the addressee
and the addressor in order to ask a -avour This kno(ledge is essential in terms o- the
di--erent levels o- -ormalit) students need to #e a(are o- ' am going to deal (ith -ormalit) in
more detail later on
+n essential -eature o- a success-ul conversation is not the mere a#ilit) to produce phrases
(ithout #eing responded to 't is vital to #e a#le to respond to these phrases appropriatel)
International Express provides phrases that students might use to respond to the re<uests and
o--ers (hich (ere introduced at the #eginning Students are taught ho( to e6press agreement
(ith a person (ho is re<uesting$ or accept an o--er:
A< &ould you mind 8 ' "< Not at all.
/,
A< 5o you think you could 8' "< $es% that no problem.
A< 5o you mind 8 ' "< No% of course not.
A< *an you 8' "< $es% I!ll do that.
There is no e6plicit instruction in the Teachers #ook (hich (ould recommend highlighting
responses to the &ould you mind * and 5o you mind 8 phrases %:ech students tend to give
positive replies in order to accept the re<uests Students need to #ecome a(are o- certain
conventions o- English re<uests The teacher should point out that &ould you mind 8 is
-ollo(ed #) a negative response in order to accept a re<uest Students (ho have #een using
International Express since its elementar) level are likel) to #e -amiliar (ith cultural
di--erences and their re-lection in the English language 8ut it is a constant struggle to revise
ho( certain conventions (ork in English compared to %:ech 't is necessar) to stress that
commands should not #e made (hen asking a -avour$ (hich is rather common in the students
mother tongue Students need to #e instructed that commands sound impolite and might cause
o--ence The %:ech teacher has to #ear in mind such nuances to provide students (ith
appropriate pragmatic instructions %:ech teachers #ring a clear advantage to the learning
process #ecause i- properl) instructed$ the) are capa#le o- understanding potential
pro#lematic areas %:ech students have to -ace and the) should #e a#le to o--er a reasona#le
e6planation$ (hich it is sometimes necessar) to provide in %:ech
Special attention is paid to a ver) sensitive area o- re-usals Students are asked to #rainstorm
phrases used to re-use a re<uest$ the) are to anal):e ho( these phrases are introduced and
(hat is necessar) to add in order to make them sound more tentative: I!m afraid 8% I!m sorry
but 8 The Teachers #ook suggests the -ollo(ing phrases: I!m sorry% but that!s not possible.
I!m afraid not. I think that will be very difficult. )orry% but 8 . ' (ould personall) change
very ;difficult% inconvenient( to a bit ;difficult$ inconvenient( to make the reGection even more
/.
tact-ul Students tend to repeat one or t(o phrases throughout the activities 't is up to the
teacher to encourage students to use as man) phrases as possi#le
The te6t#ook does not provide an) repetition activities to practise individual phrases (ith the
appropriate intonation and rh)thm unless the teacher stops the (hole recording a-ter each
target phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrases =hen omitting pronunciation practice$
students might Gump to the (rong conclusion that the pronunciation aspects o- language are o-
little importance !ronunciation must not #e underestimated %:ech learners are o-ten accused
#) English native speakers o- speaking in a ver) monotonous (a)$ (hich sometimes sound
rather rude even though this (as not the intention The lack o- pronunciation activities is not a
general pro#lem o- 'nternational E6press The te6t#ook o--ers pronunciation sections in ever)
unit$ #ut ' think students (ould #ene-it -rom more -re<uent drilling pronunciation activities
%hoice o- phrases F the authors chose -ive re<uesting phrases and -ive (a)s o- responding
to them$ t(o phrases -or e6pressing o--ers$ one phrase o- acceptance and -ive phrases -or
declining an o--er ' consider the num#er o- target phrases su--icient +s ' mentioned #e-ore
the te6t#ook also provides students (ith use-ul pragmatic in-ormation a#out (hat techni<ues
to use to make declining phrases more tentative and polite
The phrases are o- di--erent -ormalit) levels and their choice helps students to
communicate their needs e--ectivel) and con-identl) in a considera#le scale o- social and
pro-essional situations -rom -ormal
A5o you think you could 8' &ould you mind 8..'($ to neutral and in-ormal ones A*ould you
8.'% *an you 8'B Students are o--ered a variet) o- situations kno(ing their roles in the
conversation and thus are provided (ith opportunities to ac<uire phrases o- di--erent -ormalit)
levels in natural conte6ts
+ccurac) vs -luenc) F students (ork (ith read) made phrases This is not the -irst time
the) come across re<uests and o--ers >n an even larger scale$ students learn to make re<uests
/7
and o--ers in International Express 4re-intermediate 9ocus on accurac) can #e seen in the
identi-ication stage (here students are to place the target phrases under the correct heading
and during the discussion on the -ormalit) and politeness o- the phrases 't can #e considered
as #oth an accurac) activit) (ith -ocus on -orm and immediate correction and a controlled
pragmatic discussion 9luenc) activities in the -orm o- role pla)s create an inevita#le part o-
International Express -unctional language sections +lthough the students are given scenarios
(hich the) have to -ollo($ a-ter the prescri#ed tasks the) are allo(ed to add t(o more
re<uests 't might slo( do(n the activit) to a certain e6tent since students + and 8 (ill #oth
need some thinking time to invent re<uests and responses to them >n the other hand$ making
their o(n re<uests makes this activit) more personali:ed and students ma) -ind the
opportunit) to choose (hether to agree or re-use more realistic than cop)ing instructions -rom
the #ook %ontrolled practice changes into a slightl) -reer practice
Skills F the unit incorporates #oth productive Aspeaking and (ritingB and receptive skills
AlisteningB 'n terms o- reading$ this can naturall) #e integrated a-ter the listening activit) The
teacher might ask students to go through the tape script at the end o- the #ook and -ind more
phrases (hich the) (ere una#le to identi-) in the listening activit)
)onclusion
8oth te6t#ooks succeed in creating su--icient conte6t -or the re<uesting situation o- the
particular conversations Students are provided (ith relevant in-ormation on the role o- the
speakers concerning their status in the compan)$ personal relationships and nationalit) +part
-rom the main conversation$ e6tra situations are o--ered in order to use re<uesting phrases in
di--erent conte6ts especiall) (ith regard to the -ormalit) level Students are given
opportunities to practise the target phrases pla)ing roles o- -riends$ colleagues$ a #oss (ith an
emplo)ee or parents (ith their children International Express$ #eing a #usiness te6t#ook to a
/;
certain e6tent$ tends to provide a more -ormal environment -or the main characters o- the
compan) that provides the thematic #ackground running through the (hole te6t#ook
9urthermore$ it does not neglect less -ormal events +lthough New English File introduces its
sections o- -unctional language using the same strateg)$ ie providing a #ackground o- an
international compan) (ith the same main characters reappearing throughout the te6t#ook$
generall)$ the (hole environment tends to #e rather in-ormal #) -ocusing more on the
interpersonal relationships o- the characters 'n order not to omit more -ormal re<uests$ the
practical English section in (hich re<uests are introduced$ sho(s a tendenc) to mi6 #oth
-ormal re<uests A&ould you mind sending me the concert dates' 5o you think you could send
me the reEuest by email'( and in-ormal ;*ould you help me' *an you come and see me when
you have a moment'(.
%oncerning other pragmatic instructions$ each #ook pa)s attention to slightl) di--erent
areas o- pragmatic in-ormation ' am no( dra(ing on the instructions as the) appear in the
teachers #ooks New English File stresses the importance o- giving a negative response a-ter
5o you mind 8 % &ould you mind 8 phrases to agree to the re<uest 'nternational E6press is
more thorough in providing teachers and students respectivel) (ith pragmatic in-ormation 't
stresses that (ith more di--icult re<uests$ an indirect phrase is pre-erred Emphasi:ing that
there might #e di--erences #et(een cultures is also recommended 'n this respect$ in students
o(n language$ direct phrases can #e used more o-ten or ma) #e more accepta#le than in
English 't gives e6amples o- responses to re<uests including the 5o you mind 8'% &ould you
mind 8' phrases 't helps students to deal (ith giving negative responses$ (hich are
undou#tedl) the most -ace threatening situations The te6t#ook suggest using tact-ul phrases
I!m afraid and I!m sorry% but8% I think 8 .
8oth te6t#ooks provide a su--icient num#er o- re<uesting phrases 4e<uests are not
introduced on its o(n$ (hich corresponds (ith Tsuis claim that re<uests are o-ten per-ormed
//
under a linguistic disguise in order to reduce the -ace5threatening e--ect A111.:12,5117B
Students are given e6amples o- phrases o- all three levels o- -ormalit) F in-ormal$ neutral and
-ormal Students are not overloaded #) too man) phrases (hich could not #e a#sor#ed in one
re<uesting session >n the other hand$ (hat can #e vie(ed as pro#lematic$ are the -ollo(ing
stages o- the unit +s the design o- the unit in International Express suggests$ the session on
re<uests should #e immediatel) -ollo(ed #) a session aimed at practising e6changing
in-ormation: asking$ checking$ con-irming$ correcting and sho(ing understanding 't is rather
<uestiona#le (hether students are a#le to cope (ith three language -unctions at the same time$
ie re<uests$ o--ers and e6changing in-ormation$ although in the given conte6t the) co5e6ist
The te6t#ook should serve as a guide to the teacher 't is the teachers responsi#ilit) to
predict ho( much his or her students are capa#le o- a#sor#ing in one lesson 'n this respect
the teacher can decide (hether to manage all the three -unctions at one time or (hether to
divide the unit into t(o separate lessons
New English File does not introduce re<uests and o--ers on their o(n$ either The
re<uesting session is -ollo(ed #) a #rie- Social EnglishM >--ice 3ossip section
The character o- the use-ul phrases is completel) di--erent -rom the character o- the
phrases in the previous re<uesting section 't is up to the teacher to decide (hether this section
should #e included in the lesson or not Taking into consideration the nature o- the phrases
and the -act that the section is relativel) short$ implementing it into the lesson should not have
a ver) distur#ing impact on the lesson 'n addition$ it might (ork as a possi#le -ollo(5up
activit) regarding the chronological aspect o- the stor)
'n terms o- #alance #et(een the accurac) and -luenc) activities$ #oth #ooks meet the
methodological demands +ccurac) activities are provided in the -orm o- gap5-illing$ -rame
(ork and drills E6tra gap5-illing activities are to #e -ound in the (ork#ook$ (hich serves as a
(a) to rein-orce the ne(l) ac<uired language in home conditions
/0
9luenc) practice is supplied in the -orm o- role pla)s o- various scenarios -rom the ver)
-ormal to the ver) in-ormal ones

$ummary
'n this (ork ' have attempted to pro-ile the scope o- pragmatics and its signi-icance in
modern English language teaching ' have dra(n on recent methodological research and
recapitulated its -indings$ emphasi:ing the signi-icance o- pragmatic instruction in order to
develop #asic pragmatic competence in conGunction (ith grammatical competence
De-ining pragmatic competence is inevita#l) linked to the phenomenon o- cross5cultural
pragmatics This in turns leads to considerations o- cross5cultural training and instruction
along (ith the incorporation o- culture a(areness raising activities into the classroom setting
' have outlined the most -re<uent pro#lematic grammatical and le6ical areas non5native
speakers might encounter in the course o- the second language ac<uisition process ' have
speci-icall) directed care-ul attention to the %:ech learner o- English
The last part o- the (ork is devoted to the area o- re<uesting strategies$ the (a) the) are
tackled in modern English te6t#ooks %:ech attitude to per-orming re<uests in English is
taken into consideration and the principal di--erentiations #et(een %:ech and English
re<uesting strategies have #een outlined
)zec# $ummary
/1
Le sv prci Gsem se pokusila de-inovat :kladn] c]le pragmatik) a :d^ra:nit uplat_ovn]
pragmatickNch princip^ v modern] vNuce anglickho Ga:)ka >p]rala Gsem se pTi tom o
vNsledk) souVasnho metodologickho vN:kumu v tto o#lasti MNm :mRrem #)lo
podtrhnout vN:nam pT]tomnosti pragmatickNch instrukc] ve v)uVovn]$ coQ spolu
s prohlu#ovn] gramatickNch dovednost] dv pTedpoklad k ro:v]Gen] pragmatick
kompetence ve shodR s gramatickou kompetenc]
L)me:en] pragmatick kompetence nev)hnutelnR smRTuGe k -enomnu vn]mn] odliUnosti
kultur$ re-lektovn] kulturn]ch speci-ik v Ga:)ce a nslednR :aTa:en] tomu odpov]daG]c]ch
aktivit do v)uVovn] ci:]ch Ga:)k^ !ragmatick instruktQ a disku:e se stvaG] nev)hnutelnou
souVst] plnohodnotn vNuk)
`vlUtn] po:ornost #)la :amRTena na Vesk student) a GeGich neGVastRGU] gramatick a
le6ikln] poch)#en] pTi osvoGovn] si anglickho Ga:)ka
!osledn] Vst prce Ge vRnovna o#lasti tvoTen] :dvoTilNch Qdost] a :p^so#u GakNm Gsou
Qdosti pre:entovn) v souVasnNch uVe#nic]ch anglickho Ga:)ka `sad) tvor#) anglickNch
Qdost] Gsou kon-rontovn) s VeskNm vn]mn]m tohoto TeVovho aktu
02
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0.