IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/1

Functional Equations
Equations for unknown functions are called functional equations. Questions involving equations of
unknown sequences or polynoials can also !e treated as pro!les of t"is kind# for sequences and polynoials
are $ust special functions. %nfortunately# we "ave no systeatic et"od or algorit" to solve general functional
equations& and !ecause of t"is# functional equations appear quite often in at"eatics copetitions.
1. Basic techniques in solving functional equations in one variable
'iple functional equations can !e easily solved !y a suita!le transforation of varia!les(
Example 1.1
'olve t"e functional equation f)* + 1, - *
.
/* + ..
'oln(
0et t - * + 1# t"en * - t 1.
f)t, -)t 1,
.
/)t 1, + . - t
.
1t + 2
f)*, - *
.
1* + 2
Example 1.2
'olve t"e functional equation
*
1
*
1 *
*
1 *
f
.
.
+
+

,
_

+
.
'oln(
0et t -
*
1 * +
# t"en * -
1 t
1

.
3"us f)t, -

,
_

,
_

+
,
_

1 t
1
1
1 t
1
1
1 t
1
.
.
- t
.
t + 1
f)*, - *
.
* + 1.
In general# suppose we want to solve t"e equation f 4)*,5 - g)*, for f.
If t"e inverse function of e*ists# t"en we let t - )*,. 6ence f)*, - g 4
1
)*,5.
Example 1.3
'olve f)e
*
, - *
/
+ sin * for f.
'oln(
0et t - e
*
# t"en * - ln t.
'o f)*, - )ln 7*7,
/
+ sin )ln 7*7,.
Example 1.4
0et a t1. 'olve
,
_

1 *
*
f
- af)*, + )*, for f.
'oln(
0et t -
1 *
*

# t"en * -
1 t
t

.
f )t, - a f
,
_

1 t
t
+
,
_

1 t
t
- a)af)t, + )t,, +
,
_

1 t
t
f)*, -
.
a 1
1 *
*
, * ) a

,
_

+
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/.
8 functional equation in one varia!le ay involve functional values of different alge!raic e*pressions of t"e
varia!le. 8 usually eployed tec"nique is to create siultaneous equations(
Example 1.5
'olve /f)*, + .f
,
_

*
1
- 9* for f.
'oln(
:iven /f)*, + .f
,
_

*
1
- 9*. ;;;;;; )1,
<eplace * !y
*
1
in t"e equation# we "ave
/f
,
_

*
1
+ .f)*, -
*
9
. ;;;;;; ).,
'olving )1, and ).,# we "ave
f)*, -
* 1
= * 1.
.

.
Example 1.6
Find all real valued functions f defined on real nu!ers e*cept > suc" t"at
*
*
1
f , * ) f
*
1

,
_

+ for all * >.

'oln(
<eplace * !y *# we "ave
*
*
1
f , * ) f
*
1

,
_

;;;;; )1,
<eplace * !y
*
1
# we "ave
*
1
, * ) f
*
1
f * +
,
_

;;;;; ).,
'olve for f)*, fro )1, and ).,# we "ave
,
_

+
*
1
*
.
1
, * ) f
.
.
It is often easy to find t"e solutions of functional equations wit" soe additional properties or of special kinds.
For e*aple# t"e functions involved are continuous# onotonic# !ounded# differentia!le# polynoials etc.
Example 1.
:iven t"at f is a polynoial in *# solve t"e functional equation f)* + 1, + f)* 1, - .*
.
9*.
'oln(
O!serve t"at deg )f)*,, - deg )f)* + 1, + f)* 1,, - ..
?e ay write f)*, - a*
.
+ !* + c.
'u!stitute t"is into t"e functional equation# we "ave
.a*
.
+ .!* + .)a + c, - .*
.
9*.
@y coparing coefficients#
.a - .# .! - 9 and .)a + c, - >.
3"us a - 1# ! - .# c - 1.
3"at is f)*, - *
.
.* 1.
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations//
Exercise
1. Find t"e function f w"ic" satisfies f)*, + f
,
_

* 1
1
- * for all * ># 1.
.. ?"ic" function is c"aracteriAed !y t"e equation *f)*, + .*f)*, - 1B
/. Find all polynoials p satisfying p)* + 1, - p)*, + .* + 1.
9. 'olve f)tan *, + . f)tan *, - sin .* for f # w"ere
.

C * C
.

.
1. Find continuous function f suc" t"at f)*, -
,
_

,
_

.
*
f
.
*
cos and f)>, - 1.
2. Functional equations in more then one variable
@y looking for syetry# soe equations wit" ore t"an one varia!le can !e reduced to equations wit" one
varia!le(
Example 2.1
'olve )* y,f)* + y, )* + y,f)* y, - 9*y)*
.
y
.
, for f.
'oln(
3"e equation is
*y 9
y *
, y * ) f
y *
, y * ) f

+
+
.
0et g)*, -
*
, * ) f
.
3"en g)* + y, g)* y, - 9*y
g)* + y, )* + y,
.
- g)* y, )* y,
.

g)*, *
.
- k for soe constant k
f)*, - *
/
+ k*
8not"er way to reduce t"e nu!er of varia!les involved is to assign special values to soe varia!les in t"e
equations(
Example 2.2 4=D;== IMO)6K, 'election Eontest5
If f)*,f)y, f)*y, - * + y for all real * and y# find f)*,.
'oln(
'etting y - ># we "ave f)>,)f)*,1, - * for all *.
3"us f)>, > and
1
, > ) f
*
, * ) f +
.
'etting * - > - y f )>, )f )>, 1, - > f )>, - 1
f )*, - * + 1
Finally# since )*+1,)y+1,)*y+1, - * + y# t"e solution is verified.
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/9
Example 2.3 4F1;F2 IMO)6K, 'election Eontest5
3"e function f satisfies f)*, + f)y, - f)* + y, *y 1 for every real *# y.
If f)1, - 1# find t"e negative integer n suc" t"at f)n, - n.
'oln(
0et * - 1# t"en f)y + 1, f)y, - y + .. 0et y - ># t"en f)>, - 1.
For n 1# f)n, + 1 - f)n, f)>, -
1
.
, . n ,) 1 n )
, . y ) ,, y ) f , 1 y ) f )
1 n
> y
1 n
> y

+ +
+ +

f)n, -
.
. n / n
.
.
. n / n
. .
+

+ +
0et * - n# y - n# we "ave f)n, + f)n, - n
.
. f)n, - n
.
. f)n, -
.
. , n ) / , n )
.
+
It follows t"at f)n, -
.
. n / n
.
+
"olds also for negative n.
f)n, - n
.
. n / n
.
+
- n n
.
+ n . - )n 1,)n + ., - > n - 1 or .
!ome "seful #esults
0et f !e a continuous function.
)1, f)* + y, - f)*, + f)y, for all *# y (Additive)
f)*, - c*
)., f)* + y, - f)*,f)y, for all *# y
f)*, - c
*
)/, f)*y, - f)*, + f)y, for all *# y
f)*, - c ln *
)9, f)*y, - f)*,f)y, for all *# y (Multiplicative)
f)*, - *
c
w"ere c is a constant.
Example 2.4 )GensenHs functional equation,
Find all continuous functions f suc" t"at
.
, y ) f , * ) f
.
y *
f
+

,
_

+
for all *# y R.
'oln(
'et y - ># we "ave
.
, > ) f , * ) f
.
*
f
+

,
_

for all *.
3"en
.
, > ) f , y * ) f
.
y *
f
.
, y ) f , * ) f + +

,
_

+
for all *# y. i.e. f)* + y, - f)*, + f)y, f)>,
0et ")*, - f)*, f)>,# t"en ")* + y, - ")*, + ")y, for all *# y.
6ence ")*, - c* for all *& and so f)*, - c* + f)>, for all *.
Example 2.5
Find all continuous solution)s, of f)* + y, - g)*, + ")y,.
'oln(
'et y - ># ")>, - !# we "ave f)*, - g)*, + !
'et * - ># g)>, - a# we "ave f)y, - a + ")y,
It follows t"at f)* + y, - 4f)*, !5 + 4f)y, a5 - f)*, + f)y, )a + !,.
0et F)*, - f)*, a !.
3"en F)* + y, - F)*, + F)y,.
F is an additive continuous function# so F)*, - k* k ; constant.
Eonsequently#
f)*, - k* + a + !& g)*, - k* + a and ")*, - k* + !
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/1
Exercise
2. 3"e function f)*, is defined for all real *. If f)a + !, - f)a!, for all a# ! and
.
1
.
1
f


,
_

# copute
f)1F==,. 4==;=F IMO)6K, 'election Eontest5
D. 0et f !e a function suc" t"at
f)* + y
.
, - f)*, + .)f)y,,
.
and f)1, >.
Find t"e value of f)1FF2,.
4F2;FD IMO)6K, 'election Eontest5
=. Find all solutions of f)* + y, + f)* y, - .f)*,cos y.
F. Find all continuous function f defined for * I > suc" t"at f)*y, - *f)y, + yf)*,.
1>. Find all continuous function f defined for * I > suc" t"at f)* + y, -
, y ) f , * ) f
, y ) f , * ) f
+
.
11. Find all continuous functions f satisfying f)* + y, - f)*, + f)y, + f)*,f)y,.
3. $ar%er Functional Equations
3o solve a functional equation of IMO;type is not easy. 3"e tec"nique discussed is "elpful !ut not sufficient.
3"e good t"ing a!out trying a pro!le in functional equation is t"at one can pluck in a lot of values to get soe
properties of t"e function. 6owever# you need to "ave a sense of discernent(
)1, Is t"e function one;to;one or ontoB
)., Is t"e function periodic# even or oddB
)/, Is t"e function increasing/decreasingB
)9, Is t"ere any syetryB
)1, Is t"ere any fi*ed pointB
)2, ?"at is t"e significant of ot"er conditionsB
Example 3.1 4IMO 1F2=5
0et f !e a real;valued function defined for all real nu!ers * suc" t"at# for soe positive constant a# t"e
equation f)* + a, -
.
,5 * ) f 4 , * ) f
.
1
+ "olds for all *.
)a, Jrove t"at t"e function f is periodic.
)i.e. t"ere e*ists a positive nu!er ! suc" t"at f)* + !, - f)*, for all *,.
)!, For a - 1# give an e*aple of a non;constant function wit" t"e required properties.
&%ea'
3"e equation is f)* + a, ,5 * ) f 1 ,4 * ) f
.
1
. Ean you o!serve t"at !ot" sides are Ksyetrical a!out
1/.KB If you recogniAe t"is fact# it is natural to use t"e su!stitution g)*, - f)*, 1/..
!oln'
0et g)*, - f)*, 1/.. 3"en g)*, > and
. .
,5 * ) g 4
9
1
,5 a * ) g 4 + for all *.
It follows t"at
. . . .
,5 * ) g 4 ,5 * ) g 4
9
1
9
1
,5 a * ) g 4
9
1
,5 a . * ) g 4
,
_

+ + g)* + .a, - g)*,

for all *.
3"us f)* + .a, - g)* + .a, + 1/. - g)*, + 1/. - f)*, for all *# so f is periodic wit" period .a.
For a - 1# an e*aple of a non;constant function wit" t"e required properties is
f)*, -

,
_

+
.
*
cos 1
.
1
Indeed# f)* + 1, -

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
+
.
*
cos 1 1
.
1
.
*
sin 1
.
1
.
, 1 * )
cos 1
.
1
.
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/2
- ,5 * ) f 1 ,4 * ) f
.
1
.
*
cos 1
.
1
.
*
cos 1
.
1
.
1
+

'

,
_

'

,
_

+ +
Example 3.2
0et f( N N !e strictly increasing# f)., - .# and
f)n, - f),f)n, for all # n N wit" )# n, - 1 )# n coprie,.
Jrove t"at f)n, - n for all n N.
&%ea'
It is easy to c"eck t"at f)1, - 1. Furt"erore# if is an odd integer# ).# , - 1 and so f)., - f).,f), - .f),.
3"erefore# if f), - for soe odd integers# f)., - ..
!oln'
First# .f)1, - f)1,f)., - f)1., - f)., - . f)1, - 1.
'econd# .f)D, - f).,f)D, C f)/,f)D, - f).1, C f).., - f).,f)11, - .f)11, C .f)19, - .f).,f)D, - 9f)D, f)/, - /.
'uppose t"ere are soe positive integers n wit" f)n, n and we let s !e t"e sallest aong t"e.
3"en f)n, - n for n s 1.
'ince f)s, s and f is strictly increasing# f)n, I n for n s ;;;;; )L,
Ease )i,
If s is odd# t"en ).# s ., - 1 and so .)s .,- f).,f)s ., - f4.)s .,5.
6owever# for s 9# .)s ., s and so f4.)s .,5 I .)s ., w"ic" contradicts to )L,.
Ease )ii,
If s is even# t"en ).# s 1, - 1 and so .)s 1, - f).,f)s 1, - f4.)s 1,5.
6owever# for s 9# .)s 1, s and so f4.)s 1,5 I .)s 1, w"ic" contradicts to )L, again.
In conclusion# suc" an s does not e*ist# and "ence f)n, - n for all positive integers n.
Example 3.3 4IMO 1FDD5
0et f)n, !e a function defined on t"e set of all positive integers and "aving all its values in t"e sae set.
Jrove t"at if f)n + 1, I f)f)n,, for eac" positive integer n# t"en f)n, - n for eac" n.
&%ea'
?"at we are given is an inequality. 6ence we s"all s"ow f)n, n and f)n, n. First# it is clear t"at f)1, 1 and
f)., I f)f)1,, 1 f)., .. 6owever# we cannot deduce f)/, / fro f)/, I f)f).,, !ecause we only know t"at
f)., . !ut we donHt know w"et"er f)f).,, .. In view of t"is# we s"all s"ow a uc" stronger assertion( KIf is
an integer greater t"an or equal to n# t"en f), nK !y induction on n.
!oln'
0et J)n,( If n# t"en f), n.
Elearly we "ave f), 1 for all 1.
8ssue J)n, is true. i.e. If n# t"en f), n.
Mow n + 1 1 n f) 1, n f)f) 1,, n f), I f)f) 1,, n
f), n + 1
J)n + 1, is also true.
@y induction# J)n, is true for all n 1.
In particular# f)n, n for all n 1.
Eonsequently# f)n + 1, I f)f)n,, f)n, proving t"at f is strictly increasing.
Mow f)k, k for soe k
f)k, I k f)k, k + 1 f)k + 1, I f)f)k,, f)k + 1, w"ic" is ipossi!le.
3"erefore# f)n, - n for all n.
Example 3.5 4IMO 1F=.5
3"e function f)n, is defined for all positive integers n and takes on non;negative integer values.
8lso# for all # n
f) + n, f), f)n, - > or 1
f)., - ># f)/, I ># and f)FFFF, - ////.
Neterine f)1F=.,.
&%ea'
?e "ave f) + n, f), f)n, O># 1P. 3"is is an a!iguous equation and is difficult to "andle. It forces us to
restate t"e condition as f) + n, f), + f)n,.
It is not difficult to get f)/, - 1 and "ence f)./, .f)/, - .# f)//, - f)/ + ./, /f)/, - /# Q# f)/n, /n. 3"e
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/D
fact t"at f)FFFF, - //// iplies t"at f)/n, - /n "olds at least up to n - ////.
!oln'
?e "ave > f) + n, f), f)n, 1 for all # n.
3"us f) + n, f), + f)n, and f) + n, f), + f)n, + 1 for all # n.
Jut - n - 1# t"en f)., .f)1,. @ut t"en f)., - > forces f)1, - >.
Jut - .# n - 1# t"en > C f)/, f)., + f)1, + 1 - 1 f)/, - 1.
It follows easily fro induction t"at f)/n, n for all n& and if f)/k, I k for soe k# t"en f)/, I for all k.
'ince f)FFFF, - f)/////, - ////# t"e equation f)/n, - n "olds at least up to n - ////.
Mow 1F=. - f)/1F=., f).1F=., + f)1F=., /f)1F=., f)1F=., 1F=.// C 221.
On t"e ot"er "and# f)1F=., f)1F=>, + f)., - f)/22>, + > - 22>.
It follows t"at f)1F=., - 22>.
Example 3.6 4IMO 1FF95
0et ' !e t"e set of real nu!er greater t"an 1. Find all functions f ( ' ' satisfying t"e two conditions(
)i, f)* + f)y, + *f)y,, - y + f)*, + yf)*, for all *# y in '&
)ii,
*
, * ) f
is strictly increasing for 1 C * C > and for > C *.
&%ea'
3"ere sees to !e a syetrical aong t"e varia!les * and y. ?e put * - y in )i, get(
f)* + f)*, + *f)*,, - * + f)*, + *f)*,.
3"erefore# for eac" *# t"e nu!er * + f)*, + *f)*, is a fi*ed point of t"e function.
On t"e ot"er "and# condition )ii, eans "as at ost / fi*ed points.
!oln'
Jut y - * in )i, f)* + f)*, + *f)*,, - * + f)*, + *f)*, * + f)*, + *f)*, is a fi*ed point of f.
Eondition )ii, iplies t"at f "as at ost / fi*ed points# one in t"e interval )1# >,# one equal to ># and one I >.
Furt"erore# if u is a fi*ed point of f# t"en !y putting * - y - u in )i,# we "ave f)u
.
+ u, - u
.
+ .u.
3"us u
.
+ .u is also a fi*ed point.
)1, If f "as a fi*ed;point u in t"e interval )1# >,# t"en it follows fro > C u + 1 C 1 t"at
1 C u
.
+ .u - )u + 1,
.
1 C >.
@ot" u and u
.
+ .u are fi*ed points in )1# >, u - u
.
+ .u u
.
+ u - > u - > or 1 w"ic" is
ipossi!le.
f "as no fi*ed point in t"e interval )1# >,.
)., If f "as a fi*ed;point u I ># t"en clearly u
.
+ .u I >.
6ence !ot" u and u
.
+ .u are positive fi*ed points u - u
.
+ .u u - > or 1 w"ic" is a!surd again.
Eonsequently# t"e only fi*ed point of f is >.
3"us * + f)*, + *f)*, - > for all *
3"at is# f)*, -
* 1
*
+

Example 3. 4IMO 1F=/5

Find all functions f defined on t"e set of positive real nu!ers w"ic" take positive real values and satisfy t"e
conditions(
)i, f)*f)y,, - yf)*, for all positive *# y&
)ii, f)*, > as * .
&%ea'
@y setting * - y# we know t"at *f)*, is a fi*ed point of f for all *. Furt"erore# we can s"ow t"at t"e product of
two fi*ed points is also a fi*ed point. 6ence# given a fi*ed point a I 1# we can generate a sequence of fi*ed
points( a# a
.
# a
/
# Q. 3"is contradicts to t"e fact t"at f)*, > as * # Q.
!oln'
First# since * , * ) f
, * ) f
*
, * ) f
*
f * f

,
_

,
_

for all * I ># t"e function is onto.

0et f)y, - 1.
3"en f)1, - f)1f)y,, - yf)1, y - 1. 3"erefore# f)1, - 1.
@y putting y - * in )i,# we "ave f)*f)*,, - *f)*, for all * I > For every * I ># *f)*, is a fi*ed point of f.
O!serve t"at(
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/=
)1, If a and ! are fi*ed points of f# t"en f)a!, - f)af)!,, - !f)a, - !a. 6ence a! is also a fi*ed point of f.
In particular 4*f)*,5
n
is a fi*ed point for n - 1# .# /# Q.
)., If a is a fi*ed point of f# t"en
a
1
, 1 ) f
a
1
a
a
1
f
a
1
, a ) f
a
1
f
a
1
a
1
af
a
1
a
1
f
,
_

1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

.
6ence
a
1
is also a fi*ed point.
Mow if a I 1 is a fi*ed point# t"en !y )1,# f)a
n
, - a
n
as n . 3"is contradicts to condition )ii,.
Moreover# !y ).,# a C 1 is a fi*ed point iplies 1/a I 1 is a fi*ed point.
Eonsequently# t"e only fi*ed point of f is 1.
3"erefore *f)*, - 1 for all *. 3"at is# f)*, -
*
1
.
Example 3.( 4IMO 1FF25
0et ' - O># 1# .# /# QP !e t"e set of non;negative integers. Find all functions f defined on ' and taking t"eir
values in ' suc" t"at f) + f)n,, - f)f),, + f)n, for all # n in '
&%ea'
@y putting - n - ># we gets f)>, - >. 6ence f)f)n,, - f)> + f)n,, - f)f)>,, + f)n, - f)n, for all n. 3"erefore# all
nu!ers of t"e for f)n, are fi*ed points.
3"roug" t"e investigation of t"e properties of t"e fi*ed points# we s"ould find t"at if p is t"e sallest positive
fi*ed point of f# t"en t"e fi*ed points of f are precisely t"e integral ultiple of p.
For any positive integer n# we can write n - kp + r wit" k ' and > r C p. 3"en
f)n, - f)kp + r, - f)f)kp, + r, - f)kp, + f)r, - kp + f)r,.
f is deterined !y its action on 1# .# Q# p 1.
!oln'
Jut - n - ># f)f)>,, - f)f)>,, + f)>, f)>, - >.
Jut - ># f)f)n,, - f)f)>,, + f)n, - f)n,
3"en all nu!ers of t"e for f)n, are fi*ed points# and "ence for all and n# f) + f)n,, - f), + f)n, ;;;; )L,
Elearly f > is a solution.
?e s"all assue f is not identically Aero and let p !e t"e sallest positive fi*ed point of f.
If p - 1# t"en f)1, - 1 and f)1 + f)n,, - f)1, + f)n, - 1 + f)n, iplies easily !y induction t"at f)n, - n for all n.
If p I 1# f)p, - p f).p, - f)p + f)p,, - .f)p, - .p f)/p, - f)p + f).p,, - f)p, + f).p, - /p Q all
positive ultiplies of p are fi*ed points.
Moreover# if ! is a fi*ed point# write ! - kp + r wit" r# k ' and > r C p.
3"en kp + r - f)kp + r, - f)f)kp, + r, - f)r, + f)kp, - kp + f)r, f)r, - r. 3"e iniality of p forces r - >.
6ence# t"e fi*ed points of f are precisely ># p# .p# /p# Q.
For every n '# write n - kp + r wit" k# r ' and > r C p.
3"en f)n, - f)kp + r, - f)f)kp, + r, - f)r, + f)kp, - f)r, + kp.
6ence f is deterined !y its action on 1# .# Q# p 1.
'ince f)1,# f).,# Q# f)p 1, are fi*ed points# eac" of t"e is a positive ultiple of p. Eonsequently# after )p 1,
ar!itrary non;negative integers are c"osen# t"e values of f)1,# f).,# Q# f)p 1,# and all ot"ers f)n, are
deterined.
Exercise
1.. 0et f( R R a function suc" t"at
)i, for all *# y R
f)*, + f)y, + 1 f)* + y, f)*, + f)y,
)ii, for all * 4># 1,# f)>, f)*,.
)iii, f)1, - f)1, - 1.
Find all suc" functions.
1/. 4IMO1F=15
3"e function f)*# y, satisfies
)1, f)># y, - y + 1#
)., f)* + 1# >, - f)*# 1,
)/, f)* + 1# y + 1, - f)*# f)* + 1# y,,#
for all non;negative integers *# y. Neterine f)9# 1F=1,.
IMO/KKK/Functional Equations/F
19. Find all functions f( NO>P NO>P satisfying t"e following two conditions(
)i, For any # n NO>P# .f)
.
+ n
.
, - Of),P
.
+ Of)n,P
.
)ii, For any # n NO>P wit" n# f)
.
, f)n
.
,.
11. 0et f( N N !e suc" t"at f)f), + f)n,, - + n for all # n.
Jrove t"at f)n, - n for all n N.