Prof Dumitru DINU

HYDRAULIC MACHINES

















2
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

2. HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND MOTORS

2.1 Volumetric pumps
2.1.1 Piston pump
2.1.2 Pumps with radial pistons
2.1.3 Pumps with blades
2.1.4 Pumps with axial pistons
2.1.5 Pumps with sprocket wheels
2.1.6 Others types of volumetric pumps
2.1.7 Characteristics of volumetric pumps
2.2 Hydrodynamic pumps
2.2.1 Building and classification
2.2.2 Turbo pump theory
2.2.3 Turbo pumps in network
2.2.4 Computation of centrifugal pumps
2.2.5 Parallel and series connection of centrifugal
pumps
2.2.6 Suction of centrifugal pumps
2.2.7 Axial pumps
2.3 Ejectors
2.4 Volumetric hydraulic motors
2.4.1 Hydraulic cylinders
2.4.2 Motors with radial pistons
2.4.3 Motors with blades
2.4.4 Motors with axial pistons
2.4.5 Oscillating rotary motors
2.5 Turbines
2.5.1 Peltons turbine
2.5.2 Francis turbine
2.5.3 Kaplans turbine

3. CONTROL AND AUXILIARY APPARATUS

3.1 Control apparatus
3.1.1 Distribution apparatus
3.1.2 Flow monitoring apparatus
3.1.3 Pressure monitoring apparatus
3.2 Auxiliary apparatus
3.2.1 Conduits
3.2.2 Filters
3.2.3 Tanks
3.2.4 Accumulators
3

4. MEASURING APPARATUS

4.1 Apparatus which determine the physical properties of fluids
4.1.2 Density measurement
4.1.3 Viscosity measurement
4.2 Measuring instruments for the level of liquids
4.3 Pressure measuring instruments
4.3.1 Devices with liquids
4.3.2 Devices with elastic elements
4.3.3 Devices with transducers
4.4 Velocity measuring instruments
4.4.1 Pitot-Prandlt tube
4.4.2 Mechanical anemometers
4.4.3 Thermic anemometers
4.4.4 Optical measuring instruments
4.5 Flow measurement
4.5.1 Volumetric methods
4.5.2 Methods based on throttling the stream
section of the fluids
4.5.3 Methods based on exploring
the velocity field in the flow section
4.5.4 Flow meters with variable crossing
section
4.5.5 The ultrasound flow meters
4.5.6 The electromagnetic flow meter
4.5.7 Diluting methods

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4





1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS



Hydropneumatic systems transmit the mechanical energy from a leading
element to a led one by means of fluids.

Depending on the way the energy is transmitted, hydropneumatic systems may
be classified as follows:

- hydropneumatic systems of hydrostatic type;
- hydropneumatic systems of hydrodynamic type;
- hydropneumatic systems of sonic type.

For the hydropneumatic systems of hydrostatic type, potential energy is sent by
means of fluids.

In Fig 1. such a system is schematically shown. The hydraulic generator G
H
, in
fact a volumetric pump, takes over the mechanical energy transmitted by the electrical
engine M
E
, turns it into potential hydraulic energy and transmits it by means of pipes
and other control, monitoring and adjusting devices to the hydraulic motor M
H
, which is
also of volumetric type. This, in its turn, converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy used by the working equipment O
L
.

Systems of hydrodynamic type use the kinetic energy of the fluid. They are also
called turbo couplings or turbo transmissions. In figure 1.2 the scheme of a turbo
transmission is shown.

Fig.1.1.

The mechanical energy received from shaft 1 is turned into kinetic energy by the
hydrodynamic pump 2. In turbine 3, kinetic energy is turned into mechanical energy,
which is taken over by shaft 4.
5
This transmission system has besides a coupling role, the role of variable
regulator. Invented in 1904 by professor Ftinger, turbo transmission was designed to
couple the shaft of a naval Diesel engine with the propeller, thus also accomplishing
substantial rotation decrease.

Systems of hydrodynamic type are high power systems.


Fig.1.2
Systems of sonic type are based on pressure wave propagation supplied by a mono or
three phase sonic generator (a hydraulic cylinder or three hydraulic cylinders at 120
o
),
to a mono three phase receiver (motor).

By the alternate movement of the piston, an area of high pressure is generated,
which is sent along conduit 2 to the driving piston 3. (Fig.1.3.). So, as in the above-
mentioned systems, the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy (this time
hydrosonic) and then back into mechanical energy.

Fig.1.3.

The transmission of energy is made under very high pressures 1,000 2,000
daN/
2
cm . The distance between the two pistons must be a whole number multiple of
wavelength . If we note with the propagation speed of the pressure wave and with n
the rotation in rot/s of the crank, then n.

We must underline that sonication, i. e. energy transmission through conduits by
means of pressure waves, was founded as a science by Gh. Constantinescu, a Romanian
scientist.

6
A hydropneumatic system represents an assembly of elements by means of
which we can produce and direct in a controllable manner the hydraulic and pneumatic
energy stored in a fluid with the help of a motor that turns it again into mechanical
energy.

To carry out the generating functions of hydraulic energy, its reconvertion into
mechanical energy, directing of the fluid agent, control and adjustment of the
parameters, there are a large variety of hydraulic elements, which we shall study below.

Pumps and compressors represent the generating elements of hydraulic and
pneumatic energy.

Hydraulic and pneumatic motors convert the energy of the fluid into mechanical
energy. Within the control elements we distinguish the directing (distributing) elements,
flow adjusting ones (chokes), pressure regulators (valves).

Hydropneumatic systems contain auxiliary elements that in spite of their name
are of vital importance for the smooth working of the assembly, achieving the fluid
directing (pipes), its filtering (filters), storing (tanks), sealing, vibration and flow shock
damping.

We mustnt forget the measuring equipment for the working parameters of the
installation.

In table 1.1. there are shown, according to STAS 7145 76, some of the
symbols for the elements the hydropneumatic transmission systems.
7
Table 1.1
1. Pumps

1.1. One-way discharging adjustable pump

1.2. Two-way discharging adjustable pump


1.3. One-way discharging non adjustable pump


1.4. Two-way discharging non adjustable pump


2. Motors and pump-motor units


2.1. Circular irreversible hydrostatic motor with
constant capacity

2.2. Reversible hydrostatic motor with constant
capacity


2.3. Irreversible hydrostatic motor with
adjustable capacity


2.4. Reversible hydrostatic motor with
adjustable capacity

2.5. Non adjustable pump-motor with reverse
direction
8

2.6. Adjustable pump-motor with reverse fluid
direction

2.7. Linear motor (cylinder) with simple
operating piston

2.8. Linear motor (cylinder) with double
operating piston with uni and bilateral rod

2.9. Linear motor (cylinder) differential

3. Hydrostatic transmissions


3.1. Non adjustable hydrostatic transmission
with one way rotation


3.2. Adjustable hydrostatic transmission pump
with one way rotation

4. Hydrostatic distributors
Discrete
4.1. With two channels and two positions

4.2. With two channels and three positions

4.3. With four channels and two positions

4.4. With four channels and three positions
9
Continuous (servo-distributors)
4.5. Mechanical and hydraulic distributors with
one active edge

4.6. Electro hydraulic distributors
5. Pressure valves



5.1. Normal closed


5.2. Normal open


5.3. With differential control


5.4. Safety valve with external operating control


5.5. Reducing valve

6. Hydraulic resistors and flow regulators

6.1. Fixed or adjustable hydraulic resistor


6.2. Regulator for constant flow (with fixed
resistor) and normal open (two-way) valve

6.3. Fixed or adjustable chok
10

6.4. Flow regulator with detour valve

6.5. Adjustable resistor with manual control

7. Auxiliary devices

7.1. Hydraulic accumulator



7.2. Filter


7.3. Cooler


7.4. Manometer


7.5. Flow -meter


Compared to mechanical or electrical systems, hydropneumatic systems have
a series of advantages:
- a lower weight and volume, compared to their power;
- reliability and silent working;
- important possibilities of automation, standardization, normalization,
modulation;
- continuous speed adjustment;
- quick at normal working parameters;
- stopping within a short time;
- possibility to achieve forces and important momentum, as well as high
powers while control and operating can easily be done.
11
Hydropneumatic systems have also some disadvantages:
- a high degree of accuracy of its components, which require complex
manufacture technology;
- possibilities to stop up inlets/outlets;
- working under pressure with all the dangers implied;
a high price, because of high quality materials required to manufacture the
elements.







































12

2. HYDRAULIC PUMPS AND MOTORS



Pumps and hydraulic motors, i.e. hydraulic machines, are the basic elements of a
hydraulic system. Hydraulic machines turn the mechanical energy into a hydraulic one
and the other way round, being characterized by mechanical power N
m
with its
components: force F, speed v or momentum M and rotation n as well as by hydraulic
power N
h
with its components flow Q and load H.

If we refer to the energetic conversion, we may group hydraulic machines by the
direction of this transformation into hydraulic generators (pumps) that convert
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, and hydraulic motors, that convert hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy. There is also another category of hydraulic machines,
i.e. hydraulic transformers (couplings or clutches), that convert mechanical energy into
mechanical energy with other parameters, by means of hydraulic energy, or hydraulic
energy into hydraulic energy, by means of mechanical energy.

For generating hydraulic machines (MHG), if referring to their characteristic
power, the following conversion may be written:

N
m
(M, n)
MHG
N
h
(Q, H) (2.1-1)

There are generating hydraulic equipment for which the hydraulic power
(secondary) is also obtained from a hydraulic power (primary).

N
h
(Q
p
, H
p
)
MHG
N
h
(Q
s
, H
s
). (2.1-2)

For hydraulic motors (MHM) we have the transformation:

N
h
(Q, H)
MHM
N
m
(M, n). (2.1-3)

Hydraulic transformers are in fact a combination of generating and motive
hydraulic machines. By the manner in which the transformation takes place we can
distinguish between hydraulic equipment in a closed circuit (2.1-4) or in an open circuit
(2.1-5):

N
m
(M
p
, n
p
)
MHG
N
h
(Q, H)
MHM
N
m
(M
s
, n
s
) (2.1-4)

N
h
(Q
p
, H
p
)
MHM
N
m
(M, n)
MHG
N
h
(Q
s
, H
s
) (2.1-5)

We must underline the fact that there is a large variety of reversible hydraulic
equipment which can work both as a pump or as a motor.

13
In a hydraulic machine the conversion of position, potential or kinetic energy
takes place. Referring to the type of load that is transformed we may classify hydraulic
equipment into volumetric equipment and turbo equipment.

Volumetric (hydrostatic) machines process potential pressure energy. Turbo
machines (hydrodynamic machines) process potential pressure energy and kinetic
energy. There is also another category of hydraulic machines now very rare, which
convert the position potential energy, but which were widely spread in the past. They
are the hydraulic elevators (MHG) and water wheels (MHM). There are also motive
hydraulic motors that transform only the kinetic energy (Pelton activated turbines).

Volumetric hydraulic machines can be classified into:

- linear or alternative (with piston, plunger, with piston and membrane);
- rotating (with radial or axial pistons, with blades, with sprocket wheels, with
screws).
Turbo equipment achieves the conversion of energy by hydrodynamic
interactivity between the rotor with profiled blades and the fluid. From the point of view
of the rotation they can be classified into pumps with a side channel, centrifugal pumps
and axial pumps. When presenting the hydraulic equipment we shall take into
consideration the two classifying criteria.



2.1. Volumetric pumps


Volumetric pumps convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, which is in
the form of potential pressure energy. This is achieved by means of closed spaces
between the fixed and the mobile parts of the pump, this process being a discontinuous
one. Volumetric pumps are, to a great extend, reversible, they can work as a pump or as
a motor, according to the liquid that comes in the body of the unit with under pressure
or over pressure.

The pressure of the volumetric pumps is generally high-250-300 bar, and the
flows extend to a very large scale 1-8,000 l/min. Their power can be up to 3,500 kW. In
the case of rotating volumetric pumps, rotations range from 3,000 to 5,000 rot/min, and
sometimes they can get up to 15,000 - 30,000 rot/min.



2.1.1. Piston pumps


The piston pump is a volumetric hydraulic pump, which achieves the pumping
effect by an alternate rectilinear movement of a piston inside a cylinder (fig.2.1.)
14

Fig.2.1.

Piston pumps can be with simple or double effect (fig.2.1.) As it can be noticed
from their simple working principle, for the pumps with simple effect the flow range
has a strong discontinuous character (fig.2.3.), which is improved in the case of double
effect pumps. (fig.2.4.)


Fig.2.2.

We shall calculate the mean and instantaneous flows for a piston pump.

The relation gives the volume of discharged liquid for one stroke of the piston
(cylinders):

V =
4
2
D t
h (2.1-6)

where D is the diameter of the piston, and h = 2 r, its stroke.

Noting with n the rotations in rot /min for the driving shaft, we can calculate the
mean flow:

Q
med
=
4
2
D t
2 r
60
n
. (2.1-7)

To compute the instantaneous flow, we shall first determine the speed of the
piston. Starting from the value of the distance

x = 1 cos o + r cos ( ) t = 1 coso - r cos (2.1-8)

and noticing that

15
o sin
r
=
( ) t sin
1
(2.1-9)

or else

sin o =
l
r
sin . (2.1-10)

so

cos =
2
2
2
sin 1
l
r
, (2.1-11)

which being unfolded in this series and the first two terms retained (the error is
very much decreased because
1
r
is sub-unitary) we may write:

cos o
2
2
2
sin
1 2
1
1
r
~ , (2.1-12)

and we get:
x = l r cos -
2
2
sin
2
1
l
r
, (2.1-13)

and

v =
|
.
|

\
|
= e 2 sin
21
sin
r
r
dt
dx
. (2.1-14)

The instantaneous flows will be:

Q =
|
.
|

\
|
= e
t t
2 sin
21
sin
4 4
2 2
r
r
D
v
D
. (2.1-15)
16

Fig. 2.3

We define the pulsation coefficient of the flow as the ratio:

o % = 100
min max
med
Q
Q Q
. (2.1-16)

Since
max
Q obtained when =
2
t
, and 0
min
= Q , (fig.2.3), we shall get:
% 314 100
60
30
2
4
4
%
2
2
= =
t
e t
e
t
o
r
D
r
D
. (2.1-17)

For pumps with simple effect piston the flow pulsation is high. For this reason
the pumps are equipped with hover containers that are placed in the vicinity of the
working cylinder.
The pumps with double effect piston overflow in the returning area of the piston
with a lower flow. The instantaneous flow for the area | | t t 2 , will be (fig.2.4):

Q
x
=
( )
|
.
|

\
|

e
t
2 sin
21
sin
4
2 2
r
r
d D
. (2.1-18)


Fig.2.4
17

Because curves Q and Q
x
intersect only on the abscissa axis, the pulsation
coefficient of the flow remains approximately the same as for simple effect pumps.
Their advantage, not negligible, is that they also overflow on the return stroke of the
piston.
The classical piston pumps are less and less frequently seen in the hydraulic
installations due mainly to the high pulsation coefficient of the flow.



2.1.2. Pumps with radial pistons


Pumps with radial pistons are rotary volumetric pumps with variable flow. The
pulsation coefficient of the flow is very diminished, thus having beneficial effects on the
extent of hydraulic oscillations introduced in the transmission system.

They may be classified into pumps with external suction and with internal
suction.

Pumps with radial pistons and external suction (fig.2.5) mainly consist of stator
1, rotor 2, pistons 3 coupled by means of piston rods 4 to the eccentrically axle 5 (with
variable eccentricity). The excentricity of the pistons axle gives the possibility that their
movement be different, some being in suction, others in discharge.



Fig.2.5

Pumps with radial pistons and internal suction (fig.2.6) consist of stator 1,
eccentrically rotor 2, piston 3, central axle 4, which contains the suction channels 6. Due
to the eccentricity e of the rotor, the pistons carry on an alternate movement of stroke
2e, being in turns in suction/discharge. The pistons are pressed to the walls of the stator
18
by the force of springs or by the centrifugal force only. By modifying the eccentricity
we can adjust the flow of the pump.


Fig.2.6

The cylindricality of the z cylinders of diameter d or the volume of discharged
liquid for one rotation will be:

e z
d
V 2
4
2
t
= . (2.1-19)

For the rotation | | min / rot n we shall have the mean flow:

t
e t t
ze
d n
e z
d
Q
med
4 60
2
4
2 2
= = . (2.1-20)


Fig.2.7

19
To calculate the instantaneous flow that ranges between a minimum and the
maximum value, first we establish the speed of contact point A of the piston with the
stator (fig.2.7). The absolute speed v is made up of speed
1
v in relation to the center of
the rotor
1
O and
2
v the movement speed of the piston inside the cylinder. We note the
variable distance
1
AO with .

Then we shall have:

e =
1
v , (2.1-21)
dt
d
v

=
2
.
From the triangle A O O
2 1
we get:

cos 2
2 2 2
e e R + = (2.1-22)

From which:

2
2
2 2 2 2
sin 1 cos cos cos
|
.
|

\
|
= + =
R
e
R e R e e e (2.1-23)

As 1 <<
R
e
, we may leave out the second term of the radical. Then:

R e + ~ cos . (2.1-24)

The speed of the piston will be:

e

sin
2
e
dt
d
v = = (2.1-25)

For the interval | | t , o when increases; the speed
2
v decreases as the sign
from the relation (2.1-25) shows us.

We shall consider speed in modulus flow of the j pistons that are in discharge,
each being in the position | | 20
i
:


i
j
i
i
e
d
Q e
t

=
=
1
2
sin
4
. (2.1-26)

20
If we note by the instantaneous position angle of the first piston in discharge
and by
z
t

2
= , the angle between two pistons, then the position angle of the piston to
the given point M will be:

( ) 1 + = i
i
. (2.1-27)

In the case of an even number of pistons, z = 2k, we shall have k pistons in
discharge and k pistons in suction. We can rewrite the equation (2.1-26) knowing that j
= k:

( ) ( ) ( ) | | { } e
t
1 sin .... 2 sin sin sin
4
2
+ + + + + + + = k e
d
Q
i
.(2.1-28)

By transforming the sum between the braces into a product, we shall get:
( )
(

+ =

=
2
1 sin
2
sin
2
sin
sin
1

k
k
i
k
i
. (2.1-29)
The maximum value of this sum is obviously obtained when
( ) 1
2
1 sin =
(

+

k or ( )
2 2
1
t
= + k , so

( )
2
1
2
t
= k . (2.1-30)

The minimum value could be obtained for

( ) 0
2
1 sin =
(

+

k , or ( ) . 0
2
1 = +

k But, because < s 0 ,(2.1-31)

hence

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
2
1

+ < + s k k k . (2.1-32)

So, the minimum value of the argument of function sinus is ( )
2
1

k or else

( ) ( )
2
1
2
1

= + + k k . (2.1-33)
21
The minimum value of the sum in the relation (2.1-29) is obtained for 0 = .

Going back to the relation (2.1-28) whose sum may be written in the form of
(2.1-29) and bearing in mind the considerations on the instantaneous position angle of
the first discharging piston for the maximum values of the flow, we may write:

2
sin
2
sin
4
2
max

e
t
k
e
d
Q = , (2.1-34)
( )
2
1 sin
2
sin
2
sin
4
2
min

e
t
= k
k
e
d
Q . (2.1-35)

Now we are able to write the pulsation coefficient of the flow for the pumps
with an even number of radial pistons:

( )
( ) 100
4 2
100
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
1
2
100
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
2
sin
2
%
k
tg
k k
k
k
k
k
k
k
t t t
t
t

t
o
=
(

=
=
(

=
(2.1-36)

In the case of pumps with an odd number of radial pistons 2k+1, we may
distinguish between two cases: either k+1 pistons are in discharge, therefore:

|
.
|

e
2
, 0

, (2.1-37)
or k pistons discharge, and then:

|
.
|

,
2
. (2.1-38)

We shall compute the maximum and minimum flows for both hypotheses
and we shall notice that they are identical.

We shall write expressions
max
Q and
min
Q for the two cases:

1. k+1 discharging pistons

22

( )
2
sin
2
1 sin
4
2
max

e
t
+
=
k
e
d
Q , (2.1-39)


( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1 sin
4
2
min

e
t
k
k
e
d
Q
+
= . (2.1-40)

2. k repressed pistons


2
sin
2
sin
4
2
max

e
t
k
e
d
Q = , (2.1-41)


2
sin
2
sin
2
sin
4
2
min

e
t
k
k
e
d
Q = . (2.1-42)
But

( ) ( ) t
t
= = + = + +
2
2
2
1 2
2
1
2 z
z k k k . (2.1-43)

The angles being supplemental, it results in

( )
2
1 sin
2
sin

+ = k k , (2.1-43)

therefore the maximum and minimum flows shall be equal for the two situations
we come across with during the working of the pumps with an odd number of radial
pistons.

Taking into consideration the relations (2.1-41) and (2.1-42) as well as (2.1-20)
we can compute the pulsation of the flow for this type of pumps:
( ) ( )
. 100
1 2 4 1 2 2
100
1 2
sin 1
1 2
sin
1 2
sin
1 2
100
2
sin 1
2
sin
2
sin
1 2
%
+ +
=
= |
.
|

\
|
+

+
+
+
= |
.
|

\
|

+
=
k
tg
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
t t
t
t
t
t

t
o
(2.1-45)
23


In fig.2.8 the variation of the instantaneous flow for a pump with 9 radial
pistons is shown.


Fig.2.8

On studying table 2.1 it can be noticed that pumps with more pistons have a
lower pulsation coefficient and that pumps with an odd number of pistons are from this
point of view preferred to those with an even number of pistons.

Table 2.1

z odd number z even number
z % z %
3 14,022 2 157
5 4,973 4 32,515
7 2,527 6 14,022
9 1,526 8 7,807
11 1,020 10 4,973
12 3,444

The force required to rotate the impeller of the pump is a perpendicular force on
direction
1
AO ; we shall note it by F. Force F is decomposed into two directions:
1
AO
(component F - the force with which the liquid, having the pressure p, acts upon a
piston of a diameter d) and
2
AO (component N which acts upon the bearing of the
pump) (fig.2.9).
24

Fig.2.9
The force with which the liquid acts upon the piston is equal and has opposite
direction to the force with which the pistons acts upon the liquid.
p
d
F
4
2
t
= . (2.1-46)

| tg F T = . (2.1-47)

We notice that:
| sin sin
R
e
= . (2.1-48)

Thus:

( )
t
f
R
e
arc tg p
d
T =
(

|
.
|

\
|
= sin sin
4
2
. (2.1-49)

The maximum value of T is obtained for
0
90 = .
The torque corresponding to a piston is:
( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
t
sin sin cos
4
2
R
e
arc tg e R p
d
T M
r
. (2.1-50)
The total torque shall be:

=
=
j
i
i i rt
T M
1
. (2.1-51)
where j is the number of discharging pistons.
The relation shall give the power of the pump:

e
rt
M P = . (2.1-52)
25



2.1.3. Pumps with blades


Pumps with blades are volumetric pumps for which variable spaces are limited
by blades, impeller, stator and front lids.
They can be with external or internal suction (fig.2.10) and (fig.2.11).

Fig.2.10 Fig.2.11

By the number of suction-discharge for one rotation, the pumps with blades can
be with simple action (fig.2.10) and (fig.2.11) or multiple action. In fig.2.12 a double
action pump with blades is shown.

Fig.2.12
Pumps with blades and simple action are pumps with variable flow, their
adjustment being made by modifying eccentricity e. Pumps with multiple action
have a constant flow.
To calculate the flow we use the scheme in fig.2.13, for which we have
done the following denotations:
R, r the stator radius and the impeller radius respectively; b the breadth
of a blade; - the angle between two consecutive blades; z- the number of blades
[20].
In fig.2.13 it is shown the blade coupling 1-2 in two position: at the beginning of
the discharge ( )
2 1
,u u and at the end of discharge ( )
'
2
'
1
,u u .
26

Fig. 2.13

To calculate the volume V between the blades (blades of breadth b and
negligible thickness) we shall write first the elementary volume:

u d d b dV = . (2.1-53)

Knowing that

u cos
1
e R M O + = (V.cap.2.1.2)

and

u u = +
2 1
,

we can write

( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | | . cos sin
2 2
cos
2
sin Re 4
2
2 sin 2 sin
2
1
2
sin sin 2
2
cos
2
1 2
2
1 2 2 2
1 2
2
1 2
2 2
2 2
cos
2
1
2
1
)
`

+ +

+ =
=
)
`

+ + + + + =
= + = =
} } }

+

u u
u u

u u u u
u u u
u
u
u u
u
e
r R
b
e
e R r R
b
d r e R
b
d d b V
e R
r
(2.1-54)

The maximum value of V is obtained when

( ) . 1 cos 1
2
cos
1 2
1 2
= =

u u
u u
and (2.1-55)
27
(which means that
2 1
u u = ):
( ) ( )
(

+ + + =

sin
2 2
sin Re 4
2
2
2 2
max
e
r R
b
V . (2.1-56)
At the end of discharge the relation will calculate the volume among blades:

( ) ( ) | | . cos sin
2 2
cos
2
sin Re 4
2
'
1
'
2
2 '
1
'
2 2 2
cos
'
'
2
'
1
)
`

+ +

=
= =
} }
+ +

u u
u u

u
u u t
u t
e
r R
b
d d b V
e R
r
(2.1-57)

We calculate the extreme of the function ( )
'
1
'
2
'
u u V

( )
. 0
2
cos
2
cos
2
sin
2
sin
*
'
1
'
2
'
1
'
2
'
1
'
2
'
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

u u u u
u u
e R e b
d
dV
(2.1-58)

. 0
2
sin
'
1
'
2
=
u u
(2.1-59)
.
2
'
1
'
2

u u = = (2.1-60)

For
( )
1 2
' '
1
'
2
, 0
2 u u
u u

<

d
dV
is negative,

and for
( )
'
1
'
2
' '
1
'
2
, 0
2 u u
u u

>

d
dV
is positive, so the extreme point when
2
'
1
'
2

u u = = represents a minimum.
( ) ( )
(

+ + =

sin
2 2
sin 4
2
2
2 2
min
e
e R r R
b
V . (2.1-61)

* The term in brackets cannot be cancelled since
2
cos
2
cos
'
1
'
2
u u
>>e R

28
The relation will give the volume discharged by the couple of blades (1,2):


2
sin 4
min max 2 , 1

e R b V V V = = . (2.1-62)

The z inter-blade space shall discharge for one rotation the volume:


2
sin 4
2 , 1

z e R b V z = . (2.1-63)
For a rotation of n [rot/s] the mean theoretical flow of the pump is obtained with
the help of the relation:

z
n z e R b n z e R b Q
med
t
sin 4
2
sin 4 = = ,

because
z
t

2
= . (2.1-64)

When z is big,


. sin
z z
t t


Then:

( ) . 2 4 b e n D
z
n z e R b Q
med
t
t
= = (2.1-65)
The formula (2.1-65) is used to calculate the flow for pumps with a finite
number of blades. It obviously represents an approximation, higher or lower, according
to a greater or smaller number of blades.

To establish the instantaneous flow of a pump with blades, we shall first
calculate the volume of fluid that exists in the interstice =
+ i i 1
between two
blades:

( ) ( ) | | . cos sin
2 2
cos
2
sin 4
2
1
1
2
1 2 2
cos
} }
+
)
`

+ + +
+
+ = =
+
+
+
i
i
i i
i i
e R
r
i
e
e R r R
b
d d b V

u


u
(2.1-66)

The instantaneous flow of the couple of blades shall be:
29

.
dt
dV
q
i
i
= (2.1-67)

By leaving out the term that contains
2
e and bearing in mind that

e

=
dt
d
,

we shall successively obtain:

,
2
sin
2
sin 2
1 +
+
=
i i
i
b e R q

e (2.1-68)

,
2
sin
2
sin 2
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

e
i i
b e R q (2.1-69)

( ) | |, cos cos e + =
i i i
b e R q (2.1-70)
( ). cos cos
1 +
=
i i i
b e R q e (2.1-71)
The total instantaneous flow of a pump with blades shall be equal to the sum of
instantaneous flows of the j interstices being in discharge:
( )

=
+
=
j
i
i i i
b e R Q
1
1
. cos cos e (2.1-72)

We shall study the pulsation of the flow first for a pump with an even number of
blades: z=2k. We shall then have j = k interstices being in discharge, for
any :
2
,
2
(

e



( ) ( )
( ) | | .
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
cos cos cos cos
1 1 1
1 1
1
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
= = =
+
=
+

e e
e e
k
k b e R k b e R
b e R b e R Q
k
k
i
i i i
(2.1-73)

i
Q is maximum when


2 2
,
2 2
, 1
2
sin
1 1
1
t

k k
or
k
= = +
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
(2.1-74)
30

and it is minimum when


.
2
0
2
sin
1
1

k
or
k
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
(2.1-75)
But

2
1
,
2
,
2
1
1

=
=
(

e
or
k
so
(2.1-76)
Under these circumstances:


2
sin 2
max

e k b e R Q = (2.1-77)

and
( )
*
min
2
1 sin
2
sin 2

e = k k b e R Q (2.1-78)

The relation gives- the pulsation coefficient of the flow for a pump with an even
number of blades 2k :

( )
( )
. 100
4 2
100
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
2
100
sin 4
2
1 sin 1
2
sin 2
%
k
tg
k
k
k
k
k
z
n z b e R
k k b e R
t t
t
t
t
t

o
=
=
(

=
(

=

(2.1-79)
* It can be noticed that ( ) ( )
2
1
2
1

+ k and k
are supplemental angles, so the value of sinus
function remains the same.

31
For a pump with an odd number of blades 2k+1- we have two situations: k+1
interstices under discharge when


|
.
|

e 0 ,
2
1



and k interstices under discharge when


|
.
|

e
2
, 0
1

.

Computing in the same way as for the pump with the even number of interstices
we shall get the relations for
max
Q and
min
Q .

1. k+1 discharged interstices

( )
2
1 sin 2
max

e + = k b e R Q . (2.1-80)
( ) .
2
sin
2
1 sin 2
min

e k k b e R Q + = (2.1-81)

3. k repressed interstices

.
2
sin 2
max

e k b e R Q = (2.1-82)
.
2
sin 2
2
min

e k b e R Q = (2.1-83)

The values of
max
Q and
min
Q are equal because the angles ( )
2
1

+ k and
2

k are supplemental.

Bearing in mind the above shown demonstration there results that the pulsation
of the flow for a pump with an odd number of blades is:
32
( ) ( )
100
1 2 4 1 2 2
100
1 2
sin 1
1 2
sin
1 2
sin
1 2
100
sin 4
2
1
2
sin 2
%
+ +
=
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
+
+
=
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
k
tg
k k
k
k
k
k
k
z
n z b e R
k k b e R
t t t t
t
t
t

e
o
(2.1-84)

By comparing the relations (2.1-79) with (2.1-36) and (2.1-84) with (2.1-45) we
can notice that the pulsation of the flow for pumps with radial pistons is identical to the
one of the flow for pumps with blades (leaving out the term
2
e ), that suggests an
analogy between those two types of pumps. The space between two blades behaves like
a radial cylinder with piston during suction and discharge phases.

By equaling the hydraulic power with the power at the shaft of the motor we can
determine the necessary theoretical moment:

. 2 pQ n M
t
= t (2.1-85)

n is expressed in rotations per second.

In (2.1-85) we introduce the value of the mean flow given by (2.1-64):
. sin
2
2
sin 4
z
e R b p
z
n
z
n z e R b p
M
t
t
t t
t
= = (2.1-86)
Taking into account the mechanical and viscous frictions, the couple developed
by the motor will be:

. sin
2
z
e R b p
z
M M
t
t
q
t
q = = (2.1-87)


2.1.4. Pumps with axial pistons


The pumps with axial pistons accomplish the flow of fluid by the alternate
movement of a certain number of pistons inside some cylinders that are placed in an
impeller, which have their axes parallel to the impeller axis of rotation. This manner of
placement gives the pumps a low clearance and equilibrium due to the symmetry of the
masses in rotation. The alternate movement of the piston is achieved by means of a
slanted disk. Its adjustable slanting allows the change of flow of the pumps. For some
pumps slanting the block of cylinders accomplishes the change of flow.
33
In fig.2.14 the working scheme of a pump with axial pistons and slanting disk is
shown:

1. the block of cylinders (rotor);
2. cylinders;
3. pistons;
4. slanting disk;
5. cardan joint;
6. connecting rods with spherical joints;
7. fixed part of the suction /discharge channels (distribution element).

Fig.2.14.
The electrical driving motor transmits the rotation to the block of cylinders and,
by means of the cardan joint 5, to the slanting disk on which the extremities of the
cylinder rods are propped.

The suction and discharge are accomplished by means of the fixed distribution
element 7, which has channels in the area where the pistons are in suction, or in
discharge.

To calculate the flow of the pump with axial pistons let us consider two systems
of axes (fig.2.14.) xOyz and
1 1 1
z Oy x that are rotated between them with an angle o
around their common axis Oy . The coordinates of a certain M point in the system of
axes that is not rotated can be written with respect to the coordinates of the same point
in the rotated system of axes, (fig.2.15.) as:

o o sin cos
1 1
z x x + = (2.1-88)
. sin cos
1 1
1
o o x z z
y y
=
=

34

Fig.2.15.

In fig.2.16. then are shown the positions of the spherical joint A, joined with the
disk and of the spherical joint B, joined to the piston, that belong to the same connecting
rod, during the rotation with an o angle. [20]


Fig.2.16.


With respect to the systems of axes in fig. 2.14. point A has the following
coordinates :

- to
1 1 1
z Oy x

cos
sin
0
1 1
1 1
1
r z
r y
x
A
A
A
=
=
=
(2.1-89)

- to xOyz (see relations 2.1-88)

. cos cos
sin
sin cos
1
1
1
o

o
r z
r y
r x
A
A
A
=
=
=
(2.1-90)
35

Coordinates y and z of point B with respect to the system xOy are:

, cos
sin
2
2

r z
r y
B
B
=
=
(2.1-91)
coordinate
B
x is to be determined knowing the constant length l of the connecting rod
AB.

We shall then write:

( ) ( ) ( ) . 1
2 2 2 2
A B A B A B
z z y y x x + + = (2.1-92)

Relation (2.1-92) represents an equation of 2
nd
degree with the unknown .
B
x

By solving it we get:

= o sin cos
1
r x
B


( ). cos cos sin 2 cos cos sin
2 2
2
2 2 2
1
2 2
1
2
2
2
o o + + r r r r l (2.1-93)

It can be noticed that
B
x is negative. This is the reason why we chose the sign -
before the root.

The velocity of the piston can be obtained by deriving
B
x with respect to time:

( )
( )
.
cos cos sin 2 cos cos sin
cos cos sin 2 cos sin 2 2 cos cos sin 2 cos sin 2
sin sin
2 2
2 1
2 2 2
1
2 2
1
2
2
2
2 1
2 2
1
2
1
1
.
o o
o e e o e e
o e
+ +
+ +

= =
r r r r r l
r r r r
r x v B
p

(2.1-94)

When the slanting angle of the disk is enough small, we may consider . 1 cos ~ o
The velocity of the piston, in modulus, which becomes:

, sin sin
1
o e r v
p
= (2.1-95)
The instantaneous flow of a piston with diameter d will be:

, sin sin
4
1
2
o e
t
r
d
q
i
= (2.1-96)

and the instantaneous flow of the j pistons that are under discharge is:

36


= =
= =
j
i
i
j
i
i i
r
d
q Q
1
1
1
2
. sin sin
4
o e
t
(2.1-95)

The mean flow of the pistons of d diameter and stroke o sin 2
1
r h = , inside the
impeller of rotation n will be:

60
sin 2
4
1
2
n
z r
d
Q
m
o
t
= . (2.1-96)

To establish the maximum and minimum flow, we have to draw the attention
that the problem is similar to that presented in chapter 2.1.2. This is also the maximum
and minimum of the sums of sinuses

=
j
l i
i
sin , for the j pistons that are under
discharge, with an even number z = 2k or odd z = 2k + 1 of pistons.

Therefore, we can write the maximum and minimum flows for the pumps with
an even number of axial pistons:

,
2
sin
2
sin
sin
4
1
2
max

o e
t
k
r
d
Q = (2.1-97)

( ) .
2
1 sin
2
sin
2
sin
sin
4
1
2
min

o e
t
= k
k
r
d
Q (2.1-98)


In this case the pulsation of the flow, will be:



( )
( ) 100
4 2
100
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
1
2
100
2
1 sin 1
2
sin
2
sin
2
%
k
tg
k k
k
k
k
k
k
k
t t t
t
t

t
o
=
(

=
=
(

=
(2.1-99)

For the pump with an odd number of axial pistons we shall have:

37
( )
2
sin
2
1 sin
sin
4
1
2
max

o e
t
+
=
k
r
d
Q . (2.1-100)

( )
2
sin
2
sin
2
1 sin
sin
4
1
2
min

o e
t
k
k
r
d
Q
+
= . (2.1-101)
( ) ( )
100
1 2 4 1 2 2
100
1 2
sin 1
1 2
sin
1 2
sin
1 2
100
2
sin 1
2
sin
2
sin
1 2
%
+ +
= |
.
|

\
|
+

+
+
+
=
= |
.
|

\
|

+
=
k
tg
k k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
t t t
t
t
t

t
o
(2.1-102)

We can notice that the pulsation of the flow for the pump with axial pistons is
the same with the pulsation of the flow for pumps with radial pistons and pumps with
blades.

To create pressure p, the piston acts upon the liquid with the force:

.
4
2
p
d
F
t
= (2.1-103)

Force F is decomposed into a tangent component T and a normal one N
(fig.2.17).

Fig.2.17
The tangent force T has the value:
38
. sin
4
sin
2
o
t
o p
d
F T = = (2.1-104)

The resistant moment of a piston will be:

. sin sin
4
sin sin
1
2
1
o
t
o r p
d
r F T M
r
= = = (2.1-105)

z pistons will have a resistant moment:

=
=
z
i
i rt
r p
d
M
1
1
2
. sin sin
4
o
t
(2.1-106)

The relation will give the power consumed by the pumps:

, e
rt
M P = (2.1-107)

| | | |
| | | |
.
310 . 97
min / 81 , 9
. .
620 . 71
min / 81 , 9
kW
rot n Nm M
P C
rot n Nm M
P
rt
rt
=
= =
(2.1-108)



2.15. Pumps with sprocket wheels


They are volumetric pumps that are widely spread especially due to their simple
building.

As the sprockets come out of gear, a variation of volume in an excessive sense is
created in the suction room. The spaces between the sprocket represent active cups that
carry the fluid. When the sprocket come into gear the volume decreases and a
hydrostatic pressure is created (fig.2.18).
Pumps with sprocket wheels are classified according to several criteria: by the
type of gear (external or internal fig.2.18 a and b), by the level of pressure (low,
medium and high), by the number of rotors (with two or more, fig.2,19), by the profile
of sprockets (evolventric or cycloid), by the sprockets position (straight or slanting).
39

Fig.2.18 Fig.2.19

The computation of the flow for this type of pumps can be done in a simple
manner; considering the hypothesis that the cross sections of the empty spaces is equal
to that of filled spaces and that the degree of coverage is equal to a unit; a hypotheses
that induces a quite high error.
Thus:

Sg = Sp. (2.1-109)

The cross section of all the cups for the two sprocket wheels that are in gear will
be:

( )
2 2
2 2
4 2
1
4 4
2
i e
i e
t
D D
D D
S =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t t t
. (2.1-110)
By considering the bottom of the sprocket equal to its head m a a = =
2 1
(the
sprocket modulus) and knowing that the sprocket modulus is
t
p
m = , we can write
(fig.2.20):

z m
D D D D
S
i e i e
t
2
2
2 4
2 t t =
+
= . (2.1-111)


Let the breadth of the sprocket be m b = . The volume transported for one turn
will be:


z m V
3
2 t = , (2.1-112)


and the flow:
40


| | min / 1 10 2
6 3
= n z m Q t . (2.1-113)


as m is given in mm, and rotation is considered in rot/min.


For a more accurate computation of the flow we can use two methods: the
geometrical method (more complicated) or the method of equivalence between the
energy transmitted to the liquid and the mechanical work consumed to drive the
sprocket wheels.


By using fig.2.20 we shall further present the second analytical method of flow
computing for the pumps with sprocket wheels. [12,20].



Fig.2.20

The mechanical work consumed to rotate the sprocket wheels with angle d inculcates
the energy pdV upon the liquid:

Md pdV = . (2.1-114)

In relation (2.1-114) M is the torque.

41
Pressure p acts upon the outline of the sprocket wheels. This intricate outline can
be replaced with a simpler one
1 2 1
B CO AO . On the straight lines of this outline there
act four resultant forces of pressure. This replacement has been made according to the
theorem in mechanics, which states that the resultant of the projection of pressure forces
on a certain surface is equal to the product between pressure and the projection of the
surface on a plane, that is perpendicular on the resultant.

The total torque will be:


( )
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
' '
2
1 '
1
' '
1
2
2
2 2 2 2


=
= + =
e
e e
r
b
p
F
r
F F
r
F M
(2.1-115)

We denote the segment PC by x, and notice that
r
r O O 2
2 1
= , consequently we
can apply the theorem of the median for the triangle C O O
2 1
:


( )
4
4 2
2 2
2
2
1 2 r
r
x
+
=

. (2.1-116)

Hence:

( )
2 2
2
2
1
2
r
r x + = + . (2.1-117)

Replacing in relation (2.1-115), we shall get:

( )
2 2 2
2
x r r
pb
M
r e
= . (2.1-118)

Knowing that dV = Qdt, and dt d e = and using the relations (2.1-118) and
(2.1-114), we may write:



( )
2 2 2
x r r b Q
r e
= e . (2.1-119)

Magnitude x is variable in time:
42


( ).
0
1 1
r b
r b b
tg t r
tg r r P K C K x
o e u
o u
+ =
= = =
(2.1-120)


In relation (2.1-120) we used the property of the evolvement
1
1 1
C K C K = and
the fact that t e u u + =
0
(the real driving segment begins in D and ends in
0
1
1 2
u
b
r D K D K E = = ).


Noting by P K P K l
2 1
= = the length of the half of the theoretical driving
segment and by EP DP l = =
1
the length of the half of the real driving segment, we
shall get:



1
0
l l r
b
= u . (2.1-121)

So:


1 1
l t r l t r l l x
b b
= + = e e . (2.1-122)


We can write the instantaneous flow in the form of a time function:

( ) ( )
2 ' 1 2 2 2 2 2
2 l t l r t r r r b t Q
b b r e
+ = e e . (2.1-123)


The time in which the real driving segment is covered, is obtained by using the
properties of the evolvement:

, 2
1
t r l
b
e = (2.1-124)

.
2
1
e
b
r
l
T = (2.1-125)

The flow Q(t) has a periodical variation; | | T t , 0 e .

To compute the pulsation of the flow first we have to establish the mean flow.

The volume discharged by a pair of sprockets during a period T is:

43
( ) ( ) | |
} }
= =
e
e
b
r
l
b r e
T
dt l t r r r b dt t Q V
2
0
2
1 2 2
0
. (2.1-126)

By making the change of the variable


,
,
1
dt r dy
l t r y
b
b
e
e
=
=
(2.1-127)

we get:


( )
( ) | |. 3
3
2
2 2 2
1
2 2 2
1
1
l r r
r
bl
dy y r r
r
b
V
r e
b
l
l
r e
b
=
= =
}

(2.1-128)

Knowing that the number of sprockets is z and the wheels turn with rotation n,
the mean flow will be:

( ) | |
2 ' 2 2
3
3
l r r
r
bl z
n z V Q
r e
b
m
= =
e
. (2.1-129)

The maximum value of the relation (2.1-123) is obtained for
e
b
r
l
t
1
= :

( )
2 2
max r e
r r b Q = e . (2.1-130)

For t =0 or
e
b
r
l
t
1
2
= the flow has the minimum value:


( )
2 ' 2 2
min
l r r b Q
e
= e . (2.1-131)

We are now able to determine the pulsation of the flow for a pump with sprocket
wheels:


( ) | |
. 100
3
3
%
2 ' 2 2
1
l r r z
l r
r e
b

=
t
o (2.1-132)


44
The moment applied to the driving wheel is determined from the relation (2.1-
114):


( )
2 2 2
x r r pb
pQ
dt
pdV
d
pdV
M
r e
= = = =
e e
. (2.1-133)

The moment will be maximum for x=0:

( )
2 2
max r e
r r pb M = . (2.1-134)

By making the same approximations as in relation (2.1-111) we get:


( ).
2
max
l z pbm M + = . (2.1-135)

The maximum force applied to the liquid will be:


r
r
M
F
max
= . (2.1-136)

The power expressed with respect to the moment and to the angular velocity
is written with the known formula:


e M P = . (2.1-137)




2.1.6. Other types of volumetric pumps


The pumps with diaphragm (fig.2.21) This type of pump is mostly used
when the circulating fluid mustnt come into contact with the parts of the pump or
mustnt be contaminated by the lubricating oil.
45


Fig.2.21

It consists of one or more metallic diaphragm 1 between two concave disks 2.

The diaphragms move elastically under the action of the piston 8 and liquid of
working 7 (oil).

The volume variation in the working room, that is superior to the diaphragm,
ensures suction (through valve 4) and discharge (through valve 3) of the fluid.

Pump 5 carries out the compensation for the losses of oil due to the non-
tightness of the piston. Valve 6 is a limiting valve for the discharge pressure.

The pump with screw (fig.2.22)

The number of rotors (two or more) can classify pumps with screw, by the shape
of the thread (rectangular, trapezoidal, and cycloid), by the number of starts (one, two or
more).
In fig.2.22 it is presented the scheme
of a pump with screw with two rotors
(screws), of which one is driving. The
driving rotor has a thread right and the
other one left.
Fig. 2.22
46
By the relative rotation of the two rotors the liquids get into the suction room A,
and fill the clearance between the rotors in the area that is not driven. The liquid will be
transported in the discharge room R, on a straight trajectory, without flow pulsations.
The working of this pump is similar to that of the endless piston.

The pump with cycloid gearings (fig.2.23)

This type of pump consists of two cycloidal
shaped rotors, of which one is driving,that rotate
conversely.
The hachured area represents the section of
suctioned liquid due to the rotation of the
cycloid gearing that is (in the next moment to
that shown in the figure ) to be repressed.



Fig.2.23

The pump with roll (fig.2.24)

The pump with rolls is another type of volumetric
rotary pump with an eccentric rotor. Suction and
discharging are carried out due to the variation of
volume in the space among the rotor, stator and
rolls. The rolls are made of plastic with a metallic
core. Due to rotation they are pushed on the
walls of the stator by the centrifugal force, thus
separating the variable volumes.
Fig.2.24


Fig.2.24

2.17. Characteristics of volumetric pumps


One of the main characteristics of the volumetric pumps is the characteristic
flow-pressure. The real flow represents a slight decrease with respect to pressure, due to
the increase of volumetric losses. Over a certain pressure
lim
p the decrease of the flow
47
is obvious (fig.2.25). Function ( ) p f N = , which represents the variation of power, is
approximately linear up to value
lim
p , after which its increase is even more obvious.
(fig.2.25). After the same value
lim
p , the curve of efficiency, ( ) p f = q has a strong
descending carriage.

In fig.2.26 there are shown the characteristics ( ) p f Q = for a pump with
adjustable flow at different eccentricities (or tipping angles in the case of pumps with
axial pistons).

Figure 2.27 shows the mechanical characteristic moment-pressure-rotation.

The slope of these curves,
n
M
c
c
, shows us the litheness of the mechanical
characteristic.



Fig. 2.25 Fig. 2.26


Fig. 2.27

48

2.2 Hydrodynamic pumps



2.2.1 Building and classification


Pumps or hydrodynamic generators process the potential energy of pressure and
kinetic energy, by means of an impeller equipped with blades.
The blades of the impeller are usually placed between two parallel disks; one is
fixed on the shaft (the crown) and the other one that contains the inlet of the fluid (the
ring). The fluid passes through the suction pipe, gets into the rotor where a kinetic
energy is inculcated upon it, which afterwards is converted into potential energy in the
spiral room and in the discharge pipe. Some centrifugal pumps are equipped with a
stator with blades that have the role to convert the kinetic load into pressure load and to
direct the fluid. In fig.2.28 it is schematically represented a centrifugal pump with the
following components:

Fig.2.28

1. The suction flange that makes the connection with the suction conduit.
2. Ring.
3. Network of blades.
4. The crown of the rotor.
5. The axis of the pump.
6. The tightening system of the axle.
7. The spiral room that collects the fluid from the periphery of the stator
and contributes to the convention of kinetic pressure into potential
pressure.
8. The stator that has the role to direct the stream and converts the kinetic
energy into pressure energy.
9. The diffuser, that also contributes to the conversion of the kinetic load
in pressure load and makes the connection with the discharging conduit.


49
Hydrodynamic pumps or turbo pumps may be classified by the specific rotation
or dynamic rapidity, that can be considered as the rotation of a pump geometrically
similar with the given one, which absorbs a power of 1 H.P. at a load of 1m:

4 / 5
H
P
n n
HP
S
= (2.2-1)


Specific rotation
s
n and rotation n measured with the tachometer, obviously
cannot have the same dimension.


In table 2.1 there are shown the classification of turbo pumps and the shape of
the meridian suction of their rotor, with respect to specific rotation.

Table 2.1

Type of
pump
Pump
with
lateral
channel
Centrifugal pump with rotor Axial
pump
slow normal rapid diagona
l

The
shape in
meridia
n
section
of the
rotor































K 0,04
0,2
0,2
0,4
0,4
0,8
0,8
1,55
1,55
2,6
2,6
6,2
S
n
8 40 40 80 80
150
150
300
300
500
500
1200
q
n
2,2 - 11 11 22 22 - 41 41 82 82 -
135
135 -
380


In order to classify the turbo pumps we can also use their characteristic rotation
or kinematic rapidity:

50

4 / 3
H
Q
n n
q
= (2.2-2)

as well as the characteristic number


( )
4 / 3
2
gH
Q n
K
t
= . (2.2-3)

Between these values there are the relations:

K n n
q S
HP
193 65 , 3 = = . (2.2-4)


2.2.2. Turbo pumps theory


Inside the rotor of the turbo pump, the liquid particles carry out a complex
movement.

Following the outline of the blade, the particle covers a relative trajectory 1-2,
but, at the same time, the rotor turns, the movement of the particle with respect to a
reference system joined to the frame of the pump being
'
2 1 - the absolute trajectory.
(fig.2-29).

The basic theoretical equations of the turbo pumps applied to the case of
centrifugal pumps are obtained for the following hypotheses:

a) Between two consecutive blades of the rotor of the centrifugal pump, the flow of the
fluid is stationary, in the shape of some streamlines that take the curvature of the
blade.
b) Inside the pump we dont have hydrodynamic losses.
c) The rotor consists of an infinite number of blades with negligible thickness.
Thus, noting by symbol 1 the inlet in the inter blade channel, and by 2 the outlet,
we shall have (fig.2.29 and fig.2.30):

- the relative inlet and outlet velocities in and from the rotor
1
w and
2
w tangent in
any point to the stream line that has the shape of blade;
- peripheral velocities that are due to the rotation with speed e of the rotor on the
circles with radii
1
R and
2
R ,
1 1
R u e = and
2 2
R u e = ;
- absolute velocities
1
v and
2
v that result from the making up of the relative and
peripheral velocities:

51
.
,
2 2 2
1 1 1
u w v
u w v
+ =
+ =
(2.2-5)

Fig.2.29


Fig.2.30

Absolute velocity decomposes into a tangent component ,a load component:

. cos
, cos
2 2
1 1
2
1
o
o
v v
v v
u
u
=
=
(2.2-6)

and a normal component, a flow component:

. sin
, sin
2 2
1 1
2
1
o
o
v v
v v
m
m
=
=
(2.2-7)

The theoretical volumetric flow of liquid at inlet, equal to that at outlet, will be:

, 2 2
2 1
2 2 1 1 m m v
v b R v b R Q
t
t t = = (2.2-8)

where
1
b and
2
b are the thickness of the blades at inlet and outlet, respectively.

52
The fundamental equation of turbo machines, applied in the case of centrifugal
pumps can be obtained in several ways:


a) by applying the theory of variation for the moment of movement quantity (impulse)

We shall further consider an ideal centrifugal pump (the impeller with an infinite
number of very thin blades).

The movement quantities at inlet and outlet 1 and 2 are
1
u m
v Q and
2
u m
v Q , and
their moments
1
1
R v Q
u m
and
2
2
R v Q
u m
.

The variation of the moment for the movement quantity between these two
points will be:

( )
( ).
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
R v R v Q
R v R v Q M
u u v
u u m
t
=
= = A

(2.2-9)

The power, in the case of rotation with angular velocity e , will be given by the
relation:

( ) ( ).
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
u v u v Q R v R v Q M P
u u v u u v
t t
= = A = e e e (2.2-10)

The relation expresses the power of an ideal pump with an infinite number of
blades:

=
T v
H gQ P
t
. (2.2-11)

Equaling the last two relations we get:

g
v u v u
H
u u
T
1 2
1 2

=

, (2.2-12)

expression that represents the fundamental equation of ideal centrifugal pumps. Euler
has inferred it for hydraulic wheels long before the invention of centrifugal pumps.

b) by applying Bernoullis equation for the relative movement between the points 1
and 2.

In Bernoullis equation for relative movement

53
f
h z
p
g
u w
z
p
g
u w
+ + +

= + +

2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
(2.2-13)

we consider
2 1
z z = .


The pressure load created in the rotor will be:


f
h
g
u u
g
w w p p

2 2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1 1 2

. (2.2-14)
The load
T
H will be equal to the increase of the water pressure at outlet of the
rotor plus the increase of kinetic energy plus the losses of load:


f T
h
g
v v p p
H +

2
2
1
2
2 1 2

. (2.2-15)

From the relations (2.2-14) and (2.2-15) we get the expression:


g
v v
g
u u
g
w w
H
T
2 2 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1

+

. (2.2-16)

which is the fundamental equation of turbo machines applied to centrifugal pumps, in
velocities.

From the velocity triangle we have:


. cos 2
, cos 2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
o
o
u v u v w
u v u v w
+ =
+ =
(2.2-17)

By replacing (2.2-17) into (2.2-16) we get the fundamental equation of turbo
machines applied to centrifugal pumps, similar to equation (2.2-12):

( )
g
v u v u
v u v u
g
H
u u
T
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
cos cos
1

= =

o o . (2.2-18)

The fundamental equation may also be written in the form:


1 2
1 2 u u T T
v u v u gH Y = =

(2.2-19)

where
T
Y is the specific energy, the energy of mass unit.
54


2.2.3. Turbo pumps in network


The pump load or the pressure difference between the input and output of the
liquid in a pump is independent from the network in which it works.

The working parameters depend on and are defined by the network that a pump
services.

In fig.2.31 it is schematically shown a simple hydraulic system in which a pump
P sucks liquid from the tank
a
R , with a pressure
a
p and whose level of liquid has the
quote
a
z to the reference plane N N and discharges it into the tank
r
R in which the
pressure is
r
p and the level of liquid is at the quote
r
z .

Vacuum gauge V measures the inlet pressure in the pump
i
p , and manometer M
the outlet pressure from the pump
e
p .
a
h and
r
h are the load losses in the suction,
respectively discharging conduits. The velocities of the fluid on suction and discharge
are
a
v and
r
v .

Applying Bernoullis equation to the suction route, we get:

i
i i
i a
a a
a
H
g
v p
z h
g
v p
z = + + = + +
2 2
2 2

. (2.2-20)

55

Fig.2.31

On the discharging route we shall have:

e
e e
e r
r r
r
H
g
v p
z h
g
v p
z = + + = + + +
2 2
2 2

. (2.2-21)

The load of the pump will be:

.
2
2
2 2
2 2

+
A
+ A =
= + +

+ = =
ar
a r
r a
a r a r
a r i e
h
g
v v p
z
h h
g
v v p p
z z H H H

(2.2-22)

Relation (2.2-22) signifies the pump functions, namely: the liquid lifting on the
height z A , the pressure rise from
a
p to
r
p , the alteration of the liquid kinetic energy
by increasing its velocity, the overcome of the losses on the suction and discharging
routes.

The losses on the routes are local and linear:


|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
r a
r a ar
g
v
d
l
h h h
,
2
2
. (2.2-23)

56
The suction and discharging routes, having conduits of diameters
a
d and
r
d are
covered by the flow Q:


|
.
|

\
|
+ =
r a
r a
gd
Q
d
l
h
,
4 2
2
,
2
16
t
. (2.2-24)

and

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

4 4 2
2 2 2
1 1 8
2
a r
a r
d d g
Q
g
v v
t
. (2.2-25)

By replacing (2.2-24) and (2.2-25) into (2.2-22) we get:

2
,
4 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 8
Q
d d d d g
p
z H
r a
a r (
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
A
+ A =


t
. (2.2-26)

The expression:
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

r a
a r
r
d d d d g
K
,
4 4 4 2
1 1 1 1 8

t
(2.2-27)
is constant for a certain network.
We denote by

,

p
z H
S
A
+ A = (2.2-28)

the static load.

In this case the load expression becomes:

2
Q K H H
r S
+ = . (2.2-29)

Function (2.2-29) stands for the network characteristics and represents, as it can
be noticed, a parabola. Should the flow be reversed (emptying the tank through the
network), the expression would become:

2
Q K H H
r S
= . (2.2-30)

57
Figure 2.32 shows many more characteristics of networks at the same static load,
but which have some alterations for
r
K (different diameters of conduits, bends, different
taps, etc.).

Fig.2.32

Analytically or experimentally we can determine the function ( ) Q f H = - the
interior characteristics or the machine characteristic.

In the case of a finite number of blades, due to the variation of velocity in the
inter- blade channel, the value of the product
2
2 u
v u is decreased.
Consequently, the conveyed specific energy will be smaller. We may write:

p
H
H
gH
gH
Y
Y
T
T
T
T
T
T
= = =

1 . (2.2-31)

where p = 0,2 0,45 according to the model proposed by Pfleiderer.

T
H is the theoretical height for a pump with a finite number of blades for the
case when we circulate a liquid without viscosity. The real height may be written in the
form:

=
r T
h H H (2.2-32)

where
r
h is the dissipation due to viscosity, proportional to the square of the flow,

2
1
1
Q K h
r
= (2.2-33)

58
and the shock losses
2
r
h due to the fact that for flows different from the rated flow
N
Q ,
the inlet angle of the stream of liquid
1
| differ from the inlet constructive angle of the
blade.


2
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
r
Q
Q
K h
r
. (2.2-34)
Then:

2
2
2
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
N
r
Q
Q
K Q K h . (2.2-35)

Returning to the fundamental equation of centrifugal pumps, we notice that
T
H
is bigger as
1
1 u
v u is smaller and nil when the inlet in the impeller is normal ( )
0
1
90 = o :

g
v u
H
u
T
2
2
=

. (2.2-36)

In fig.2.30 we notice that:

2 2
2 2
| ctg v u v
m u
= . (2.2-37)


But the normal component of the outlet velocity has the value:

2 2
2
b D
Q
v
m
t
= . (2.2-38)

Taking into consideration relations (2.2-36), (2.2-37) and (22.-38) we may write:

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2 2
2
2
|
t
ctg
b D
Q
u
g
u
H
T
. (2.2-39)

The theoretical load of a centrifugal pump with an infinite number of blades has
a linear variation with respect to the flow. The bending of the line depends on the angle
2
| (fig.2.33).
The theoretic manometer height is maximum when
0
2
90 > | , in other words
when the blades of the impeller are curved forward.
Pumps with
0
2
90 > | and those with
0
2
90 = | have a smaller efficiency than
those with
0
2
90 < | , due to the high losses of energy at the inlet of the liquid into the
collecting channel (high acceleration inculcated upon the liquid in the inter- blade
59
channel). Centrifugal pumps with
0
2
90 > | have also an instability of energy. These
disadvantages make us prefer pumps with
0
2
90 < | , although their theoretical
manometer height is lower.

Fig.2.33
Considering the relations (2.2-31), (2.2-35) and (2.2-39) we may write the
expression of the real load:
( )
2
2
2
1 2
2 2
2
2
1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
N
Q
Q
K Q K ctg
b D
Q
u
p g
u
H |
t
. (2.2-40)

In fig.2.34 it is shown the interior characteristic of the pump that resulted from
the superposition of the linear variation of the theoretical load with the parabolic
variation of the dissipation due to viscosity and shocks.
The working point of a pump in a certain network is found at the crossing
between the network characteristic with the interior characteristic (fig.2.35).

Fig.2.34

60

Fig.2.35

The optimal running of a hydraulic system will take place when the duty point is
in the area of maximum efficiency. The curve ( ) Q q is experimentally obtained, after
dependence ( ) Q P has been determined.
To improve the pump performances within the hydraulic system, we may change
the position of the duty point, by modifying the network characteristic. This may be
achieved in several ways. A simple way is to modify constant
r
K by varying the local
strength coefficients and the adjusting parts. We may also change the static load of the
network. Fig.2.33 shows the sliding of the duty point of the pump when the network
characteristics are altered.

2.2.4. Computation of centrifugal pumps


For a real pump, the thickness of blades has an influence on the velocities at
inlet and outlet of the liquid to and from the rotor. In fig.2.36 we noted by s the
thickness of the blade and by t the pitch of the blade. We shall analyze the state of the
radial velocities in points O, little before inlet in the impeller, l, at inlet in the impeller,
2, at outlet of the impeller, and 3, immediately after outlet of the impeller. Nothing by
o the circle bow corresponding to the thickness of the blade, we shall get:

1 1 1
sin | o = s . (2.2-41)

From the continuity equation of the flow (
m
v - the radial flow component)
between the points O and 1, we get:

( ) ,
1 1 1 1 1
0 1
b t v b t v
m m
= o (2.2-42)

where
z
D
t
1
1
t
= (z the number of blades)

Further we shall have:

61

l
m
m m
v
t
t
v v
o
0
0 1
1 1
1
=

= (2.2-43)

where
1
1 1
1
t
t o

= is the decrease coefficient of the section due to the thickness of
blades.

To avoid shocks at the inlet section, the blades are rounded.


Fig.2.36

Similarly, at the outlet from the impeller, we shall have:

( )
3 2 2 2 2
3 2
b t v b t v
m m
= o (2.2-44)

As the construction of blades at the outlet from the rotor is edged, 0
2
= o and

3 2
m m
v v = . (2.2-45)

The influence of the outlet angle has been discussed in the previous chapter.
The angle
2
| has values that range between 14 and
0
30 , rarely higher.

When computing the impeller dimensions (fig.2.37) we start from the
diameter of the driving shaft d computed with respect to the torque for a certain
rotation of the driving motor. The power of the driving motor may be computed
with respect to the load H, and flow Q of the pump, and, obviously, with respect to
the efficiency of transmission.
62
The diameter of the hub is adopted

( )d d
n
5 , 1 2 , 1 = . (2.2-46)

The pump should be computed for a flow
'
Q higher than Q, as we have to
take into consideration the volumetric losses:

( )Q Q 15 , 1 ...... 03 , 1
'
= . (2.2-47)

The velocity of the liquid through the conduit,
S
v , is adopted between 2 and
4m/s, the higher value corresponding to a load at lower suction.

From the continuity equation it results that:

2
'
4
n
S
S
d
v
Q
D + =
t
. (2.2-48)

Diameter
1
D is adopted bigger than
S
D , so that the inlet edge should be
outside the curvature area of the stream lines:

( )mm D D
S
15 ..... 5
1
+ = . (2.2-49)

The thickness of the blade at the inlet in the rotor is computed taking into
consideration the radial (flow) component of the velocity, little before the inlet in
the impeller.

1 1 1 1
sin
1 0
o v v v
m m
= = . (2.2-50)

Thus:
1 1 1 1
'
1
sin o t v D
Q
b = . (2.2-51)
Generally
1
v can be taken equal to
S
v . If
0
1
90 = o , we may write:

1 1
1
t
S
v D
Q
b = . (2.2-52)

Assuming that, in a first approximation 8 , 0
1
= , we may determine the
velocity triangle at inlet by means of formulae:

60
1
1
n D
u

= (2.2-53)
63

and

1
1
1
u
v
tg = | (for
0
1
90 = o ). (2.2-54)

The necessary manometric load of the pump H is established beforehand
depending on the necessities of the installation.

For a certain hydraulic efficiency
h
q we may write:


h
T
H
H
q
= (2.2-55)

and according to (2.2-31)

( ) p H H
T T
+ =

1 . (2.2-56)

For radial pumps the computation relation of coefficient p is:
2
2
1
1
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
D
D
z
p

, (2.2-57)

where is a coefficient experimentally established. For centrifugal pumps with a
stator with blades can be established by means of the relation:

( )
2
sin 6 , 0 65 , 0 55 , 0 | + = . (2.2-58)

For a pump with bladeless stator, its values are a little higher.

From the relation (2.2-39) where
'
Q Q it results
2
u and then
2
D :


n
u
D
t
2
2
60
= . (2.2-59)

For the case when
1 2
2D D ~ the pump is well designed, with low friction
losses. When
2
D is much higher, we must choose a pump with more serial
impellers, and when
2
D is lower, the flow and load characteristics require a pump
with more parallel impellers.

64
A pump ensures the water directing with the greatest number of blades, but
which have a detrimental effect in what regards the increase in the friction losses.
When establishing the number of blades we must take into consideration these
aspects. The computation for the number of blades is:


2
sin 5 , 6
2 1
1 2
1 2
| | +

+
=
D D
D D
z . (2.2-60)

To compute the coefficient p we need the number of blades that is established
for the hypothesis that
1 2
2D D = , this is to be checked by mean of the relation (2.2-59).
If the error is too high, the computation must be reconsidered, acting upon some
parameters, within reasonable limits, and if not, we resort to serial or parallel of several
impellers as above stated.

The number of impellers i is established by the relation

,
H
H
i
A
= (2.2-61)

Fig. 2.37

where

,
2 2
2
u KD H = A (2.2-62)

| | | | min / , rot m D e and

( )
4
10 5 , 1 ..... 3 , 1

= K for a stator with blades,

( )
4
10 4 , 1 ....... 1

= K for a stator without blades.





65
2.2.5 Parallel and series connection of centrifugal pumps


To increase the flow or the load of a hydraulic system, we use parallel or series
connections of pumps.


a) Parallel connection (fig.2.38)

In the case when two or more pumps are connected in parallel it is achieved an
increase of the flow for a constant load. For two pumps well have

2 1
Q Q Q
c
+ = , (2.2-63)
expression that is in fact the relation of continuity.


2 1
H H H
c
= = . (2.2-64)
signifies self-equilibrium of the system pump-network.

Fig. 2.38

When two identical pumps are parallel connected (fig.2.39) the interior
characteristic is obtained by doubling the abscissa of the points on the interior
characteristic for one pump.
The duty point of the system
c
F will be at the crossing between the interior
characteristic and the network characteristic. The efficiency of parallel connected
centrifugal pumps depends on the characteristic of the network.









66


It can be noticed that in the case of network R,
the increase in flow Q A as compared to a system
with one pump is more important than the
increase
'
Q A in the case of network R. It is
noticed that in the case of parallel connected
pumps there appears an increase of load, that also
depends on the characteristic of the network.

Fig.2.39





The efficiency of the two identical pumps is q q q = =
2 1
.

The efficiency is the ratio between the useful and consumed power:

2 1
P
H Q
P
H Q
c F c F

q = = . (2.2-65)

In a coupled regime, each pumps works in duty point F, and
c F
Q Q
2
1
= .

Thus:

q

c c
H Q
P P
2
1
2 1
= = . (2.2-66)

The efficiency of the coupling will be:

q
q

q =
+
=
+
=
c c c c
c c c c
CP
H Q H Q
H Q
P P
H Q
2
1
2
1
2 1
. (2.2-67)

In the case of the parallel connected of two or more identical pumps, the
general efficiency will be equal to the efficiency of each pump.

When parallel connecting two pumps with different characteristics, the
problem is much more complex. The characteristic of coupling is obtained in a
67
similar way, by summing up the characteristics abscissae of the two pumps at a
constant load, ( )
2 1
Q Q Q H
c c
+ = (fig.2.40).

On the diagram of the coupling the critical point
cr
P appears, situated at the
quote of critical load
cr
H , corresponding to the crossing between the smaller pump
characteristic and the ordinate.

If the duty point of the system is below
cr
P , as in the case of the
characteristic of the network R, then the parallel connecting of the two pumps is
justified. In the case of characteristic
'
R , the duty point is above
cr
P , the smaller
pump working on the braking characteristic. In this case the flow of the coupling is
lower than the flow of one pump (the big one), thus the coupling becoming
unjustified.

Fig.2.40.

The efficiency of a coupling of two different pumps will be given by the relation
[8]:

2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
q q q

q
Q Q
Q
H Q H Q
H Q
c
c c
c c
CP
+
=
+
= . (2.2-68)






68
b) Series connection (fig.2.41)

To increase the load we use the series connection of two or more centrifugal
pumps. The flow that passes through two series connected pumps is the same:

2 1
Q Q Q
c
= = , (2.2-69)
and the load


2 1
H H H
c
+ = . (2.2-70)

Fig.2.41

To plot the characteristic of the assembly we sum up the ordinates of the
characteristic point for each pump. Fig.2.42. shows the common characteristic of two
identical series connected pumps.

From fig.2.42. it can be noticed that
in the case of characteristic R we get a
higher increase of the load than in the case
of characteristic
'
R . It can be noticed that
in series - connection an increase in flow is
also obtained.



Fig.2.42.

The efficiency of the coupling is equal to the efficiency of each pump taken
separately.
69

q
q

q =
+
=
+
=
c c c c
c c c c
CP
H Q H Q
H Q
P P
H Q
2
1
2
1
2 1
. (2.2-71)
For different pumps series connected, the characteristic of the coupling is also
obtained by summing up the ordinates of the points on the characteristics of the two
pumps (fig.2.43).


Fig.2.43
Here there is also a critical point corresponding to the load abscissa O of the
smaller pump. In networks whose characteristics the duty point is below
cr
P it is
irrational to use two pumps whose total flow is lower than that of a single pump.
The efficiency of the coupling when series connecting two different pumps
will be [8]:


2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
q q q

q
H H
H
H Q H Q
H Q
c
c c
c c
CP
+
=
+
= . (2.2-72)

For reason of strength of materials, the peripheral velocities of the impellers
cannot exceed certain values.

70
Since the maximum theoretical load depends on the peripheral velocity of the
impeller, thus being limited by it, to increase the load on a single unit, we use pumps
with several series connected impellers (fig. 2.44.)

Fig.2.44.

Also, obtaining higher flows is limited by
rotation and by the outlet diameter from the
impeller, as well as by the circulating velocity of the
liquid. By using double impellers and by parallel
connecting them within a pump (fig.2.45), we
achieve the increase in flow and also the self
equilibrium of the axial thrusting forces.

Fig.2.45


To simultaneously obtain high loads and
flows on a single pump, we can use several
impellers that are axially series and parallel
connected (fig.2.46)

Fig.2.46



2.2.6 Suction of centrifugal pumps


The suction of centrifugal pumps is due to the depression generated in the
impeller; in fact it is due to the difference of pressure between the impeller and the
suction tank. In the case when the pump sucks water from an atmospheric pressure
(barometric)
b a
p p = and the depression in the impeller would attain vacuum, the
theoretical maximum suction height would be:
71

m
h p
H
b b
asp
t
33 , 10 = = =

. (2.2-73)

Fig. 2.47 shows a centrifugal pump that sucks from a pressure
a
p . We shall
consider three reference points: a the level of liquid, O the highest point before inlet
in the impeller, 1 immediately after inlet in the impeller. We shall consider as
reference points the level of the liquid that is to be sucked and that is under motion with
velocity
a
v
*
.
* If
b a
p p = then we have the case of a
centrifugal pump that sucks from a river.

72
We apply Bernoullis relation between the considered points:


rir ra asp
ra asp
a a
h h H
g
v p
h H
g
v p
g
v p
+ + + + =
= + + + = +

2
2 2
2
1 1
2
0 0
2

. (2.2-74)
where
ra
h are the local and linear losses on the suction itinerary, and
rir
h the load
loss at the inlet in the channels of the impeller. This loss of load may be written under
the form:
,
2
2
1
g
v
h
rir
, = (2.2-75)

where , is the local coefficient of loss at the inlet in the pump.

If suction is being made from a tank ( ) 0 =
a
v , the suction load will be:

( )

+

=
ra
a
asp
h
g
v p p
H
2
1
2
1 1
,

. (2.2-76)
The maximum load at sucking would be when 0
1
= p , but it is known that in
real practice the maximum depression in a moving liquid corresponds to the absolute
saturation pressure of the liquid at the respective temperature, the moment when the
cavitation phenomenon appears:

v
p p =
1
.
Thus:
( )

+

=
ra
v a
asp
h
g
v p p
H
2
1
2
1
max
,

. (2.2-77)


The term ( )
g
v
2
1
2
1
, + depends on the
design characteristics of the hydraulic
machine, and it can be expressed with respect
to the effective load of the pump H by means
of cavitation coefficient o :


Fig. 2.47

73
( ) H
g
v
o , = +
2
1
2
1
. (2.2-78)

We rewrite expression (2.2-77):

=
ra
v a
asp
h H
p p
H o

max
. (2.2-79)

The cavitation coefficient is given by the experimental relation [8]:

( ) rotation specific n n a
S S
=
3 / 4
o . (22-80)

Several values are granted for coefficient a in the literature of the subject:

4
10 29 , 2

(Thoma);
4
10 20 , 2

(Stepanoff);

4
10 16 , 2

(Escher Wyss).

It has been established that coefficient a also depends on the specific rotation.
Coefficient o may also be written [8]:


H C
Q n
10
3 / 4
|
|
.
|

\
|
= o , (2.2-81)
where C is Rudnevs cavitation coefficient and has the values:


. 150 . . . .. 80 1000 . . . . . 800
80 . . . . . 50 800 . . . . . 600
= =
= =
S
S
n for C
and n for C

Relation (2.2-79) shows us a maximum suction height, which for different
reasons doesnt correspond to the real suction height. Thus, velocity
1
v of inlet in the
impeller may have a higher value, generating cavity suction conditions.
Thus, to establish the needed suction height we operate on the cavitation
coefficient by considering a:

( )o o 4 , 1 ..... 2 , 1
lim
= . (2.2-82)

or, in a simple manner, by directly operating on the suction load, reducing it, to:


max
75 , 0
asp asp
H H = . (2.2-83)

According to relation (2.2-81) the suction height will be:

=
ra
v a
asp
h H
p p
H
lim
o

. (2.2-84)
74
The suction height on the centrifugal pumps is under the influence of a series of
factors.
In the case of suction from an atmospheric pressure
b a
p p = , the suction height
depends on the variation of this pressure with the weather state, latitude and especially
with the height of the place. Should we denote by
0
p , the pressure at sea level, the
pressure variation with height | | m z might be written under the form:

( ) z p p
b
5
0
10 4 , 2 1

= . (2.2-85)

The suction height depends through
v
p , on the nature of the vehicled fluid and
on its temperature.

We can go as far as that the suction height comes be negative
*
when:

>
ra
v
h H
p p
lim
0
o

. (2.2-86)

In this case the pressure in the tank of suction should be increased or, in the case
when the tank is open, this should be mounted above the pump, at a corresponding
height.



2.2.7 Axial pumps


According to the classification shown in chapter 2.2.1, axial pumps are at the
extremity of the specter of specific rotation for pumps ( ) 1200 ..... 500 =
CP
S
n . For this
type of pumps, the specific energy is obtained by a partial conversion of kinetic energy
in the inter- blade channel, the moving of the fluid being performed axially.
*In the case of circulating water at temperatures
higher than C
0
60 . For water at
0
10 5 , m H
asp
7 ..... 6 = .

75

In fig.2.48 an axial pump is schematically shown. It is mainly made up of:
directing device 1, hub with blades 2, that together with axle 7 is the mobile part of the
pump, rectifying device 3, carcass 4, together with elbow 5 and stuffing box 6,
careening of impeller 8.

Generally axial pumps have blades with a
fixed pitch. For axial pumps of high powers we
can use impellers with variable pitch for different
load situations.
The design of the blade is similar to the
design of the naval propeller, namely a sequence
of hydrodynamic profiles disposed under
different placed angles from hub to periphery.
The directing device ensures a shockless
input of the fluid particles into the impeller, and
the rectifying device, apart from converting a part
of kinetic energy into pressure energy is designed
to direct the fluid jet in an axial direction.



Fig. 2.48

In fig.2.49 we have considered a cylindrical section through the pump, at a
distance r, section from which we have taken only one element of the directing device,
impeller and rectifying device.

Unlike centrifugal pumps, the peripheral velocity at the input into the impeller
1
u is equal to the peripheral velocity at the output from the impeller
2
u :
76

e r u u u = = =
2 1
. (2.2-87)

The absolute velocity at the input into impeller,
1
v ,
results from the composition of relative velocity,
1
w ,
tangent to the blade, with the peripheral velocity,
1
u . The
role of the profile in the directing device is to result an
absolute velocity at output, as near as possible on the
direction of velocity
1
v . Also, at input in the directing
device velocity a v has to have an axial direction,
0
90 =
a
o .
At outlet from impeller, velocity
2
w , tangent to
the trailing edge, composed with peripheral velocity,
2
u
(equal to
1
u ), will give the absolute output from impeller
velocity,
2
v .
The profiles of the stator will have to direct the
output velocity in point 3, as much as possible to the axial
direction.

The profiles of the blades influence one another.
The problem is that of a network of profiles with pitch t.
We can consider that the profile of the impeller in fig. 2.49
is attacked with velocity w , a mean of velocities
1
w and
2
w . Observing the speed triangle in the same figure, we
may write:


Fig.2.49
.
2
,
2
2 1
2 1
2
2
u u
a
u u
a
v v
u
v
tg
v v
u v w
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
+ =

|
(2.2-88)

If we denote by l its chord and by b its span, we can write the relation of the lift
and resistance forces that act upon it:

77
.
2
,
2
2
2
lb
w
C F
b l
w
C F
x x
z z

=
=

(2.2-89)

We have denoted by
z
C and
x
C the coefficient of the lift force and of resistance
at advancement.

Resultant
2 2
z x
F F F + = may decompose by an axial and a tangent direction.

( )
( ) . sin
, cos
|
|
+ =
+ =

F T
F A
(2.2-90)

For an axial pump with z blades we shall have an axial thrust:

( ), cos | + = =

F z zA F
A
(2.2-91)

and a hydraulic power:

( ) . sin | + = =

uF z u T z P
h
(2.2-92)
The elementary hydraulic power may be written in several forms:
( ) ( )
( ) . sin
cos 2
sin
cos
sin
2
|

|
+ =
= + = + =

dr l
w
C u z
dF
u z dF u z dP
z
z
h
(2.2-93)
Through a cylindrical span section dr, at a distance r, the elementary flow
a
v rdr dQ t 2 = will pass. The elementary hydraulic power may be written as:


a t a t t h
v dr t z Y v dr r Y dQ Y dP t = = = 2 . (2.2-94)

where
t
Y is the specific energy transmited by the pump, whose value we can found by
equaling relations (2.2-94) and (2.2-93):

( ) |

+ =

sin
cos 2
2
w
v t
C l u
Y
a
Z
t
. (2.2-95)

As angle is relatively small
0
11 8 , we may approximate 1 cos ~ and
( )

= + | | sin sin . We notice as well that
a
v w =

| sin .
The specific energy created by the axial pump will thus be expressed by:

78

= = w u
t
l C
gH Y
Z
t t
2
. (2.2-96)

It is noticed that the load of the pump or its specific energy depends in a direct
proportion on rotation by peripheral velocity and on the shape of the profile by the lift
coefficient
Z
C . Should the pitch t be decreased, thus increasing the number of blades,
the load of the pump will increase.
The number of blades cannot be increased due to the high hydraulic losses in the
network of profiles.

The cavitation phenomenon limits the increase of velocity

w .
In fig. 2.50 there are plotted the characteristics of the axial pumps at different
rotations as well as the efficiency curves. Considering the evolute of efficiency curves
we can establish a maximum maximorum efficiency that corresponds to an optimal
working regime of the axial pump [8].
The characteristics of the axial pumps are rather
steep due to the blade profile that consists of a
sequence of hydrodynamic profiles.

It is known that for an alteration of the angle of
incidence brought about by the alteration of flow in
our case (more exact of
a
v ), the lift coefficient may
abruptly decrease.


Fig.2.50


2.3 Ejectors


Ejectors are pumping elements of a special category, without any motioning
parts. Their working principle is the following (fig.2.51).

The motive fluid such as steam, air or water enters the ejector through nipple 1.
In mixing chamber 2, its kinetic energy is partially converted into pressure energy that
drives the pumped fluid. The mixture passes in the convergent divergent diffuser 3,
where its kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy.
79

Fig.2.51

Then the fluid can be separated from the pumped fluid, the easiest to be
separated being steam (by condensation).

To carry out the compensation of a water water ejector we make use of the
scheme in fig. 2.52.

Fig.2.52

The flow of the driving fluid
0
Q passes with velocity
0
v through section
0
S .
When entering the ejector it drives the flow
1
Q of fluid that passes with velocity
1
v
through section
0
S S . The fluid has pressure
1
p in section 1.
In section 2, after the mixing has been carried out and the transfer of energy and
mass achieved, the flow will be Q, velocity
2
v and pressure
2
p .
From the equation of continuity:
( )
2 0 0 1 0
Sv v S v S S = + , (2.3-1)

it results that:


0
0
1
0
2
1 v
S
S
v
S
S
v + |
.
|

\
|
= . (2.3-2)

By applying the theorem of impulse:

( ) | | ( )S p p v S S v S Sv
2 1
2
1 0
2
0 0
2
2
= , (2.3-3)

we get pressure
2
p :
80


(

|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
2
2
2
1
0 2
0
0
1 2
1 v v
S
S
v
S
S
p p . (2.3-4)
The usable power of the ejected fluid is obtained from the relation:

( )
.
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
1
2
0
2
0 0
1
2
1
2
1 0
2
2
2
2
1
2
0
0 1
2
1
1 2
2
2
2
1
2
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
}
p
v
v
v
S
S
p
v
Sv
v S S
p
v
Sv
p
v
Q p
v
Q p
v
Q
dQ p
v
P
u

(2.3-5)

The efficiency of ejectors is below 0.35 that is enough low; their advantage is
that they have motionless parts. This makes ejectors highly reliable.

Ejectors are used for compression ratios of about 5. To achieve a higher ratio
several ejectors are series connected.

Water ejectors use as driving fluid water under pressure. In the naval field they
are used at installations of fire - fighting with lather, at draining systems, etc.

Referring also to the naval field, air-air ejectors are used to ventilate small
dimensioned compartments and steam-water ejectors to supply the boilers. Ejectors are
widely spread and they can be seen in many fields of activity.



















81
2.4. Volumetric hydraulic motors


By minimum design alterations most of volumetric hydraulic pumps may by
transformed into hydraulic motors. Driving the under-pressured liquid the machine
converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Volumetric motors may be
classified in the same manner as the pumps they have been obtained from. Without
going further into design and calculus details, we shall stress on a few elements that are
characteristic for running hydraulic machines as motors. Rotary volumetric hydraulic
motors may have a continuous or oscillating movement. A particular category are linear
motors (hydraulic cylinders).



2.4.1 Hydraulic cylinders


Hydraulic cylinders are volumetric hydraulic motors that are widely spread in
hydraulic systems.

In fig.2.53 a hydraulic cylinder that consists of piston 1, piston rod 2, and
cylinder 3 is schematically shown.

Fig.2.53

There are a large variety of hydraulic cylinders that can be classified according
to several criteria:

1. By the way pressure acts upon the piston, there are: simple acting, where the piston
doesnt come back hydraulically and double acting, when pressure acts on both
sides of the piston.

2. By the section of the two sides of the piston: with unilateral rod (
2 1
S S = ) and
bilateral rod (
2 1
S S = ).

Linear hydraulic motors can be mono or multi-cylinder. The stroke of the piston
may be constant or variable, its adjustment being made mechanically or hydraulically.

82
From the designing point of view hydraulic cylinders can be of several kinds,
depending on the working pressure, usage position and goal.

Fig. 2.54 shows the main elements of a hydraulic cylinder: 1 cylinder, 2 lid,
3 tightening screw, 4 sealing gasket. In fig. 2.55 the sealing elements of the piston
rod are shown (one of the design alternatives): 1 tightening flange, 2 screw, 3
tightening part, 4 sealings, 5 piston rod.

Fig.2.54 Fig.2.55

The pistons of the cylinders are also to be found in a large variety of designs.
Fig.2.56 shows a piston with rings.

There are pistons without sealing
gaskets (pistons with circular channels). In
this case surfaces are very accurate, a
reciprocal smooth friction between the
cylinder and the piston being accomplished.
There are also pistons with circular gaskets,
profiled gaskets etc.
Fig.2.56

If we refer to the hydraulic cylinders where tightening is achieved by the reduced
play between the surfaces of the cylinders and those of pistons, an outstanding
Fig. 2.57
importance in the calculus has the determination of hydraulic losses. These losses are
determined starting from the equations of flow through cylindrical centric slits.

The piston of radius
1
r moves rectilinearly with a constant velocity
p
u in the
cylinder of radius
2
r (fig.2.57).

By integrating Navier-Stokes equation written in cylindrical co-ordinates, in the
case of permanent linear movement, done on the direction of the axis ( 0 , 0 = =
u
v v
r
)
by leaving out massic forces and ( ) z p p = , we get:

83

2 1
2
ln
4
1
C r C r
dz
dp
v + + =
q
. (2.4-1)

To determine the constants
1
C and
2
C we write the limit conditions:

. 0 ,
; ,
2
1
= =
= =
v r r
u v r r
p
(2.4-2)
In the end we get the relation of velocity:


1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2 2 2
2
ln
ln
ln
ln
4
1
r
r
r
r
u
r
r
r
r
r r
r r
dz
dp
v
p

|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
q
. (2.4-3)
The flow of the lost fluid will be given by:

( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

(
(
(
(

= =
}
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 4
1
4
2
ln
2
ln
ln
8
2
2
1
r
r
r
r r
r
r
u
r
r
r r
r r
dz
dp
dr r r v Q
p
r
r
t
q
t
t
. (2.2-4)
The fall of pressure on length b is denoted by p A . The force of viscous friction
is given by:

t t b r F
1
2 = , (2.4-5)

where


dr
dv
q t = . (2.4-6)

Thus:

1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1 1
ln
2
ln 2
2
r
r
r
u b r
r
r
r
r r
r p r
dr
dv
b r F
p
q t
t q t
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

A = = . (2.4-7)

The force of maximum hydraulic friction (2.4-7) is got for
1
r r = :

84

1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2 2
1 max
ln
2
ln 2
r
r
u b
r
r
r r
r p F
p
q t
t
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

A = . (2.4-8)

An important problem is to determine the forces of friction on the cylinder
for the sealing elements.

This force is given by:

=
=
z
i
i
s p r F
1
2
2t , (2.4-9)
where: p is active pressure, - friction coefficient ( 008 , 0 006 , 0 = for leather
gaskets, 01 , 0 = for rubber),
i
s - breadth of a gasket.

In the case of the sealing with rings, there also appears an elastic pressure of the
ring on the cylinder,
c
p :

( )

+ =
z
i
i c
s p p r F
1
2
2t , (2.4-10)

where 15 , 0 ..... 07 , 0 = .

To determine the work pressure that is required for the piston we determine the
sum of the resistant forces,

R. This sum consists of the necessary force for the

working partas well as the friction forces and the inertia forces on the respective ring.

Pressure for work
1
p is determined from:

= 0
2 1 1
R S p S p
e
. (2.4-11)

where
1
S and
2
S are the surfaces of the piston on the two sides, and
e
p is the
exhausting pressure.

If
2 1
S S = and 0 =
e
p (i.e.there is no anti-pressure at discharge valve) then the
equilibrium equation becomes:

= 0
1
R S p . (2.4-12)

85

2.4.2 Motors with radial pistons


In the case when a hydraulic machine with radial pistons is working as a motor,
the forces and moments are determined using the scheme in fig.2.58.

Fig.2.58

F is the force with which the liquid of pressure p acts upon the piston of
diameter
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
4
2
d
p F d
t
. T is the normal force on direction AO, the one that determines
the rotation of the hydraulic motor with the angular velocity e :

| tg F T = . (2.4-13)
Component N, having the direction
2
AO , stresses the bearings of the motor.

The torque corresponding to a piston is given by:

T M
r
= . (2.4-14)
and the total torque given by the j pistons upon which it is acted with overpressure:

=
=
j
i
i i rt
T M
1
. (2.4-15)

The values of T and are the same as for the pump with radial pistons (see
chapter 2.1.2).






86
2.4.3 Motors with blades


To compute this type of motors we start from moments
1
M and
2
M , of reverse
signs, due to pressure p that act upon the blades (fig.2.59) [12].

Fig.2.59

( ) ( )
2 2
1
1
1 1
2 2
r
pb r
r r b p M = |
.
|

\
|
+ =

. (2.4-16)
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
r
pb r
r r b p M = |
.
|

\
|
+ =

. (2.4-17)


The moment at the axle of motor will be:

( )
2
2
2
1 2 1
2
= =
pb
M M M . (2.4-18)

In the above relations

( ) , cos cos
2 1
R e and R e + + ~ + ~ u u where t = for an even number
of blades k z 2 = and
z
t
t = for an odd number of blades 1 2 + = k z , as
1 0 , + |
.
|

e k
z
t
u interstices at discharge, respectively k
z
, , 0
(

\
|
e
t
u interstices at
discharge.

In the first case, when k z 2 = and t = , well have:

( ) ( ) u u u cos Re 2 cos cos
2
2 2
b p R e R e
pb
M = + + = . (2.4-19)
87

The moment varies with respect to angle u . The definition field of the function
( ) u M is
(

e
2
,
2

u where
z
t

2
= .

. cos Re 2
, Re 2
min
max
z
b p M
b p M
t
=
=
(2.4-20)
In the case when we have an odd number of blades 1 2 + = k z , well get:

( ) ( ) | |
( ) | |. cos cos
cos cos
2
cos cos
2 2


+ =
=
)
`

+ + + =
R e b p
R
e
R e b p M
(2.4-21)

For 1 + k discharging interstices,
z
t
t + = :

(

|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
z
R e b p M
t
cos cos , (2.4-22)

and for k discharging interstices,
z
t
t = :


(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
z
R e b p M
t
cos cos . (2.4-23)

As it can be noticed the moment at the axle of motor isnt constant. Its variation
is characterized by the moments pulsation, whose value is equal to the flow pulsation
that was computed in chapter 2.1.3 for pumps with blades.

Starting from this moment we can determine the forces that act upon blades and
bearings, thus being able to carry out the dimensioning of these elements.











88
2.4.4 Motors with axial pistons


In the case of motors with axial pistons the force with which the pressure liquid
acts upon a piston of diameter d,


4
2
d
p F
t
= . (2.4-24)

decomposes into a tangent and a normal force (fig.2.60).


Fig.2.60

The tangent force

o sin F T = , (2.4-25)

creates the torque.


For one piston we shall have:
o
t
sin sin
4
1
2
r
d
p T M
r
= = . (2.4-26)
The z pistons will create a total torque:

=
=
z
i
r
r p
d
M
t
1
1
2
sin sin
4
o
t
. (2.4-27)
It is noticed that the torque has a pulsatory character.

The relation will give the power at the axle of motor:

e
t
r
M P = , (2.4-28)
where e depends on the flow the motor is supplied with.
89



2.4.5 Oscillating rotary motors


Oscillating rotary motors are a particular category of hydraulic motors that are
used in actuations which do not require complete rotations of the active element; i.e.
servo-controls, industrial robots, rudders of ships etc.

These motors can be with one or several blades (fig.2.62), circular oscillating
(fig.2.61 and fig.2.62) or linear oscillating (fig.2.63).

Considering the pressure in the exhausting chamber to be nil, thus p p = A , we
can write the relation of the moment at the shaft of the motor with a single blade of
thickness b:
( )
( )
2 2
8 4 2
d D
pb d D b d D p
R F M =
+
= = . (2.4-29)

Fig.2.61 Fig.2.62



Fig.2.63
90

The angular velocity will be:


( )
2 2
8
d D b
Q

= e . (2.4-30)

For motors with z blades the relations for the moment and angular velocity
become:

( )
2 2
8
d D
b p z
M = , (2.4-31)

and


( )
2 2
8
d D b z
Q

= e . (2.4-32)





























91

2.5 Turbines


Turbines are motric hydraulic machines that accomplish the conversion of
energy by the hydrodynamic action of the fluid upon the impeller. Turbines are part of
hydrodynamic machines (turbo-machines) category, and they can work as pumps or
motors.

They process the pressure potential energy and kinetic energy.

In chapter 2.2 we have dealt with the general working principle of turbo-
machines.

An important classifying criterion of turbines is that of specific rotation (see
chapter 2.2.1).


4 / 3 4 / 5
65 , 3
H
Q
n
H
P
n n
S
= = , (2.5-1)


which in fact determines the most appropriate shape of impeller.

By specific rotation, there are three main types of turbines:

- Pelton turbines ; 50 2 =
S
n

- Francis turbines ; 550 40 =
s
n

- Kaplan turbines . 1200 400 =
S
n



2.5.1 Pelton turbine


Pelton turbine is an actuation turbine that processes the kinetic energy of the
fluid (water). This kinetic energy comes from the conversion of a part of the potential
energy of water pressure in injector 1 (fig.2.64).

The jet of water from the injector hits the curved blades (buckets) 2 of impeller
3, bringing about its revolving movement with the angular velocity e .

The flow can be adjusted by shifting the injector needle 4 by means of a
servomechanism 5.
92

This is the simple working principle of Pelton actuated turbine. To establish the
working parameters of this motive hydraulic machine, we consider its impeller being
designed in such a manner as to take over the entire kinetic energy of the fluid jet (the
kinetic energy of water at output from impeller should be nil):


Fig.2.64


g
v
H
n
2
2
1
= . (2.5-2)


n
H - net hydraulic falls available at input in the machine.

The buckets of the impeller are usually
ellipsoidal. Fig.2.65 shows a section through a
bucket made up of two ellipsoids stuck on the big
axis. The bucket is symmetrically hit by water jet
with velocity
1
v . The jet is reversed by the bucket
with angle
2
| , a lower value than the theoretical
one of
0
180 [2].

Fig.2.65

The absolute velocity
2
v is composed of the relative velocity
2
w and
peripheral velocity u :

u w v + =
2 2
. (2.5-3)

The jet thrusts the immobile turbine with the force:
93

( )
2 1 1
cos 1 | = Qv F , (2.5-4)

and the moving turbine with the force:

( )( )
2 1 2
cos 1 | = u v Q F . (2.5-5)

Thus, the thrusting force will be maximum when
0
2
90 = | .

The relation will give the power developed by the turbine:

( )( )
2 1 2
cos 1 | = = u v Qu u F P . (2.5-6)

The theoretical power being QH P
t
= , the hydraulic efficiency of Pelton
turbine will be:

( )( ) . cos 1
1
1 2
u u v
gH P
P
t
h
= = | q (2.5-7)

To establish the maximum hydraulic efficiency we derive expression (2.4-
7) with respect to peripheral velocity u:


( )( )
0
2 cos 1
1 2
=

=
c
c
gH
u v
u
h
| q
. (2.5-8)

Thus:

2
1
v
u
optim
= . (2.5-9)
Usually ( )
1
485 , 0 42 , 0 v u = .



2.5.2 Francis turbine


Francis turbine (fig.2.66) is a turbine with partial reaction. The force that brings
about the revolving of the turbine is produced both by the action of water jet and by
increasing velocity among blades (reaction).
94
The position potential energy of water in the inlet chamber 1 is partially
converted into kinetic energy in diffuser 2. The impeller with curved blades, twisted in
space, alters the water direction, generating a couple and achieving mechanical energy.
Water comes out with an important kinetic energy, which is partly recovered by diffuser
5.


Fig.2.66
The inlet chamber, that can be of three types: open tank, closed container or
spiral, (as shown in the figure), connects the supply conduit with the distributor. The
distributor directs the water to the impeller and converts a part of its potential energy
into kinetic energy. The inlet flow in the impeller may be adjusted by altering the
passing section among the blades of distributor. The flow adjustment is done by means
of device 3. The impeller may have a horizontal or a vertical axle (for middle and big
turbines). Its blades have the shape of a plough knife coulter and many times they are
cast together with the body or the support on which the axle is fitted. The diffuser, also
called suction conduit is a tube of variable section that has the role to recover a part of
kinetic energy of the outlet water and to direct it to the trailing channel.

We can observe the design similarity between a centrifugal pump and a Francis
turbine. Both are turbo-machines whose running differs only in the sense of energetic
conversion.

The fundamental equation of turbo-machines (2.2-12) is the same, the indexes of
velocities being obviously different since the sense of water circulation is reversed:

( )
2 1
2 1
1
u u T
v u v u
g
H =

. (2.5-10)
95

By applying Bernoullis equation between the outlet surface from impeller and
water surface, well get:


f
at
a
h
g
v p
g
v
H
p
+ + = + +
2 2
4 2 2

, (2.5-11)

where
f
h is the load loss in the suction conduit.

Hence:


at
f a
at
p
h H
g
v v p p
< +

=
2
2
4
2
2 2
. (2.5-12)
In the suction conduit a water suction is created, which increases the fall of
pressure; thus a part of the outlet kinetic load,
g
v
2
2
2
is being recovered.
However

2
p
cannot be this low, being limited by the vaporization pressure,
v
p .
We can avoid the cavitation phenomenon provided the suction height shouldnt exceed
the value:

f
v a
a
h
g
v v p p
H +

=
2
2
4
2
2
max

. (2.5-13)


2.5.3 Kaplans turbine


Kaplan turbines are the correspondents of axial pumps in the field of motive
turbo-machines. Fig.2.67 schematically shows a Kaplan turbine.

Fig.2.67
96
Water from the supply conduit passes in the spiral chamber 1, and from here on
through distributor 2, equipped with directing blades, by means of device 3 and further
on to impeller 4.

The impeller is of axial type, made up of a hub on which 2 to 6 ellicoidal blades
are fitted, with a loose end. The hub ends in a parabolic ogive. The blades of the
impeller can be fixed or adjustable.

Suction conduit 5 has an important role in Kaplan turbines since a large quantity
of kinetic energy is to be recovered.

Kaplan turbines may have a horizontal, vertical or slanting axle. They are used
for high flows and low loads. As the Franscis turbines, they are turbines with partial
reaction, the shape of the impeller being determined by their higher specific rotation.
































97


3. CONTROL AND AUXILIARY APPARATUS



The main aim of a hydropneumatic system is to produce hydraulic and
pneumatic energy and to reconvert it into mechanical energy. The elements which
produce or reconvert pneumatic or hydraulic energy, namely pumps (compressors) and
motors are considered the main components of the actuating system.
Yet we must underline that an outstanding importance for the smooth
working of a system represent the other hydropneumatic elements, which will be
studied in this chapter.
These elements can be classified into control and auxiliary apparatus.
The control apparatus has the role to direct and adjust the flow or the
pressure of the fluid, a role that is mainly played by distributors, chokes and valves,
respectively.
Auxiliary apparatus leads the fluid medium (pipes), filters it (filters), stores
and cools it (tanks and heat exchangers), amasses hydropneumatic energy
(accumulators), and tightens (tightening system).


3.1 Control apparatus


The fluid medium must be directed from the generator element to different
parts of the actuating system so as to cover a route, sometimes very intricate, before it
gets to the motive element and from here on, in some cases, back to the generator one.

The distribution devices achieve the reverse of the sense of motor as well as
the selective covering of different routes of the installation.

The alteration of linear or angular velocity of hydraulic and pneumatic linear
or rotary motors is accomplished by a variation of flow.

This is carried out either by the generating element in the case when it is
with an adjustable flow or with the help of chokes, in a resistive manner, with losses of
energy.

The force or couple of linear or rotary motors is modified by the variation of
pressure.

The control and adjustment of pressure in the installation, and other
functions as well, are carried out by hydropneumatic elements that are known under the
generic name of valves.

98


3.1.1 Distribution apparatus


They are meant to direct the fluid from the generator element to different
parts of the installation. This can also be done by means of resistive adjustment.

Classification of distributors can be done taking into consideration several
criteria:

a) By the finite or infinite number of working positions there are discrete distributors
(fig.3.1 a, b, c) or continuous distributors (fig.3.1d).
b) By the shape of the distributing part:
- cylindrical with translation motion - drawer (fig.3.1 a) or with rotation motion
(fig.3.2 b);
- plane with translation motion (fig.3.1 c) or with rotation motion .
c) By the actuating manner there are: manual, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrohydraulic, pneumohydraulic and mechanical distributors;
d) By the kind of the control device: direct or piloted (a smaller distributor controls a
larger one fig. 3.1 e);
e) By the covering degree: (i.e. the difference between the dimension of the piston
p
L
and that of the channel
c
L (fig.3.1 a)), there are: critical covering,
c p
L L = ; positive
covering,
c p
L L > ; negative covering,
c p
L L < .

The distributor working is generally a simple one. At a manual, electric,
hydraulic, etc. command, the distributor part moves discretely or continuously opening
or covering the passing to different routes.

Piloted distributors as in fig.3.1 e work in the following manner: electromagnets
1 command the pilot plunger 2 which moves to the left or the right opening the way for
the oil that actuates the main drawer 3, moving it to the right or left, respectively. This
way it is achieved the main circuit of oil PA and BR, PB and AR respectively.

The flow that passes through the distributor is in direct proportion with the
passing section ( ) t x d A =t , where d is the diameter of the piston, x the variable
opening, and
c p
L L t = - the covering degree.
The flow Q also depends on the fall of pressure p A :
( )

t
p
t x d Q
A
=
2
. (3.1-1)

65 , 0 6 , 0 = , flow coefficient.

99


Fig 3.1

We can notice the linear dependence of the flow with respect to movement. In
fig.3.2 there are shown the diagrams ( ) x Q for routes AP, AR, BP and BR for
distributors with critical, positive or negative covering degree.

100

Fig.3.2 a Fig.3.2 b Fig.3.2 c

For a certain opening, the fall of pressure depends on the square flow.



3.1.2 Flow monitoring apparatus


In this chapter we shall refer to the resistive adjustment of the flow. This
adjustment is achieved with the help of some hydraulic resistances, fixed or variable,
that together with other elements make up a device called choke.

Chokes can be discrete or continuous according to their finite or infinite
positions of work. There are also the so-called digital
chokes, which represent a complex design of 3 to 5 identical chokes, which ensure, with
respect to a basic flow, several flow variants that are in a geometric series. The
continuous adjustment can be simultaneously done with the distributions in continuous
distributors (fig.3.1 d).

Fig.3.3

This basic element of a choke, the hydraulic resistance can be of several kinds:
monitoring edge (fig.3.3 a, b, c), capillary (fig.3.3 d) or slit (fig.3.3 e).

Chokes are mounted in low power hydraulic circuits whose generating element
is a pump with constant flow. The mounting is done on the supplying circuit, on the
return circuit, or parallel to the hydraulic motor (fig.3.4).
101

Fig.3.4
In fig.3.5 is shown a way choke that carries out the adjustment of the flow only if the
circuit is from left to right [5].

The adjustable nut 1 moves inside the
body 2 altering the choking space 3. The fluid
covers the route AB 3 CD. In the reverse sense,
the circuit is done unchoked on the route DEA,
the reversing valve being open.

Fig.3.5

Relation (3.1-1) is valid for chokes also. It can be noticed that the flow Q
depends on the fall of pressure, not only on the opening x. To avoid the inevitable
dependence of the flow on the pressure fall, the choke is mounted together with the
regulator. The assembly choke-regulator can be of restrictive type (fig.3.6 a), where
there is the regulator and then the choke, and of by-pass type (fig.3.6 b) in which the
main flow passes through the choke ( in order to maintain p A constant, a larger or
smaller quantity of fluid passes through the regulator in the tank).

The regulator can be also mounted parallel to the choke (fig.3.7).

Noting by A the section of the mobile part of the regulator and by
a
F the force
of the spring, we can write the equilibrium of the forces:

A p F A p
a 0 1
= + . (3.1-2)
102

Fig.3.6

Hence,

.
1 0
const
A
F
p p p
a
= = = A (3.1-3)

Fig. 3.7

Before stabilizing, the regulated flow has a transitory regime. The equation
which describes this transitory regime is generally known:
( )

= + +
ext
F t x k
dt
dx
c
dt
x d
M
2
2
, (3.1-4)
where M is the mass of the part in motion, c the coefficient of viscous friction, K the
rigidity of the spring, t the covering degree and
ext
F - the sum of external forces.
The working of the choke in a stationary regime is defined by several
characteristics:

- - the adjustment characteristic in which the flow Q is expressed with respect to
the linear stroke h, angular stroke or the number of divisions of the operating
impeller (fig.3.8 a);
- the operating force characteristic, where the force to actuate the choke is
expressed with respect to required stroke and pressure (fig.3.8 b);
- the hydraulic characteristic - ( ) Q p A (fig.3.8 c).
103

Fig.3.8



3.1.3 Pressure monitoring apparatus


The mechanical work carried out in hydropneumatic actuating systems is
determined, apart from flow, by pressure. The pressure, as a variable of effort, should be
monitored in the system. By monitoring pressure we understand a multitude of
functions: to protect the installation by limiting the maximum admitted value, to reduce
pressure so as to match the particularities of different consumers, to adjust pressure, to
maintain it constant irrespective of the requirement of the consumers, to provide a
successive setting in motion of hydraulic motors, to create a supplementary load in
installation, to forbid the circulation of fluid.
The elements of the hydropneumatic actuating system, which carry out the
monitoring of pressure, are valves. They are series or parallel mounted, with the
hydropneumatic generator or motor, downstream or upstream.

According to their function valves can be classified into:

- safety valves
- reduction valves
- regulating valves
- pressure servo-regulators
- succession valves
- anti pressure valves
- reversing valves
The adjustment of pressure can be done by discharging the overflow in the tank,
by choking or by reversing the flow of the pump.
Valves can be directly actuated or piloted (by altering the reference element).

Essentially, directly operated valves are made up
of (fig.3.9): a pressure sensor 1, reference element 2
(usually a spring), and regulating element 3 (variable
opening).

Fig.3.9
104

A directly operated valve works as follows: pressure acts upon the pressure
sensor; at a certain value the force of the spring will be overcome and a part of the flow
will leak through the outlet of the valve, bringing about the reduction of pressure in the
system.
In a stationary regime, the fall of pressure in the system, p A , depends on the
variable section of the leaking outlet
x
S :

2
2
2
x
d
S
Q
C p

= A . (3.1-5)
The section can be considered linearly dependent on the opening x:

x k S
s x
= . (3.1-6)

Writing the equilibrium of forces on the direction of the axis of valve, we get:

x k F F p S
R H
+ = + A
0 0
, (3.1-7)
where
0
S is the active surface,
0
F - the pre regulating force of the spring,
H
F - the
hydrodynamic force due to the flow of fluid through the regulating section, a force
which is in direct proportion with the fall of pressure.

p x k F
H H
A = . (3.1-8)

From (3.1-5), (3.1-6), (3.1-7) and (3.1-8) we get:


|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
A
=
0
0 0
2
S
F
p
p k k
S k
C
p
Q
H R
S
d

. (3.1-9)



As it can be noticed, the characteristic of the
valve depends on a series of parameters: the constant
of the spring
R
k , the constant,
S
k , the constant,
h
k
which is influenced by the shape of the element of
sesisors a.s.o. Relation (3.1-6) is valid for x

relatively small openings. When the valve has the nominal opening, variation of p A
with respect to the flow becomes parabolic according to relation (3.1-5), where
x
S is a
constant. In fig.3.10 the valve characteristic is plotted.

We can notice the slow increase of p A in the area of small openings, followed
by the parabolic variation.
Fig.
3.10
105

We shall further describe several of the multitudes of types of directly operated
valves.

The safety valve (fig.3.11).

The aim of safety valves is to protect the installation in the case of pressure
increase.

The safety valve consists of valve 1, spring 2, adjustment screw of the force in
the spring 3 and the valve body 4.


Its working is very simple. At normal pressure
the force of the spring keeps the valve pushed on the
seat. The admitted value of pressure once exceeded, the
force of the spring is overcome and a part of the flow of
fluid is dissipated to the tank or to some other direction,
thus bringing about the decrease of pressure in the
installation.
Fig.3.11

The reversing valve (fig.3.12).


Reversing valve allows the passing of a
fluid in one way, the other being blocked. They
are also called return valves. There are also
relieving reversing valves which allow, at a
certain actuation, the fluid to pass in the other
way.



Fig. 3.12

The reduction valve (fig.3.13).

This kind of valve enables to obtain a constant outlet pressure
2
p , even if the
inlet pressure
1
p is variable, on condition that
1
p should be higher than
2
p .
106

Fig.3.13

Fig.3.13 shows a pressure regulator Progresul type.
The spring 1 is thus tarred that its force should overcome the force created by
pressure
2
p . Pressure
1
p being higher moves the piston 2, partially or totally covering
orifice 3 to the balance of forces.

For higher pressures and flows the actuating of the valve cannot be done
directly, due to weight and clearance reasons. A smaller valve directly actuated
senses the pressure and monitors the working of the actual adjusting element. This
assembly makes up the valve with indirect or piloted actuation. Fig.3.14
schematically shows such a valve.

When the pressure in the system exceeds the value
0
p for which the spring of
the valve with direct actuation
1
S opens, the pressure in the upper part of the element
2
S decreases, thus increasing the possibility that an important part of the flow should
drain through section
2
A . We can adjust the pressure in the entire system by adjusting
the spring of valve
1
S .















Fig.3.14
107


3.2 Auxiliary apparatus


Within a hydropneumatic system there are a series of elements, that have a
definite part and contribute to conversion of energy, under best circumstances. The
auxiliary apparatus do not generate hydraulic or pneumatic energy, do not convert it into
mechanical energy and do not actuate or adjust the working of the system. In exchange
they enable the link between the different elements, store the fluid, filter and cool it,
accumulate energy, ensure the tightening of the system and s.o.

There is a large category of hydropneumatic auxiliary elements. In what follows
we shall deal with conduits, filters, tanks and accumulators.



3.2.1 Conduits


The flowing of hydraulic medium in carried out through a large variety of
conduits.

Conduits may be rigid or flexible (hoses). Rigid conduits of smaller diameters
can be twisted in the shape of spiral, allowing a certain flexibility. The routes, which the
fluid crosses, can be inside the body of elements or can be exterior. According to the
pressure they are working at there are conduits of low, medium, high and ultra high
pressure. There are also hoses of high pressure, that have metallic insertion.

A conduit is characterized by the nominal diameter DN, which represents the
diameter of the interior section. There is a relationship between the nominal diameter,
the nominal pressure
n
p and the thickness of the conduit. This relationship is settled by
standards and is given in tables.

There are also relationships between the nominal pressure and the flow velocity,
relationships mainly determined by the limitation of losses of pressure.

Conduits are attached to the elements of hydropneumatic systems and one to the
other, by means of couplings, T. bends, bends,
108
reducing elbows. These are standardized and correspond to the nominal diameter of the
respective conduits. The large variety of existent links prevents us from presenting all of
them, under the circumstances of our present work. There are several types of
couplings.

- coupling with re-edged pipe (fig.3.15 a);
- coupling with re-edged pipe and jack (fig.3.15 b);
- coupling with spherical jack on cone (fig.3.15 c);
- coupling with elastic sleeve type ERMETO (fig.3.15 d).


Fig. 3.15

When fluids flow through conduits, couplings, taps, etc due to the friction
between the fluid particles and walls, losses of pressure occur which can be linear or
local:

2
1
2
v
D
p
lin

= , (3.2-1)

2
2
v
p
loc

, = , (3.2-2)
where is the coefficient of linear losses of load, , - the coefficient of local losses of
load, l the length of the conduit, D the diameter of the conduit, - the density of
the fluid, v the velocity of the fluid.




109
3.2.2 Filters


Filtration of hydraulic or pneumatic medium has an prominent importance for
the good working of a system. Filters reduce the degree of contamination of the fluid
with impurities under a certain limit, therefore, apart from ensuring a smooth working
of the system, they avoid a premature wear of its elements.
Impurities which come form the exterior or interior (from the fluid itself or from
the components of the hydropneumatic system) can be of mechanical or chemical
nature.
The degree of contamination is given by the value, shape and the number of
impurifying particles. It is influenced by the velocity and pressure of the fluid.

Fig.3.16
In fig. 3.16 is shown a filter which consists of: 1 inlet, 2 lid, 3 filtering
element, 4 spring, 5 ring 0, 6 outlet, 7 by pass valve [5].

In the case when the filter is stuck, the pressure created in the system opens the
by pass valve, thus being carried out a direct circuit, by detouring the filtering
element. There are filters which signal these situations, so that we may change or clean
the filtering element.

Some filters have sockets for manometers, whose indications allow us to
establish the silting degree of the filtering element. Many times we make use of double
filters, in parallel, thus we are able to change the filtering element without stopping the
installation.

Filtering elements can be of surface when they retain the particles on their
surface or of depth when the particles are retained in the whole mass of the element.
Surface filters can be made of paper, cardboard, metallic texture, that are able to regain
their filtering capacity by blowing or by reversing the circulation sense of the fluid.
Depth filters are made up of successive layers, each one can be made of paper
impregnated with resins, of balls or other sintered metallic elements, folded fabric, etc.

110
The fineness of filtration can be rendered in absolute or relative units. As
absolute unity we have the diameter of the largest spherical particle that can pass
through the filtering element. From this point of view, filtration can be:

- rough m 200 ;
- medium m 60 50 ;
- fine m 15 10 ;
- micronic m 5 2 ;
- sub-micronic m 1 .

The relative fineness reports the number of particles of a certain diameter which
pass through the filter to the total number of particles.
Filters can be mounted on suction, discharge or return routes.

If filters are mounted on suction, there is the advantage that the pump is
protected and it doesnt work under pressure. In exchange there are supplementary
resistances on suction circuit, that have an effect on the decreasing the suction load of
the pump and on the conditions which lead to cavitation.

If filters are mounted on discharge, the so-called pressure filters, they allow to
protect the elements of installation, which require a more accurate mechanical finishing
(distributors, valves, etc). They have the disadvantage that they must be designed in
such a manner as to resist pressures and the pump isnt directly protected. Return filters,
usually mounted on tanks, are a widely spread solution, as they work under relatively
low pressure.
Of course that within an installation there can be mounted several filtering
elements, in different areas.
Apart from protecting the installation and cleaning the fluid medium, filters can
contribute to improving the pulsation regime in a hydrostatic system.


3.2.3 Tanks

The storage of hydraulic medium can be done at atmospheric pressure, in tanks,
at low pressure, in filling tanks and at high pressure, in accumulators.
In a hydrostatic system the part of tanks is manifold: it stores the fluid medium,
allows the impurities to decant, creates conditions to cool the fluid, constitutes a support
for different elements of the installation (often pumps are mounted directly on tanks).
111

In fig.3.17 a hydraulic tank is
schematically shown. We can notice the
suction conduit 1 and the discharge conduit 2.
At the end of the suction conduit there is filter
3. The two chambers are separated by a
spillway wall 4. The filling is achieved by
means of element 5 equipped with a filter.
Taps 6 and 7 are meant to eliminate the
sediments.
Fig.3.17


As we have already stated, tanks allow cooling by mixing the liquid in the
installation or by heat radiation.

Taking into account the thermic sum, we can establish the required volume of
the tank by means of relation [8]:

| |
3 3
3
0
10 m
T T
Q
V

|
|
.
|

\
|

= , (3.2-3)

where T the established working temperature;
0
T - the temperature of the exterior
medium;

( )P Q q = 1 860 , (3.2-4)

the quantity of heat emitted in the system; P the power of the pump expressed in kW;
q - the total efficiency.

The volume of the tank can be also expressed by the formula:

( ) ] [ 5 ..... 3
max
l Q V
P
= , (3.2-5)

where
max
P
Q represents the maximum flow of pump in l / min.







112
3.2.4 Accumulators


The role of the accumulator in a hydraulic installation is multiple; it is used as a:

- tank of liquid under pressure;
- supplier of high flows in certain moments;
- compensator for losses of liquid and volumetric losses due to dilation;
- hydraulic generator for short periods;
- recoverer of braking energy;
- pulsations damper;
- hydraulic chock absorber.

The energy storage can be achieved hydromechanically (accumulators with
weightsfig.3.18 a, with spring fig.3.18 b or hydropneumatically. For hydropneumatic
accumulators the compressed gas stores energy.

In the discharge phase, the gas expands exhausting the liquid. Hydropneumatic
accumulators can be with gas without separation (fig.3.18 c) or with separation of piston
type (fig.3.18 d), bladder (fig.3.18 c) or membrane (fig.3.18 f).

Fig. 3.18

For accumulators calculus we consider the behaviour of the gas as polytropic
( . const pV
n
= ). Due to the fact that the accumulator filling is done within a short time,
the polytropic exponent doesnt exceed the value 1.1, so that the hypothesis of
isothermic transformation ( . const pV = ) isnt so far from being true.

In fig.3.19 three phases of the accumulator working are shown[8].
113

Fig.3.19

a) Before the entrance of the liquid, the gas takes the entire volume V (we consider the
volume of the piston as negligible) at the pressure p.

b) The liquid discharged by the pump has taken the maximum volume
M
V at the
pressure
M
p . The gas will be at the same pressure
M
p taking the entire volume
M
V V .
c) In the discharging phase there must remain a minimum volume of liquid
m
V at
pressure
m
p .

Knowing V, p and
M
p , we determine
M
V from the law of isothermic
transformation:

M
M
p
p
V V V = . (3.2-6)

Hence:

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
M
M
p
p
V V 1 . (3.2-7)

Writing the law of isothermic transformation, we shall get:

m
m
p
p
V V V = , (3.2-8)
or else:

114
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
m
m
p
p
V V 1 . (3.2-9)

The relation will give the required volume of the accumulators:

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
M m
m M u
p
p
p
p
V V V V . (3.2-10)
115

4. MEASURING APPARATUS



From a quantitative point of view, the assessment of a physical magnitude can
be done either by calculus or by measurement.

The measurement of a physical magnitude consists of its comparison with
another magnitude of the same nature which is conventionally thought of as a measure
unity. As a result of the measurement, we get an abstract number called numerical
value, which shows us how many times the measure unity is included in the respective
physical magnitude. Consequently, a symbolic product between the numerical value b
and its measure unity | can always express a physical magnitude B,:

| b B = . (4.1-1)

Generally, the results of the measurement are affected by errors. Thus, if we
denote by b the numerical value of a physical magnitude, got by measurement, i (i= 1,
2, . . . . n) and by
0
b the real numerical value of the same physical magnitude, we
define:

- the absolute error:

( )
0 0
B B b b B
i i i
= = A | ; (4.1-2)

- the relative error:

0
0
0
0
b
b b
B
B B
i i
i

=

= c ; (4.1-3)

which can also be expressed as a percentage, in the form:

| | % 100
0
0
B
B B
i
i

= c . (4.1-4)

The absolute error taken with the reverse sign represents the correction of the
measurement
i
K , namely:


i i i
B B B K = A =
0
, (4.1-5)

hence the real value of the respective physical magnitude in the form:

116

i i
K B B + =
0
. (4.1-6)

If the measuring proceeding has been repeated for n times, we can calculate a
mean value:

=
=
n
i
i
B
n
B
1
1
, (4.1-7)

and a square mean of the errors:

( )

=
=
n
i
i
B
n
1
2
1
o . (4.1-8)

The measurement error can be considered as a sum of random errors,
systematical errors and, sometimes, even mistakes (glaring errors).

To identify the results that have been affected by suchlike glaring errors, we
establish a tolerance field:

| | ( ) ( ) | | o o Z B Z B B B D + = = , ,
max min
, (4.1-9)

where Z is a coefficient which depends on the numbers of measurements, n (thus, for n
= 6, Z = 1.73 ; for n = 10, Z = 1.96 ; for n = 15, Z = 2.13).

The results of the measurements
i
B which dont belong to the field D, defined
by the relation (4.1-9), are considered to be glaring errors and they are eliminated.



4.1 Apparatus which determine the physical properties of fluids


The physical properties of fluids are characterized by a series of physical
magnitudes such as: density, viscosity, temperature, coefficient of isothermic
compressibility, coefficient of isobar dilatation, specific heat, superficial tension, etc.
We shall further analyze the measuring proceedings of density and viscosity for fluids.


4.1.2 Density measurement


For homogeneous bodies, density represents the mass in relation to the unity of
volume ( V m/ = ).
117

Among the apparatus used to measure density there are: the areometer, the
hydrostatic scales, and the U tube.

a) The areometer is a floater of given weight G, which in a liquid of known density
0
, plunges to the level A (fig.4.1), and in the liquid of searched density, ,
plunges to the level B. By using the equation of flotability, we get:

0 0
V g V g G = = , (4.1-10)
where from:

h d V
V
V
V
2
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
t

+
= = (4.1-11)
where h represents the difference in level AB, d is the diameter of the cylindrical part of
the areometer, and
0
V is determined from the relation:


g
G
V
0
0

= . (4.1-12)

Fig.4.1

b) The hydrostatic scales enable us to determine the density of a liquid by measuring
the Archimedean force F that arises by submerging a solid body, of a known V
volume. Under these circumstances, the relation will give the density of the liquid.

V g
F
= . (4.1-13)
c) The U tube (fig.4.2) enables us to determine the density of a liquid by
measuring the heights
0
h and h corresponding to the two columns of liquid, of
which one has the known density
0
. By using the fundamental equation of
hydrostatics, we get:
118
0 0
h g h g = ,

therefore:

h
h
0
0
= . (4.1-14)
If the liquids are non-miscible we can use two communicating vessels, h and h
0

being in this case the heights of the two columns of liquid above the separation surface.



Fig.4.2


4.1.3 Viscosity measurement


Apparatus which are designed to measure viscosity, also called viscometers, can
be classified according to following criteria:

a) by the design principle we distinguish:

- viscometers with band, which are based on the laminar motion between two
plane surfaces;
- viscometers with a capillary, which are based on the laminar motion of the
fluid in a capillary;
- viscometers with a plunger or in a forced motion, which are based on the
laminary flow around a rigid body in a translation motion;
- viscometers with a rotating body, which are based on the laminar motion
around rotating bodies;
- viscometers with an oscillatory body which are based on the non-permanent
motion around an oscillatory body;
- viscometers with flow orifices, usually designed to measure some conventional
viscosity, proportional to the time of flow of the liquid through the orifices of the
viscometer under certain standard conditions;

b) by the kind of the determined viscosity, we distinguished:
119

- viscometers meant to determine the dynamic viscosity;
- viscometers meant to determine the kinetic viscosity;
- viscometers to determine the conventional viscosity.

c) By their degree of accuracy viscometers can be for laboratories (with a high degree
of accuracy) and technical.

In the end, we should also underline that in industrial installations there are used
devices which are meant both for viscosity measurement and display and for its
adjustment between certain limits. Such devices are called viscosity controllers or
viscositates.

In what follows we shall analyze the main types of viscometers, which are used
in actual practice.

a) Viscometers with capillary

These devices are meant to measure the dynamic viscosity q . The working
principle of these viscometers consists in determining the pressure fall p A that arises
at the flow of liquid, in laminary and permanent regime, through the calibrated tube 1
(fig.4.3 a).

Denoting by d and l the interior diameter of the tube and its length, respectively,
and according to Hagen-Poisseuilles law, the dynamic viscosity of the liquid can be
determined by means of the relation:

p
l Q
d
A =
128
4
t
q , (4.1-15)

where the flow of liquid Q is maintained constant, and the fall of pressure p A can be
determined by measuring the difference in level h between the free surfaces of the liquid
from the piezometric tubes 2:

h p = A .
120


Fig.4.3

Therefore relation (4.1-15) becomes:


l Q
h d
128
4
t
q = . (4.1-16)
We should stress that the constant maintaining of the flow is essential and this is
achieved either by using some flow regulators or by the use of volumetric pumps with a
constant flow.

A variant of this type of viscometer is Ostwald viscometer (fig.4.3 b) where the
laminary flow of the liquid takes place gravitationally through a vertical capillary 1
having the dimensions d = 0.4 0.5 mm, and l = 10 cm.

The tank 7 is filled with a liquid of unknown viscosity, by means of a calibrated
dropper.

Then the liquid is sucked into the tank 2, situated in the tube 3, until it reaches
above the reference point 4; afterwards we can measure the time t in which the liquid
flows gravitationally through the capillary, between reference points 4 and 5.

The experiment is then repeated, this time using another liquid of known
dynamic viscosity
0
q and which has the flow time
0
t . The unknown dynamic viscosity
is determined by means of:
121


0 0
0

q q
t
t
= , (4.1-17)

where
0
and are the densities of the two liquids.

b) Rotary body viscometers

This type of viscometers measure the viscosity of the liquid on the basis of the
moments of friction forces with act upon a solid body in rotation in the mass of the
fluid.

In fig.4.4 such a type of viscometer is schematically drawn; it consists of: 1
leading shaft, 2 leading disk, 3 carcass, 4 driven disk, 5 tightening element, 6
driven shaft. Due to friction forces, between the leading disk 2 and the driven disk 4,
there arises a moment which is transmitted by the driven shaft 6.

This moment is proportional to the dynamic viscosity of the fluid provided the
rotation of the leading shaft 1 should be maintained constant.



Fig.4.4

c) Plunger viscometers

The working principle of this type of viscometers is based on measuring the
resistance the fluid withstands against the advancement of a body in a translation
motion.

In the case of a spherical ball of radius r, which moves uniformly with velocity
0
v , the resistance at advancement is given by Stokes formula:

122
0
6 v r F q t = . (4.1-18)

The most common viscometer with a plunger is Hppler viscometer,
schematically shown in fig.4.5; it consists of:1 tube of a special glass which is filled
with the liquid to be analyzed, 2 frame with wedging screws, 3 exterior tube through
which there flows a liquid that adjusts the temperature of the liquid under test, 4 fixing
screw, 5 connecting pieces, 6 thermometer, 7 falling ball (plunger).

The tube 1 is slanting with respect to the vertical at an angle of
' 0
30 10 and can
revolve around the axis O.

In order to determine viscosity we measure the time t, in which ball 7 falls
between the two reference points marked on the glass tube 1; then we can use the
relation:

( )t k
b
q = , (4.1-19)

where k is the constant of the device, and
b
and are the densities of the ball and of
the tested liquid, respectively.


Fig.4.5 Fig.4.6

d) Conventional viscometers

In actual practice the conventional viscosity of the fluid is often used; this is the
magnitude determined by measuring the flow time of a certain volume of liquid through
a special device, under conventionally chosen conditions. There are several
conventional viscosities (Engler, Saybolt, Redwood, etc) which differ both in the
measuring conditions and in the unit measures.

One of the most used conventional viscometer is the Engler viscometer,
schematically shown in fig.4.6; it consists of: 1 a brass pot filled with the liquid whose
density is to be measured, 2 lid, 3 orifice obturated with the rod 8, 4 metallic bath
123
with an electric resistance, 5 frame with wedge screws, 6 stirrer, 7 standardized
balloon at
3
200cm , 9 thermometres.

Engler conventional viscosity, expressed in Engler degrees ( ) E
0
, is
determined as being the ratio between the flow time of
3
200cm of the tested liquid and
the flow time of
3
200cm distilled water at C
0
20 passing through the orifice 3.

e) Viscosity controllers
These are more complex devices, which
apart from measuring the density have
also the role to regulate, within certain
bounds, the viscosity of the working
fluid.
Fig.4.7

For example, such regulators are used on board ships on the fuel oil supply line for the
ships main engine.

The installations, which regulate the viscosity of liquids, have the classical
structure of automatic systems. Their basic element is the viscosity transducer
1
TV
which carries out the conversion of viscosity into a mechanical magnitude
(displacement, moment, force, difference of pressure) which, in its turn, is used as a
reaction signal,
r
x , in the comparison element E.C. (fig.4.7). The inlet magnitude
0
u is
given by the prescribed magnitude of viscosity, which, before entering E.C. is converted
by the transducer
2
TV into a magnitude
i
x of the same nature with
r
x . The error signal
a
x is amplified by the amplifying element EA, thus obtaining the control signal, which
actuates the fulfillment element EE. To alter the viscosity of the fluid we heat it at a
temperature corresponding to the prescribed viscosity, by using heaters (steam or
electrical) denoted in the scheme by IT (technological installation).

The control magnitude acts by means of the fulfillment element EE upon the
technological installation, which regulates the viscosity by altering the steam, flow, the
number of electrical resistances, etc.



4.2 Measuring instruments for the level of liquids


The measurement of the level of liquids, which are in tanks, basins, etc, is done
by means of special instruments called level indicators and they can be simple
indicators or may have other functions such as recording or adjustment.

In what follows the simplest indicators will be described.
124
a) The glass level, consists of a glass (or other transparent material) tube 1,
mounted through two hook-ups 2, with or without a tap, in which the level of the liquid
in communicating vessels is observed (fig.4.8 a). In the case when the pressure in the
receptacle is between 1 12 bar, the tube, made of reinforced glass, is endowed with
metallic setting. For higher pressures we use:
- boards of special glass, directly mounted on the wall of the receptacle at
different heights;
- non-transparent metallic tube 1 (fig.4.8 b) ,in which there is a floater 2 that, in its
turn, magnetically moves the floater 3 into the exterior transparent tube 4.

Fig.4.8
b) Level indicator with floater, has as a main part a floater 1 (fig.4.9 a), situated
inside the receptacle connected with the indicating element 2, situated in the exterior
tube 3. For higher pressures and temperatures ( )
0
400 25 s s t and bar p , the rod of the
floater magnetically drives a second floater, which is in an exterior transparent tube.


Fig.4.9
125

c) Level indicator by gas bubbling, has as basic constructive element a tube
through which a gas (usually air or nitrogen) passes at constant and low velocity; its
relative pressure p is indicated by a sensitive manometer (fig.4.9 b). As a consequence,
on the basis of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics, we shall get the level of the
liquid in the tank:

p
h = , (4.2-1)

where g = is the specific weight of the liquid in the tank.

d) Level indicator with capacitive transducer has as sensitive element a circular
copper conductor, which is inserted in the mass of the liquid. Depending on the depth of
the liquid in the receptacle,the transducer capacity varies, being measured by means of
a measuring bridge.


4.3 Pressure measuring instruments


The instruments designed to measure pressures may be classified according to
two basic criteria, namely: a) by the kind of the measured pressure and b) by their
working principle.

a) According to the way in which the zero point is chosen, pressures may be
absolute, when they are reported to the total vacuum (absolute zero), and relative when
reported to the normal atmospheric pressure (relative zero). Between the two pressures
there is always a linking relationship:


rel abs
p p p + =
0
, (4.3-1)

where
0
p is the normal atmospheric pressure ( ) Pa k p 325 . 101
0
= .

Unlike the absolute pressures which are always positive, relative pressures may
be positive or negative, as the corresponding absolute pressure is higher or lower than
the atmospheric pressure.

Subsequently, according to the kind of measured pressure we distinguish among:

- barometers that measure the absolute pressure;
- manometers that measure positive relative pressures; a reason for which these
pressures are also called manometric pressures;
126
- vacuumeters that measure negative relative pressures, which, in absolute value
are called vacuumetric pressures ( ) 0 < =
rel rel V
p with p p ;
- manovacuumeters that can measure both manometric and vacuummetric
pressures.

b) According to their working principle we distinguish among:

- devices with liquid for which the measured pressure is compensated by the
pressure exerted by a column of liquid;
- devices with elastic element for which the measured pressure brings about a
distortion within elastic limits of an element (curved tube, membrane, bladder);
- devices with transducers which, in their turn, can be thermic, pneumatic and
electric.



4.3.1 Devices with liquids


Devices with liquid are simple devices whose working is based on the balance
between the measured pressure and the static pressure of a column of liquid; they are
used to measure pressures or differences in pressure of 1 bar at the most.

As liquids we can use mercury, ethylic alcohol, water and carbon tetrachloride.
When choosing a liquid we have to take into consideration the following basic
conditions, namely: its density must be higher than that of the fluid whose pressure is
measured; the two fluids must be non-miscible and mustnt interact chemically.

In what follows, we shall analyze a few constructive variants of this type of
devices meant for pressure measuring.

a) The device with an open tube (piezometer) which consists of a transparent
tube coupled at one end to the receptacle whose pressure is being measured, the other
end being open, in contact with the atmosphere (fig.4.10).
The device can work both as a manometer and as a vacuumeter.
In the case of the manometer, the manometric pressure of the liquid in the tank
in point A (
A
p ), is obtained by writing the fundamental equation of hydrostatics in a
horizontal plane N-N (fig.4.10 a):

H h p
A 0
= + , (4.3-2)

or else

h H p
A
=
0
, (4.3-3)

127
where is the specific weight of the liquid in the tank, and
0
is the specific weight of
the liquid in the tube.
When it works as a vacuummeter (fig.4.10 b) the relative pressure in point A is
determined by means of relation:

H h p
A 0
= , (4.3-4)

and the vacuumetric pressure in A will be:

H h p p
A VA 0
+ = = . (4.3-5)

If in the tank there is a gas whose specific weight is negligible in relation to the
specific weight of the liquid in the tube (
0
< ), relation (4.3-3) and (4.3-4) become:

H p
A 0
= , (4.3-6)
and
H p p
VA A 0
= = . (4.3-7)
respectively.


Fig.4.10



b) The differential manometer is
used to measure the difference in pressure
between two receptacles that contain
liquids, which may be different. It is in fact
a U-glass tube, overturned, which is
connected to the two tanks (fig.4.11)
Fig.4.11



by means of taps
1
R and
2
R . With the help of the tap R we adjust the pressure
x
p of
the air situated above the columns of liquid, of height
1
h and
2
h in the two branches of
128
the tube. On the basis of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics, we can write the
relation:


2 2 2 1 1 1
h p h p p
x
= = , (5.3-8)

hence, we get:


2 2 1 1 2 1
h h p p p = = , (4.3-9)

where
1
and
2
are the weights of the two liquids.

c) Micromanometer with slanting tube (fig.4.12) is used to measure low
pressures (up to Pa 1 . 0 ) or low differences of pressure. It consists of tank 1 and a
transparent tube, slanting with respect to the horizontal at an angle o , which can be
modified by means of device 3. Initially, the free level of the liquid in the tank has the
position
1
N . After coupling, due to pressure p, the free level will lower in the tank with
h A and, at the same time, it will go up in the transparent tube with the distance l,
measured on the direction of the tube.



Fig.4.12

The relation will determine pressure p:

( ) o sin l h p + A = (4.3-10)

or else ,taking into consideration the equality of the volumes:

l
d
h
D
4 4
2 2
t t
= A ,

we get:


|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = o sin
2
2
D
d
l p (4.3-11)

129
where is the specific weight of the liquid in the device.

Usually, the diameter of the tube is much smaller than the diameter of the tank
( D d s ) and, subsequently the ratio D d / id negligible, and relation (4.3-11) takes the
form:

o sin l p = . (4.3-12)

d) Micromanometers with liquid of a special design are used for gases, to
measure small differences of pressure. The variation of pressure or the difference in
pressure alters the position of the nonmiscible liquid bubble 3, which is in the
transparent tube 2 (fig.5.13). The number of divisions with which the micrometric
screw 4 must be rotated to return the bubble to its initial position, shows, on the basis
of a standard, the variation of pressure.

Fig.4.13

In fig.4.13 there are shown two constructive variants of this type of device: 1
tank with liquid, 2 glass tube, 3 non-miscible liquid bubble, 4 micrometric screw,
5 reference.

4.3.2 Devices with elastic elements

Manometers with elastic elements, also called mechanical manometers, are
highly reliable devices, used to measure pressures within very large fields. Their
working principle consist in deforming some elastic elements 1 (bladder, membrane or
Bourdon tube). This deformation, proportional to the measured pressure,
i
p (fig.4.14) is
amplified and sent further by means of a lever system 2 to the indicator needle 3 which
will indicate the pressure on the scale 4. The return to zero position is done by means of
spring 5.

The recommended pressure fields are:
- for manometers with bladder (fig.4.14 a) between 0.5 Pa and 0.5 MPa;
- for manometers with membrane (fig.4.14 b): up to 3MPa;
- for manometers with Bourdon tube (fig.4.14 c) up to 300 MPa.
130



Fig.4.14
4.3.3 Devices with transducers


The devices consists of a sensitive element, upon which pressure acts, and a
transducer that converts the signal supplied by the sensitive element into another
physical magnitude. This is sent to a measuring instrument, which has been beforehand
standardized. Generally, transducers can be thermic, pneumatic and electrical.

Devices with electrical transducers can be used to measure high pressures or
pressures that vary rapidly under high temperature conditions.

Devices with pneumatic transducers are generally used to measure pressures in
explosive mediums, as they also enable to transmit the information at distance.



4.4 Velocity measuring instruments


The velocity of a fluid can be determined either as a local value, or as a mean
value on the flow section.

To determine the local velocities we use instruments called anemometers, which
have different working principles. The most used are Pitot-Prandtl tube, mechanical
anemometers, thermic anemometers, and laser anemometers.

To determine the mean velocity on the flow section we use the relation:


}
= =
A
m
A
Q
dt v
A
v
1
, (4.4-1)
131
that requires either to know the velocity distribution in the points of the flow section
(which can be determined by measuring the local velocity in a network of points of the
flow section)- or to know the flow which can be measured with the help of specific
methods that are to be further described.
In what follows we shall present the main types of anemometers.



4.4.1 Pitot-Prandtl tube


Pitot-Prandtl tube basically converts the kinetic energy of the fluid particle into
potential pressure energy, in points where its velocity cancels (cessation points).

Fig. 4.15

Pitot-Prandtl tube consists of two L shape tubes (fig.4.15). The interior tube 1
is connected with the fluid by means of orifice O whose surface in normally placed on
the flow direction, and the space between the two tubes is connected with the fluid
through the side slits F. At the other end, the Pitot-Prandtl tube is connected at a U-
shaped differential manometer 3, in which there is a liquid of specific weight
1
.
According to Bernoullis equation, in the point of front orifice O, the fluid
velocity becomes nil and the total pressure ( )
t
p will become manifest and is sent
through the interior tube 2 to the right side of the differential manometer. At the side
slits F, the fluid velocity being v, the static pressure ( )
s
p will become manifest, which
will be sent to the left side of the manometer. The difference between the two pressures
represents the dynamic pressure ( )
d
p :

s t d
p p
v
p = =
2
2

, (4.4-2)

hence the fluid velocity v:

132
( )
s t
p p v =

2
, (4.4-3)

where is the density of the fluid which is being measured.

On the other hand, applying the fundamental equation of hydrostatics for the
plane N-N (fig.4.15), we can write:


1 1 2
H h p H p
s t
+ + = + , (4.4-4)

hence, taking into account that:


1 2
H H h H + A + = , (4.4-5)

we get:

( ) ( ) H h H h h p p
s t
A = A + =
1 1
, (4.4-6)

with which the fluid velocity becomes:
( ) | | ( ) | | H h
g
H h v A = A =

1 1
2 2
. (4.4-7)

For H A small enough ( ) 0 ~ AH , we may write:

=
1
2gh v , (4.4-8)

which in the case of gases
1
<< , becomes:

h k gh v = =

1
2 . (4.4-9)

We should emphasize that in order to decrease the measuring error it is
necessary that the Pitot-Prandtl tube should disturb the flow as little as possible. As a
consequence, we must observe the following basic rules:

- the tube is oriented with its axis parallel to the flow direction so as the surface
of orifice O be perpendicular on the fluid velocity;
- between the diameter of conduit D and diameter d of Pitot-Prandtl tube should
exist the ratio 50 / > d D ;
- the tube mounting must be done at a distance of at least 50 D away from any
local load loss (the end of the conduit, bends, taps, etc).
133


4.4.2 Mechanical anemometers

Their working principle is based on the dependence between the fluid velocity
and the rotation velocity of an impeller placed in a fluid. This type of anemometers is
calibrated and they require

periodical checking, as the friction that arises in the bearing impeller may vary in time
thus bringing about measurement errors. The device can be coupled with a counter, thus
enabling us to determine the mean flow within a certain time interval.


4.4.3 Thermic anemometers

Their working is based on the existent dependence between the velocity of the
fluid stream and the intensity of heat exchange between a conductor of very small
dimensions and the fluid in motion. We may distinguish among: a) anemometers with a
constant electric current, where the temperature of the conductor varies with respect to
velocity, thus modifying its resistance which is then measured in a bridge assembly; b)
anemometers with a constant temperature, where the temperature is constant (and
therefore its electric resistance as well) by varying the intensity with respect to the
stream of fluid.

The anemometer with a hot wire enables us to measure velocities or velocity
variations. The plunger (fig.4.16 a) contains the sensitive element which is a cylindrical
tungsten, platinum or platinum alloy with 10 20% iridium wire 1. For higher velocities
it is desirable to use a m 4 2 diameter tungsten wire, which has the advantage of a
higher mechanical resistance, but also the disadvantage of a very difficult welding on
the frames 2.

The platinum wire can be of smaller dimensions ( ) m 1 and is covered in a
sliver coat of m 20 10 . We have denoted the body of the plunger by 3. There are
various types of plungers, which differ in the way the sensitive wire is mounted on the
frames. We can distinguish among: plungers with a normal wire (perpendicularly placed
on the direction of mean flow), plunger with slanting wire (the slanting angle with
respect to the direction of mean flow usually being
0
45 = o ), x shaped plunger (it
consists of two wires placed in perpendicular planes).
134

By means of electric connection 4, the
plunger is interspersed in a Wheatstone bridge 5,
where the fourth resistance is placed (fig.4.16 b).
The other three resistances are constant and are
made of materials that have a small temperature
coefficient. The sensitive wire inserted in the
stream of fluid is electrically heated, which
maintains at a constant value either the intensity
of the current, or the wire temperature.
Fig.4.16

For the latter case, the bridge is under permanent equilibrium, by an automatic
regulation of variable resistance, which is series mounted with the bridge.

The intensity of the current is thus varied so as the temperature of the wire
should be maintained constant; this way it becomes a measure of fluid velocity which
can be determined by means of galvanometer 6, standardized in velocity units.

The hot wire may have a series of disadvantages, such as: it can easily be broken
by mechanical hits; it collects dust and oil particles which can alter the standard curve;
it is not suitable for liquids, especially those of high electrical conductivity.

These disadvantages are partially eliminated by the plunger with a hot film,
which actually is a small nickel surface (of apx. 0.3/1 mm) with an extremely small
thickness. In fact this film represents a layer on a glass or isolating quartz sublayer.


4.4.4 Optical measuring instruments


Optical measuring instruments used to determine velocity have the great
advantage that they do not disturb the flow by the presence in the mass of fluid in
motion of a solid body which represents the sensitive element. But the essential
problem of optical measurement systems is to obtain a reasonable resolution space
and, at the same time, to supply an electrical outlet system which can easily be
amplified.

Among the optical procedures the most used is the laser anemometer, based on
Doppler effect. Essentially, its working principle is the following: the laser beam,
which crosses the liquid in motion, is spread in the solid particles, which are in
discharge in the fluid (dust, smoke). The frequency of the spread light depends on the
particle velocity transported in the liquid; the altering of the frequency being correlated
with their velocity constitutes in fact the Doppler effect.

135


4.5 Flow measurement


Flow is the most important parameter for installations that use fluids as working
agents.

The main determination methods for flows can be grouped into: volumetric
methods; methods based on throttling the stream section (aperture stops, nozzles,
Venturi nipples, etc); methods based on the velocity field exploring in the flow section,
by using some measuring apparatus for the local velocity (Pitot-Prandlt tube,
anemometer with hot wire and film, etc); electromagnetic methods; dilution methods;
ultrasound methods, etc.

Table 4.1 shows the usage field of different types of flow meters according
to STAS 9280-73.

Table 4.1

Type of
flow meter
Usage field

Observations
Measuring
Field
Informative
accuracy


Aperture
stop

D
Re 10 . . . . . 10 5
7 3


1 . . . . . 5 , 0
u
vD
D
= Re ;
where
D the interior
diameter of the
conduit
v the mean
velocity in the
flow section
u - kinematic
viscosity
Bearing

D
Re 10 ... . . 10 2
7 4

1
Venturi
tube

D
Re 10 . . . . . 10 2
7 4


1 . . . . . 5 , 0
Pitot-
Prandlt
tube

s m v
i
/ 180 <


5 , 2 . . . . . 1
i
v - local
velocity
Anemomet
er with hot
wire

s m v
i
/ 50 . . . . . 3 , 0 =


5 , 0 . . . . . 1 , 0


Rotameter

h m / 30 ... . . 3
3

5 , 2
136
Ultrasound
flow-meter

s m / 3 , 0 . . . . . 002 , 0
3


2 .. .. . 5 , 0


Counter
with
membrane

h m / 600 . .... 05 , 0
3


3

Rotary
counter

h m / 3000 . . . .. 70
3


1

Flow-
meter with
ionization

s m / 01 . . . . . 001 , 0
3


5 . . . . . 2





4.5.1 Volumetric methods

The method of the standardized tank consists in measuring the volume of liquid
V that flows within a measured time interval, t, in to a standardized tank. The relation
gives the flow:
t
V
Q = . (4.5.1)
Within this method, there are also used volumetric counters, which, essentially,
consist of two or more chambers of a known volume, successively filled with liquid.
The number of fillings of these chambers determines the total volume.


4.5.2 Methods based on throttling the stream section of the fluid

Mainly, these methods are based on the fact that by throttling the flow section,
there arises a difference between the pressure upstream and downstream from throttling
which depends on the stream velocity and, implicitly, on flow. In fact, on the basis of
this principle, any local resistance may be used for measuring the flow.

To determine the flow in conduits, there are frequently used aperture stops,
nozzles and Venturi tubes, and inside channels there are used spillways and Venturi
channel.

a) Venturi tube (venturimeter) consists of a conical converging tube 1,
followed by a conical diverging tube 2 and is equipped with pressure sockets at which
there are coupled the piezometric tubes 3 or another differential manometer (fig.4.17
a). The tube is interspersed on conduit 4 whose flow is to be determined.

137
By writing Bernoullis equation for an ideal fluid between points 1 and 2,
situated in the inlet section of area
1
A and, respectively, in the minimum section, of
area
2
A , we shall get:


2
2
2 1
2
1
2 2
p
g
v p
g
v
+ = + , (4.5-2)

since the quotes of the two points are equal, and
1
v and
2
v are the velocities of the
motion fluid for the considered points.

Taking into account the equation of continuity:

2 2 1 1
v A v A Q = = , (5.5-3)

we get:

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
p p
A
A
g
v
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
, (4.5-4)

or else:

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1 p p
g
A
A
v

= . (4.5-5)

Hence the theoretical flow in the form:

h g
m
A p p
g
m
A
v A Q 2
1
2
1
2
2 2 1
2
2
2 2

= =

, (4.5-6)

where:


1
2
A
A
m = , (4.5-7)

is called throttling coefficient, and h is the difference between the quotes of the free
levels of the liquid in the piezometric tubes 3.
138

In the case of a real fluid the flow is determined by means of:

h g A
p p
g A Q 2 2
2
2 1
2

= , (4.5-8)

where the flow coefficient takes into consideration both the jet contraction m and
the load losses which may arise.

In the specialized studies for standardized venturimeters, there are given
diagrams from which we can get the values for the flow coefficient with respect to
Reynolds number
|
.
|

\
|
=
u
vD
D
Re , for different values of the contraction coefficient m [1,
10 ].

Fig. 4.17

b) The aperture stop (fig.4.17 b) is a disk with a central orifice, of a smaller
diameter than that of the conduit ( ) D d < , which is coaxial, mounted on the conduit
rout, between two flanges. The fall of pressure:

h p p p = = A
1 2
, (4.5-9)

is measured by means of two piezometric tubes or of a differential manometer. The
flow is also computed by means of relation (4.5-8), the flow coefficients being
determined for standardized aperture stops with the help of some diagrams with respect
to the throttling coefficient m and number | | 10 , 1 Re
D
.

c) The nipple (fig.4.17 c) replaces the aperture stop. Having a profiled inlet, the
losses of load are reduced and, consequently, the flow coefficient of the nipple will
be greater than that of the aperture stop.

The flow is computed with the help of the same relation (4.5-8), and the flow
coefficient is determined from the diagram with respect to m and
D
Re .
139

We should underline that, irrespective of the apparatus type (Venturi tube,
nipple or aperture stop), the mounting conditions have a great influence on the accuracy
of measurement, bringing about errors up to 50% in the case of a faulty centering.

Also, the throttling devices should be mounted on a straight portion of conduit,
bearing in mind that both upstream and downstream the apparatus there shouldnt exist
any local losses of load on a distance of at least ( D 25 1= ).

d) The spillway enables us to determine the flow of the streams with a free
surface. The spillways, fig.4.18 is a vertical wall with a sharp edge which blocks the
stream of liquid and over which water can spill.

It can extend over the entire breadth of the
channel (for which case it is called without lateral
contraction), or we can place a spillway only on a
portion of the breadth of the channel (the lode of
fluid having in this case a lateral contraction).
Fig.4.18

For a rectangular spillway the flow is expressed with respect to the height h of
the liquid above the crest of the spillway. This height is measured at a distance
max
3h L > upstream the crest of spillway, by means of a limnograph, floater or by
means of other methods. For a rectangular spillway, the flow will be computed with the
help of the relation:

h g h b Q 2
3
2
= , (4.5-10)

where b is the breadth of the spillway and is the flow coefficient for whose
computation there are a series of already established relations by different authors [ 6 ],
among which the most common is that of Bazins:


(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
55 , 0 1
0045 , 0
6075 , 0
p h
h
h
. (4.5-11)

For of other shaped spillways (triangular, trapezoidal), the flow is obtained by
using the plotting of the dependence ( ) h f Q = called flow characteristic of the spillway
[ 6 ].

e)Venturi channel is a flat bottomed channel, whose sidewalls make up a
convergent divergent nipple. It enables us determine the flows by using the relation:

140
h g h b Q 2
3
2
2 / 3
|
.
|

\
|
= , (4.5-12)

where is the flow coefficient which depends on the throttling degree and on
velocity. For approximate assessments we may adopt 1 = .



4.5.3 Methods based on exploring the velocity field in the flow section


These methods are based on measuring the local velocities in the flow section,
by using Pitot-Prandlt tubes, hydraulic mills, wire plungers or hot wire plungers.

In circular conduits it is enough to determine the distribution of velocities by
two perpendicular diameters in a flow section chosen on a straight portion of conduit
and as remote as possible from the local losses of load. Carrying out these
measurements we may than plot the dependence v(r), where r is the radius of the point
in which there has been done the measurement of the local velocity. The flow is
determined by computing the integral:

( ) dr r r v Q
D
t 2
2 /
0
}
= . (5.5-13)
For rivers or canals, where building a spillway is not possible, the method of
graphical integration is used. To choose the measuring points we scale plot the bed
section, the measuring points being situated on verticals whose number depend on the
size and shape of the section. It is recommended that the number of measuring points,
n, should satisfy the relation:

S n S 25 14 < < , (4.5-14)
where S is the area of the bed section, expressed in
2
m .

After having carried out the measuring of the local velocities, the flow can be
obtained by the graphic computation of the integral:


}}
= S d v Q . (4.5-15)







141
4.5.4 Flow-meters with variable crossing section

The most representative is the rotameter, which consists of a transparent,
vertical, truncated cone tube 1, (fig.4.19) in which there is a free object 2. The
upward stream holds the object 2 in equilibrium, its weight G, being balanced by the
force of the fluid that acts upon it:

S
v
C G
2
2

= , (4.5-16)

where: S the surface of the object, - the density of the fluid, and C the resistance
coefficient.


Fig.4.19

On the basis of this relation, we can get the flow velocity through the space
S S
0
between the tube 1 and the floating object 2:


CS
G
v

2
= , (4.5-17)

and the flow is obtained by means of:

( ) ( )
S
G
S S
CS
G
S S Q

2 2
0 0
= = . (4.5-18)

Since the crossing section S S
0
varies almost linearly with the portion of the
floater, the dial of the apparatus will also be straight. The shape of object 2 is thus
chosen so that the viscosity of the fluid shouldnt influence the flow coefficient.
Its working simplicity, the possibility to directly read the flow, small hydraulic
losses are only a few of the advantages of this instrument. Among its disadvantages we
142
should stress that it is relatively fragile, and its installing requires a vertical portion of
straight conduit.
On the basis of the same principle we may use spring valves as flow indicators,
inter- spaced in the conduits. The valve is linked with the flow and acts upon indicating
needle, which moves on a dial standardized for flow units.



4.5.5 The Ultrasound flow-meter


It can be used to measure the flow of any liquid. Its working principle is based
on the fact that the sonic wave given out by the emitting crystal 1, diagonal to the axis
of the conduit, will be later received by the receiving crystal 2, this delay being with
respect to the flow of fluid. (fig.4.20).
Two sonic fluxes may be used for another
designing variant; one propagates in the sense of flow,
the other one in the reverse sense. The difference
between the propagation times is linked to the flow.
These apparatus lack inertia, they can be used in the
case of non-permanent flow, for quick variations of
the flow.
Fig.4.20





4.5.6 The electromagnetic flow-meter


Its working principle is based on the law of electromagnetic induction. It
consists of a
magnet placed around a conduit which produces a uniform magnetic field. Inside the
conduit there are two electrodes between which an electromotive force will be
generated in proportion with the flow of fluid. This method has the advantage that it
can be applied to any type of flow, as it is independent of the Re number, pressure and
temperature of the fluid.


4.5.7 Diluting methods


These methods consist in injecting in the fluid stream a known quantity of a
substance, which can act upon the density, conductivity, radioactivity, or temperature
of the fluid.
143

After the mixture has become homogeneous, we can measure the propriety
upon which we have acted.

At first, to measure the flow in conduits, concentrated salt solutions have been
injected by means of a dosing pump.

Lately, there has been resorted to ionizing the fluid by means of a continuous or
recurrent ionizing source (usually Plutonium 235). The flow of fluid is determined with
respect to the frequency the signals appear, which varies with the quantity of ions
driven into the stream of fluid.



































144
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